biodiversity and conservation · for biodiversity and conservation ... reserves, world heritage...

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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

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Natural WealthIn terms of its biological heritage, South Africa is recognised as one of therichest nations in the world. In the last ten years, Government hasprioritised people’s needs while safeguarding the country’s considerablenatural assets.

the arrival of the Europeansettlers. The Sanqua (Bushmen)people – some of the earliest com-munities in southern Africa – had auniquely symbiotic relationshipwith their environment, which min-imised the impact of human settle-ment while exploiting the country’sflora and fauna.

In contrast to European policies,there are records of ‘wise use’ethic amongst indigenoussocieties in South Africa datingback centuries. Even undercommunal ownership, propertyrights were conferred on membersof the community to manageimportant resources like wild fruit-bearing trees.

In 2002, the section responsiblefor Biodiversity and Conservationwas elevated to a branch. Itsmandate was expanded to includedealing with the country’s rapidprogress in creating new protectedregions like TransfrontierConservation Areas, BiosphereReserves, World Heritage Sites,National Parks and Bioregionalplans to address gaps in thesystem.

South Africa has an incredibly richbiodiversity, third only after Braziland Indonesia. This provides awide range of products andservices for both commercial andsubsistence purposes. Natureprovides water, food, fibre and allthat sustains life. The value isinestimable.

With the intended NationalBiodiversity Strategy and ActionPlan the department will be takinga practical and holistic approach tothe conservation of biodiversity ata national level by allowing allspheres of government and civilsociety to craft a coherent andcommon vision for the country.

The department also seeks toprotect the interests of SouthAfrican citizens whose knowledgeor traditional uses of indigenousbiological resources is being usedfor bioprospecting, by ensuringthat benefits derived fromcommercial exploitation areshared equitably. This alsoensures that South Africa’sextraordinary plant biodiversity, isnot commercially exploited bypharmaceutical companies fromother countries. It is based on alegal framework through whichcommunities are rewarded for theirknowledge about the use ofcertain plants.

BBEEFFOORREE 11999944

Conservation in South Africa goesback many centuries, long before

When European settlers arrived tocolonise the country, correspon-dents wrote of the hugeabundance of predators, antelope,elephants and rhinoceros. Buthunting for sport, food, andproducts like leather and ivory ledto a rapid depletion of wildlife.

By the end of the 1800s, huntersand others were becomingseriously worried about thedecrease in wildlife numbers. Thiseventually resulted in theformation of the first NationalParks, like Kruger and KalahariGemsbok. Both were formedprincipally to preserve animalsseen as valuable by hunters –mostly antelope. Predators on theother hand, were frequently shoton sight, and seen as vermin orproblem animals.

Expanding settlements, mostlyresulting from the discovery ofgold and diamonds, coincided withdeclining biodiversity. Most of thedestruction of South Africa’sforests can be attributed to theEuropean settlers during theperiod 1860 to 1940, when largetrees were felled for building andmining purposes.

The apartheid era took a particu-larly heavy toll on South Africa’scommunities, biodiversity andecosystems. In addition towidespread impoverishment andsocial dislocation, such policiescaused significant ecologicaldamage. The majority of thepopulation was squeezed into13% of the land in overcrowdedhomelands. These areas sufferedmassive deforestation, soil erosionand loss of biodiversity. Subsidieson water, energy and agriculturalinputs (available to white industri-al, agricultural and domesticusers) led to wasteful practicesand long-term damage werecaused to the soil, rivers andwetlands of the country.

The establishment and expansionof national and provincial parks in

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What Is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity (biologicaldiversity) is the total variety ofliving organisms in allecosystems on Earth, thegenetic differences betweenthem, and the communitiesand ecosystems in which theyoccur. It is the “natural wealth”of the Earth, which supplies allour food and much of ourshelter and raw materials.


many parts of South Africa wasaccompanied by severe hardshipfor people. For example, in the1960s, the Tsonga-speakingMakuleke community in the northof Kruger National Park wereforcibly removed so that the parkcould be extended northwards tothe Limpopo River. Similarly,thousands of people wereremoved to form Ndumo GameReserve and Tembe ElephantPark in northern KwaZulu-Natal.

Conservation policies typicallymirrored the apartheid policies ofthe day and aimed at restrictingaccess to protected areas. As aresult, the perception grew thatconservation was elitist and of nobenefit to ordinary people. Thisperception was reinforced by amilitary presence within manyprotected areas, the militarybackground of many wardens, andthe ‘fences and fines’ approach ofconservation game guards,dressed in khaki uniforms, carryingguns and subjecting black peopleto harsh punishment for killinganimals.

PPOOLLIICCYY AANNDD LLEEGGIISSLLAATTIIOONN

The peaceful transition in SouthAfrica presented a unique opportu-nity for redress and recovery.Starting with the constitution, newpolicies and legislation have beendeveloped across all sectors, withfull public consultation andparticipation.

The fundamental objectives of thepolicies and legislation are tosecure sustainability and equitableaccess to resources.

The NEMA (Act 107 of 1998)notes: “The environment is held inpublic trust for the people. Thebeneficial use of environmentalresources must serve the publicinterest and the environment mustbe protected as the people’scommon heritage.”

It is regarded as framework legis-lation relating to biodiversity andconservation; its objectives are fur-ther defined and supported by theProtected Areas Act andBiodiversity Act.

The National EnvironmentalManagement: Biodiversity Actof 2004 aims at providing aregulatory framework to protectSouth Africa’s valuable species,ecosystems and its entirebiological wealth. It implementsthe White Paper on theConservation and Sustainable Useof South Africa’s BiologicalDiversity and multilateralagreements like the Conventionon Biological Diversity.

It provides the framework, normsand standards for theconservation, sustainable use andequitable benefit-sharing of SouthAfrica’s biological resources.

It facilitates the transformation ofthe National Botanical Institute intothe South African NationalBiodiversity Institute (SANBI).

It also enables the development ofa National Biodiversity Frame-work, which will provide for anintegrated, coordinated and uni-form approach to the conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity

in South Africa.

The National EnvironmentalManagement: Protected AreasAct of 2004 provides for theprotection and conservation ofecologically viable areasrepresentative of South Africa’sbiological diversity and its naturallandscapes, seascapes and themanagement thereof. The Actenvisages a national register ofprotected areas, with a simplifiedclassification system of SpecialNature Reserves, National Parks,Nature Reserves and ProtectedEnvironments.

It brings in the concept of biologi-cal diversity protection andecosystem management for thefirst time. Biodiversity, conserva-tion and ecosystem managementare noted as important aims inpolicy and legislation governingmarine and coastal resources,freshwater and natural forests.

It also proposes a new system ofprotected areas linking variouskinds of protected environments toreplace the existing fragmentedsystem.

Based on experience withBiosphere Reserves, and informedby the new bioregional approachto conservation (linking theprotected area network alongmountains, rivers, wetlands, thecoastline and other areas ofnatural vegetation), the Act willresult in an interlocking system ofprotected areas that explicitlyencourage the inclusion of privateland. It recognises that people arethe custodians of the land and theyneed to be involved in the man-agement of the protected land andshould benefit from it.

It caters for concurrentcompetence in the management ofprotected land. For example, anarea with National Park status can now be managed by anotheragency, for example a provincialparks authority. Steps have been

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put in place to make surestandards are upheld.

South Africa is a signatory to theConvention on Biological Diversity(CBD). The White Paper on theConservation and SustainableUse of South Africa’s BiologicalDiversity (July 1997 ) is guided bythe main aims of the Convention,namely conservation of biodiversi-ty, sustainable use of biologicalresources, and equity.

The key goals of the policy areconservation of the diversity oflandscapes, ecosystems, habitats,communities, populations, speciesand genes; sustainable use ofbiological resources; andminimisation of adverse impactson biodiversity.

South Africa is one of the only twocountries in the world to havepromulgated legislation specifical-ly related to the World HeritageConvention (the other beingAustralia). The country’s WorldHeritage Convention Act (Act 49of 1999) notes that all WorldHeritage Sites must have anintegrated management plan inplace, to ensure cultural and envi-ronmental protection andsustainable development of thesite.

SSTTRRAATTEEGGIICC AAPPPPRROOAACCHHEESS

A new approach to sustainableuse, conservation and ecotourismdevelopment in partnership withcommunities is being forged, insuch places as, the Greater StLucia Wetland Park, the Pafuriregion of the Kruger NationalPark, the Blyde River Canyon andthe Richtersveld National Park.

Innovation and Progress

Pre-1994 policy in South Africapromoted conservation of certainspecies and ecosystems in parksand reserves. More through luck

than good judgement, a highproportion of South Africa’sterrestrial fauna and flora isconserved in designated NatureReserves or National Parks.

But since 1994 it has becomeclear that conservation of biodiver-sity through protected areas aloneis not enough. The need to extendconservation management andeconomic benefits of parksbeyond the protected areanetwork is now a widely acceptedprinciple in South Africa.

The shifts in approach over tenyears have been fundamental;from preservation to conservationand sustainable use; fromexclusivity to participation andsharing; from public funding tobusiness principles, outsourcingand economic empowerment; fromfences and fines to incentives andindividual responsibility.

Consolidation and Expansionof Protected Areas

The national register of formallyprotected areas revealed that, by1995, 5.4% of the land surface ofSouth Africa was under formalprotection, comprising a total of

422 areas. These includedwilderness areas, National Parksand provincial reserves, covering atotal of 6.6 million hectares.

Of the twenty eight IUCN CategoryII protected areas listed (equiva-lent to National Parks), 16 wereunder control of the SA NationalParks (SAN Parks), eleven wereunder the control of EzemveloKwaZulu-Natal Wildlife and onewas under control of the EasternCape provincial authority.

The numbers of protected areashave since dropped to 403, a

reflection of the programme ofconsolidation and expansion,rather than deproclamation.

Although almost 6% of the countryis under formal conservationprotection, the goal was set in2003 to steadily increase this to8% by 2010 and later to 10% (thepercentage of protected landrecommended by IUCN – WorldConservation Union) to ensurethat all significant vegetation typesare included. This means that,ultimately, just over four millionmore hectares will eventually beprotected.

It is highly unlikely this goal could

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Protection of biodiversity at landscape level is essential to preserve thebroad functioning of ecosystems

be achieved solely through landpurchase with state money.Instead, it was envisaged thatcooperative agreements betweena range of parties (innovativepublic-private partnerships) willbring increasing amounts of landunder conservation management.

Nevertheless, since the change ofgovernment in 1994, four newnational parks have beenproclaimed – the Agulhas, theCape Peninsula (now TableMountain National Park), theVhembe Dongola National Park(now renamed MapungubweNational Park) and the NamaquaNational Park.

At the same time, existing NationalParks such as Addo Elephant,Augrabies Falls, Karoo, Marakele,Mountain Zebra, Tankwa Karoo,West Coast and Wilderness Lakeshave been expanded, addingalmost 350 000 hectares to landunder the management ofSANParks.

Since 1994, a further 120 000

hectares of land have beenproclaimed as provincial reserves,mainly in the Northern Cape andLimpopo Provinces.

Other protected land, likeBiosphere Reserves,Conservancies and NaturalHeritage Sites could be broughtunder more formal conservation bythe National EnvironmentalManagement: Protected AreasAct, which entered into force in2004.

Private Contributions toConservation

In addition to formally protectedareas, many privately ownedreserves contribute to biodiversityconservation in South Africa. Inaddition to national and provincialparks, an estimated 13% of SouthAfrica’s land surface is now undersome form of private conservationmanagement, in the form ofconservancies, private gamereserves or farms, and mixedgame/livestock farms.

Biological resources becomeprivately owned when fenced onprivate land. However, plants andanimals regarded as threatenedare subject to locally enforcedregulation and controls, which arebeing linked to the Convention onInternational Trade in EndangeredSpecies (CITES).

Because endangered animals likerhinos can now be privatelyowned, their monetary value hasbecome a strong motivation forbreeding and sales. As a result,the black and white rhinopopulation in South Africa isgrowing. Since 1994, there hasbeen a steady annual increase inlive game animals sold.

According to a recent study, SouthAfrica now has 5 000 gameranches and more than 4 000ranches with a mixture of gameand stock.

Usually the participants in theseareas share a range of broad,long-term goals, includingconservation management,

SSoouutthh AAffrriiccaa’’ss nnaattuurraall wweeaalltthh• South Africa covers an area of 122 million hectares. Although

this only represents 2% of the land surface of the world, it ishome to 7.5% of the planet’s plants, 5.8% of its mammals,8% of its bird species, 4.6% of its reptiles and 5.5% of itsinsects.

• The Cape Floral Kingdom is one of the Earth’s six floralkingdoms, and the only one to be found entirely with theborders of one country. It covers only 4% of the area ofsouthern Africa, but is home to 45% of the sub-continent’splant species.

• South Africa’s ‘mega diverse’ status (it is one of 17 countrieswhich collectively contain two-thirds of the world’s biodiversi-ty) is due largely to the wide range of climatic conditions and habitats found in the country, from arid desertsto moist, humid subtropical forests, and variable topography ranging from sea level to high mountains.

• More than 100 Important Bird Areas occur in South Africa, as well as five Endemic Bird Areas, a numberonly matched by one other country (Madagascar).

• Biomes, or ecoregions, are assemblages of plants and animals that can be mapped at a large scale, basedon dominant vegetation types and climatic conditions. Seven biomes have been recognised in South Africa:Forest, Thicket, Savanna, Grassland, Fynbos, succulent Karoo and Nama Karoo. Within the biomes, 440distinct vegetation types are now recognised.

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integrated planning and economicdevelopment through tourism.

In many areas, growth in privategame reserves has beenencouraged by the presence of anational park or other initiative,such as a World Heritage Site. Inall cases, these have involvedconsolidation of several separatefarms, removal of domesticlivestock, introduction of wildlife,veld rehabilitation programmesand building of tourism infrastruc-ture.

AACCHHIIEEVVEEMMEENNTTSS

A number of communities whowere evicted from areas nowlocated within National Parks havesuccessfully won land claims.Interestingly, all the communitieshave decided to keep theirreturned land under conservation.This has given rise to a new anddynamic era in conservation, inwhich communities have becomeco-owners and even co-managerswith Government in national parks.

Institutional reform

To meet the challenges posed bythe conservation and biodiversitysector a comprehensive level oftransformation had to beobserved. Within DEAT theportfolio was upgraded from thelevel of a Chief Directorate to aBranch headed by a DeputyDirector-General who is solelyfocused on this function.

To change the negative image ofthe agencies responsible forconservation and biodiversity, itwas ensured that their Boards andstaff composition represent thepopulation demographics andaspirations of the country.Previously, the preserve of whitemales conservation, is increasing-ly changing face.

National departments andagencies such as SANParks andthe National Botanical Institutehave been fundamentally restruc-tured. This has included redefiningthe role and composition ofBoards. The Boards are nowappointed through a process ofpublic nomination and serve for aperiod of five years.

At provincial level, conservationmanagement has likewise gonethrough substantial transformationand restructuring processes.Whatever the institutional form,Government’s policies aroundaffirmative action, employmentequity, job creation and soundfinancial governance haveunderpinned policy and lawsgoverning conservation manage-ment.

TFCAs

Nature recognises no borders.Neither do communities, oftenseparated from one anotherdecades ago by politicalboundaries drawn arbitrarily bycolonising countries. TFCAs aremeant to benefit people by bring-

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Partnerships with communities are being forged.

ing socio-economic upliftment anda reduction in poverty, whileprotecting valuable ecosystems.

TFCAs form an integral part of theNEPAD, whose ideals encompasstransboundary ecosystem man-agement, integration ofconservation with sustainablesocio-economic development aswell as the promotion of regionalcooperation for peace.

South Africa has now become aproud partner in six TFCAs. Five

have been signed into existence.and these are:

The Kgalagadi TransfrontierPark which unites the GemsbokNational Park in Botswana and theKalahari Gemsbok National Parkin South Africa into a singleecological unit of 3.7 millionhectares. The treaty was signed in2000. In view of the potential tobenefit from foreign and localtourists in Namibia, thedepartment recently initiatednegotiations with the relevant

Namibian officials to open theMata Mata border post, which willprovide easy access into the park.In anticipation of this, DEAT hasfacilitated the development of abusiness plan for the upgrading ofthe road linking the park to othertourism nodes in the NorthernCape. The upgrading of the roadwill create temporary jobs andfacilitate business opportunities forthe local community.

The Great Limpopo Transfron-tier Park creates a 3.5 millionhectare area that joins the KrugerNational Park in South Africa withthe Limpopo National Park inMozambique. The Sengwecommunal area acts as a biodiver-sity corridor between Zimbabwe’sGonarezhou National Park andKruger. The treaty was signed in2002. Most of the R40 million inprojects on the South African sidehave been completed, includingthe Giriyondo Border Post,expected to be functional beforethe end of 2004. This will providetourists with easy access betweenKruger and Limpopo NationalParks.

The !Ai-!Ais/Richtersveld Trans-frontier Park is 622 000 hectaresin extent, with 31% of the area inSouth Africa, and 69% in Namibia,joining national parks of the twocountries. The treaty was signed in2003, and integration has begunwith the completion of the crossingpoint between the two parks anddiscussions on the establishmentof a border post. A JointManagement Plan between SANParks and the Richtersveldcommunity has been drawn up. Itprovides for a governance struc-ture to oversee the managementand development of the park.

The Lubombo TransfrontierConservation and ResourceArea, which incorporates theGreater St Lucia Wetland Park, issituated between South Africa,Swaziland and Mozambique. It isexpected to encompass over

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400 000 hectares of wildlife sanc-tuaries, extensive wetlands andpristine coastal areas. It will linkthe Maputo Elephant Reserve inMozambique through the FutiCorridor to the Tembe ElephantPark in South Africa.

The Maloti-Drakensberg Trans-frontier and Development Areacovers about 500 000 hectares ofmountains on the border betweenSouth Africa and Lesotho. Thearea is a major watershed and thesource of most of the rivers in thesub-region. A Memorandum ofUnderstanding has been signedbetween the two countries.

The Limpopo-Shashe Trans-frontier Conservation Area islocated on the border betweenSouth Africa, Botswana andZimbabwe. The 490 000 hectarearea is still under negotiation bythe three countries.

Biosphere Reserves

Although not protected by anyspecific piece of legislation inSouth Africa until the ProtectedAreas Act was passed in 2004,several Biosphere Reserves havebeen established. Biosphere

Reserves in South Africa aregenerally formed around anexisting core conservation area,include outstanding natural beautyand biological diversity, and existin partnership with a range ofinterested landowners. Biospherescan incorporate development, aslong as it is sustainable, while stillprotecting terrestrial or coastalecosystems.

They evolve from the ground up,and by their very nature aredemocratic and inclusive,representing all stakeholders.Biospheres help to conservenatural resources, but the spin-offis that they enable effective andcohesive planning.

The first, registered with theUnited Nations Educational,Scientific and CulturalOrganisation (UNESCO) in 1998,was the Kogelberg BiosphereReserve. This 100 000 hectarereserve has high floral diversity,endemism and spectacularscenery, and is an important watercatchment area for Cape Town.The core area is Kogelberg NatureReserve, and the biosphereincludes an important wetland, fivetowns, various settlements andresorts, agricultural land

(particularly fruit orchards) andcommercial forestry plantations.

The Cape West Coast BiosphereReserve was listed in 2000 andcovers an area of 376 900hectares. It includes a number ofthreatened vegetation types andimportant bird breeding sites suchas the Langebaan Lagoon (WestCoast National Park), the BergRiver, Rietvlei Nature Reserve anda coastal area.

The Waterberg BiosphereReserve , listed in 2001, is locatedin the Limpopo Province andcovers 1.4 million hectares. Thecore area is the Marakele NationalPark as well as 28 000 hectares ofstate land which is beingconverted into a private-community venture, threeprovincial reserves, private gamefames and a 5 000 hectare ‘tribalreserve’ owned by the Masebecommunity, which includes theNylsvley Ramsar Site.

The Kruger-to-Canyons Biosph-ere Reserve , also listed in 2001,covering more than 3.3 millionhectares, spans the boundarybetween the Limpopo andMpumalanga provinces. The coreareas consist of thirteen declared

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protected areas, with a majorportion of the Kruger National Parkas the largest core area.

Natural Heritage Sites

This programme, initiated in 1984,has continued steadily as acooperative venture betweenDEAT, provincial natureconservation agencies, the privatesector, private landowners andnon-governmental organisations.Some 325 sites have beenregistered, representing more than46 000 hectares. Although no legalframework for their protectionexists, owners of the sites receivea certificate of appreciation fromGovernment.

The World Parks Congress

The fifth World Parks Congress(held once every ten years) washeld in September 2003 at theDurban International ConventionCentre, bringing together some 3000 delegates from over 200countries worldwide.

The congress theme was ‘BenefitsBeyond Boundaries’, and wasorganised by IUCN and the WorldCommission on Protected Areas.The South African Governmentwas responsible for putting inplace the logistical arrangements.

Fifty years on from the firstcongress, the world now has farmore protected areas, from lessthan 1 000 in 1962, to

approximately 46 000 now – anarea that has tripled in the last 20years alone. They now conserve10% of the Earth’s land surface.But delegates questioned whetherthe full range of ecosystems wasadequately protected, especially inlight of climate change issues. Inaddition, there was concern thatless than 1% of the planet’smarine and coastal systems havebeen conserved. These make upthe Earth’s largest and mostdiverse biome, crucial in terms ofthe human food supply.

The Durban Accord is the keydocument emanating from theCongress and is intended toinspire and influence positiveaction for protected areas. Amongother commitments, it calls for the

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THE VALUE OF WETLANDS

• The respected science journal Nature reported in 1997 that worldwide, wetlands are thought to be worth$4.9 trillion a year in goods and services (more than one tenth of the planet’s Gross World Product of $45trillion).

• Wetlands occur from the top of mountains all the way to the sea. They include springs, seeps, marshes,floodplains, swamp forests, mangrove swamps and estuaries.

• Wetlands reduce the severity of droughts and floods by regulating stream flow.• They purify water and provide habitats for many different plants and animals.• They provide fodder for animals, human food, fish and fibres (sedges and reeds) that are used for weaving.

expansion of protected areas,which are to be prioritised on thebasis of threats. South Africamade an important contribution viaDEAT – the recognition thatprotected areas have powerfulpotential to make significantcontributions to poverty reduction.

A series of field trips organised byEzemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlifeand the Greater St Lucia WetlandsPark Authority gave theconference an experiential andinteractive edge.

Working for Wetlands

This has become one of DEAT’smost successful projects,combining the alleviation ofpoverty, and the provision of jobs,skills and opportunities, with therestoration of biological diversity.

The project started as apartnership between theDepartments of EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism, Water Affairsand Forestry, and Agriculture aswell as the non-governmentalorganisation, the Mondi WetlandsProject.

Working for Wetlands is a DEATPoverty Relief Project, employingunskilled staff to rehabilitate

damaged and degraded wetlands.

Since its inception in 2000 andwith a budget of R30 million a year,the project has employed about 2230 people and has carried out atotal of 690 rehabilitationinterventions through eightyprojects.

A partnership between Working forWetlands and the Water ResearchCommission was established withthe aim of providing a soundscientific and technical base forwetland rehabilitation, conserv-ation and management.

CCHHAALLLLEENNGGEESS AAHHEEAADD

By the close of the 20th century,indigenous forests had declined byhalf. Overall, an estimated 25% ofSouth Africa’s land has beentransformed from its natural state.Riverine habitats have beenfundamentally changed, and veryfew naturally functioning freshwa-ter systems remain. Half of SouthAfrica’s wetlands have been lostcompletely through transformationto other land uses.

Virtually all ecosystems in SouthAfrica have been modified ortransformed by human activities.

These include cultivation forcommercial crops or subsistenceagriculture; overstocking,overgrazing and poor land-usemanagement; afforestation forcommercial timber production; thespread of invasive alien trees,shrubs, herbs and fauna;urbanisation and settlements; thedamming of rivers; mining;transportation; industrialisation;and subsistence and commercialharvesting of indigenous plantproducts.

More than 90% of the country fallswithin arid, semi-arid or dry sub-humid zones and is vulnerable toland degradation anddesertification. Overgrazing isconsidered a threat to biodiversityin virtually all South African‘hotspots’ of endemic species.This threat is particularly severe inthe communally managed land ofMaputaland, Pondoland and thesucculent Karoo.

To achieve the government’sstated objective of increasing thearea under formal protection from5 to 8%, three million hectares ofland must be secured. Furtherconservation initiatives related toTFCAs would include theexpansion of the BiosphereReserve programme in South

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Africa as well as the expansionand development of the relevantprotected areas.

The implementation of theNational Environmental Manage-ment: Protected Areas Act (Act no57 of 2003) will ensure theeffective management of theseareas. The following is necessaryfor its implementation:development of regulations,appointment of managementauthorities, development ofmanagement plans by theauthorities in terms of nationalnorms and standards and themonitoring of the implementationof these plans and to make therelevant adjustments needed.

While the NEMA: Protected AreasAct has gone a long way torationalising the legislation onprotected areas, South Africa alsoneeds to ensure effectivemanagement of its protectedareas.

A national and international tradein plants for medicinal, ornamentaland cultural purposes is puttingincreasing pressure on manythreatened species. An estimated 350 plant speciesare commonly used for medicinalpurposes. Unsustainable use may

be driving some species toextinction locally and evennationally.

Land degradation

Land degradation is a seriousthreat to rural livelihoods. It sets offa vicious cycle that eventuallyundermines all the livelihoodassets and is a hazard to thenatural capital of the localcommunity (as well as to the largercommunity) in that the naturalresources available to householdsare degraded. It has costs to thenation at large because itdepresses national capitalregionally, and ripples through thewhole economy. Erosion by water,sheet and gully formation, is themain mechanism of landdegradation.

Domestic livestock grazingpractices cause loss of vegetationcover and changes in plantspecies composition. Bushencroachment and alien plantinvasions are significant forms ofveld degradation in a smallernumber of magisterial districts,and are largely associated withprivate or state-managed land.

Experts now regard alien invasive

plants to be the greatest hazard toland resources. However, there isnow clear scientific evidence ofaccelerated bush encroachmentowing to elevated atmosphericcarbon dioxide, a trend highlydependent on how veld fires aremanaged.

Deforestation is a significant formof vegetation degradation inseveral districts of LimpopoProvince, in KwaZulu-Natal, and inthe Eastern Cape. Deforestationresults from the clearing of treesfor cultivation, settlement or theuse of wood and non-wood forestproducts. Large areas of woodland(estimated at 12 000 squarekilometres) have been convertedto fields and settlement sites.

The influence of land usepractices

Since 1994, land degradation hascontinued in many areas, asreported by members ofcommunities from across thecountry. The causes are diverse,and include:

• Undermining of traditional as

well as legal tenure arrange-

ments for land and resources,

resulting in transgression by

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interlopers and illegal land

occupation, which causes

people to cease investment in

land management or simply to

abandon use of the land;

• new infrastructure and other

development projects, often

not compliant with standards,

that occupy prime agricultural

land, cause erosion and have

other detrimental effects, and

• diverse other causes, such as

the development of

cemeteries.

Poverty alleviation

Poverty alleviation and biodiversityconservation are themes of theGovernment agenda that should

be seen as integrated solutions,rather than working against eachother. A problem is that, the usualindicator of economic growth, GDPdoes not factor biodiversity into theequation. South Africa isexperiencing economic growth,but without an increase in jobs,with worsening poverty, and withdeclining biodiversity.

Expenditure on sectors that impacton biodiversity is orders ofmagnitude higher that expenditureon sectors than conservebiodiversity. It is essential that theeconomic value of biodiversity andbiological resources be valuatedand taken into account indevelopment decisions.

Although Government policy has

generally moved away fromsubsidies, for example toagriculture, many subsidies andincentives exist for trade andindustry, especially for export-ori-ented industries. There are noincentives for conservation andsustainable use of biodiversity.

Invasive alien species

The uncontrolled spread ofinvasive alien species is one of thekey threats to indigenousbiodiversity. This spread hasnegative impacts on the economy,in sectors as diverse as health,agriculture, water supply andtourism, and is likely to becomemuch worse with climate change.

The Working for Water

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TThhrreeaattss ttoo BBiiooddiivveerrssiittyy

• In terms of both area and absolute numbers, South Africa has the highest concentration of threatened planttaxa in the world.

• Of the 4 149 plant taxa whose conservation status has been assessed, 3 435 are considered to be globallythreatened with extinction.

• This high number reflects that 98% of the threatened taxa are found only in southern Africa. Most of theseare found in the Cape Floral Kingdom, particularly in the lowland fynbos of the rapidly urbanising areas ofgreater Cape Town.

• Almost 1 900 of the 3 435 listed Red Data plant species in southern Africa are threatened wholly or partiallyby alien invading plants.

• South African Red Data Books show that 102 bird species (14%), 72 reptile species (24%), 17 amphibianspecies (18%), 52 species (17.6%) of mammals and 142 species (22%) of butterflies are threatened.


Programme champions the fightagainst invasive alien plants, andcontrols invading alien plants, for avariety of reasons:

• They are the most significant

threat to our biological

diversity.

• They threaten the ecological

integrity of our natural sys-

tems.

• Certain species threaten our

water security.

• They compromise the

productive potential of land.

• Certain species are

responsible for massive

erosion problems.

• They have other negative

impacts such as flooding,

eutrophication and changes in

water quality.

Climate Change

Climate change, or globalwarming, is widely attributed to theburning of fossil fuels, such as oiland coal, over the past twocenturies. This has sharply raisedlevels of carbon dioxide into theatmosphere. The gas is oftencalled a ‘greenhouse’ gas becauseof its ability to trap heat. This and anumber of other exacerbatingfactors are thought to be behind anincrease in average globaltemperatures and changes inrainfall patterns. Indications arethat climate change will result inmore extreme weather – increasedfloods and droughts, which couldreduce agricultural production andworsen diseases like malaria.

It is against this growing concernthat efforts are being made toimprove the scientificunderstanding of what drives theEarth-atmosphere systemproducing such changes; toidentify those areas that may beparticularly vulnerable toenvironmental changes; and to

improve adaptation and mitigationto enable people, plant and animalcommunities to better live withclimate change.

Social aspects of conservation

These aspects focus mainly onconservation and development,sustainable livelihoods, landreform, stakeholder participationand conflict resolution, training,awareness and capacity building,and cultural issues. Many SouthAfricans have become alienatedfrom nature as a result of

apartheid policies and processeslike urbanisation.

To ensure sustainable livelihoods,it is important that economicopportunities are expanded inlocal areas, in a way that takeshumans and biodiversity intoaccount. Nature-based tourismshould encourage local economicdevelopment. There is a hugeneed to expand the skills of localcommunities, and encourageentrepreneurs in the tourismindustry, the game farmingindustry, and commercialisation

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enterprises, through support fortraining, access to finance andmarketing.Other areas where there is a needfor information sharing, capacity-building and participatory decision-making are bioprospecting andprivatisation of biologicalresources, ethical hunting andensuring that the trade intraditional medicines issustainable. It is particularlyimportant that the land reformprocess is speeded up.

Access and Benefit Sharing

Access and Benefit Sharing in theConvention on Biological Diversityrefers to a ‘pact’ betweendeveloped countries (which wantto use resources for commercialpurposes, like pharmaceuticals)and developing countries (whichown the resources and need to beincluded in agreements to sharebenefits). It refers to the use ofgenetic diversity.

Bioprospecting, the search for newcompounds and drugs fromnatural sources, has had somesuccess in South Africa, with theisolation of a new antibiotic, thediscovery of an anti-obesity agentand a mosquito repellent extractedfrom South African plant species.The Council for Scientific andIndustrial Research is leadingmuch of the research in the field,while the Medical ResearchCouncil and several universitiesare also important roleplayers.However, local communities whoare the holders of knowledgeabout our medicinal plants andtheir uses, were not includedadequately in the benefit-sharingarrangements.

White rhinos fetched aboutR230 000 each, giraffe up toR15 000 each, hippos R40000, blue wildebeest R5 000each, nyala males up to R26000 and zebras R6 000 each.

• According to South AfricanNational Parks, agriculturalland has an average marketvalue of R1 500 a hectare.Land suitable forincorporation into a nationalpark is worth between R3 000and R30 000, depending onthe size of the property,location and vegetation type.

• The Cape wildflower industrygenerates hundreds ofmillions of Rands in foreigncurrency every year.

• Local trade in medicinalplants is estimated at R1.6billion a year.

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• By 2002 the South Africanwildlife industry (veterinaryservices, game capture,hunting, taxidermy etc) wasestimated to be worth almostR1 billion a year. Thisexcludes any moneygenerated from tourismaccommodation, entrancefees and land sales.

• Bird watching in South Africagenerates about R375 milliona year, according to BirdLifeSouth Africa.

• The Ezemvelo KwaZulu-NatalWildlife game auction heldannually at Hluhluwe is thelargest of its kind in SouthAfrica, and in 2003 generatedover R19 million from the saleof surplus wild animals.

• In 2003, black rhinos werebeing sold at game auctionsat up to R450 000 each.

Economic Value in Biodiversity

biodiversity and conservation · for biodiversity and conservation ... reserves, world heritage...

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