G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 189

Biodiversity and Organic farming: What do we know?

GeroldRahmann*1

*1 JohannHeinrichvonThünen Institute (vTI), FederalResearch Institute forRuralAreas,ForestryandFisheries,InstituteofOrganicFarming,Trenthorst32,23847Westerau,Germany,gerold.rahmann@vti.bund.de

Abstract

Thenumberofstudiesonorganicfarmingandbiodiver-sityincreasedsignificantlywithinthelastyears.Meanwhileorganicfarminghasbeenrecognisedasafieldwithscientificrelevance.About19,000publicationswere found in theWebofScience(www.isiknowledge.com)usingEndnote®softwarewiththewording“organicfarming”,andoutofthese about 1,200werepublishedbyGerman scientists(6%).Intotal766publicationsofthesepaperscontainedalsotheword“biodiversity”(3.5%).Halfofthemwerepublished during the last five years, and aremostly au-thoredbyEuropeans.Ameta-dataanalysisofthese766scientificpapershasbeencarriedouttoanswertheques-tionwhetherorganic farminghasanadvantageforbio-diversityincomparisontoconventionalfarmingsystems.327outof396relevantresultsfoundahigherdegree

ofbiodiversityinorganicfarmingwhencomparedtocon-ventionalfarming.In56papers(14%)nodifferencewasverified, and in 13 contributions (3%) organic farmingyieldedlessbiodiversity(7ofthemforsoilinvertebrates).Thusitmaybeconcludedthatorganicfarmingproduces

morebiodiversity.Researchgapsstillexist for theunder-standingoffunctionalbiodiversityandecosystemimpactwhichcomprisesoilbiota,landscape(ecosystemandhabi-tat)andgeneticbiodiversityonagriculturallandinnaturalhabitats. Inaddition,moreinformationisrequiredaboutbiodiversityoffarmingsystemsinnon-Europeanregions,particularlyinthetropicsandsub-tropics.

Keywords: Agri-environmental schemes, organic farming, biodiversity, integration, long-term field studies, segrega-tion

Zusammenfassung:

Biodiversität und Ökologischer Landbau – Was wis-sen wir?

IndenletztenJahrensindeineVielzahlvonneuenStu-dienzumÖkologischenLandbauundBiodiversitätveröf-fentlichtworden.DerÖkologische Landbau hat alswis-senschaftlichesObjektanBedeutunggewonnen.Imwebof science (www.isiknowledge.com) wurden mit demQuellenrechercheprogramm Endnote® unter dem Stich-wort “organic farming” 19.000 Quellen gefunden, da-von1.200 (6%)ausDeutschland.MitderergänzendenEinschränkung“biodiversity”warenes immernoch766Quellen(3,5%),wovondieHälfteerstindenletztenfünfJahrenveröffentlichtwurde,vorwiegendausEuropa.Inei-nerMetaanalysewurdendiese766QuellenaufihreAus-sagenbezüglichderBedeutungdesÖkologischenLand-bausfürdieBiodiversitätuntersucht.Eskonnten396Bewertungenverwendetwarden.327

(83%) der Bewertungen stellten fest, dass der Ökolo-gischeLandbaumehrBiodiversitätaufweisstalsderkon-ventionelleLandbau.Weitere56(14%)derBewertungenwarenindifferentundnur13(3%;davon7alleineimBe-reichdesBodenlebens)stelltenfest,dassdieBiodiversitätimÖkologischenLandbauniedrigeralsimkonventionellenLandbauist.Zusammenfassend kann aus dieser Metaanalyse ge-

schlossenwerden,dassderÖkologischeLandbauförder-lich für die Biodiversität ist. DiewissenschaftlicheArbeitsolltesichverstärktumdieLückendesWissenszurfunk-tionellen Biodiversität und landwirtschaftliche Systemekümmern. Das Bodenleben, die Landschaft (Ökosystem,Habitate)sowiediegenetischeagro-undnatürlicheBiodi-versitätsinddabeihervorzuheben.AuchfehltesanWis-senüberdieWirkungdesÖkolandbausaufdieBiodiver-sitättropischerodersub-tropischerAgrozonen(vorallemaußerhalbvonEuropa).

Schlüsselworte: Agrarumweltmaßnahmen, Ökologischer Landbau, Biodiversität, Integration, Langzeit Feldstudien, Segregation

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1 Introduction

Biodiversity isoneof themost important resourcesonearth,andhumanactivitiesendangerthetotalnumberofspecies.Largenumbersarealreadyextinctorclosetobe-ingerased.AttheRio-conference1992,theUnitedNationsagreedtoreducebiodiversity lossestozero in2010.Thegoalshavenotbeenreached.Farming(intensificationandlandusechange)aremainreasonsforbiodiversitylosses,butagriculturecanalsoprotectandenhancebiodiversity.Several strategies havebeendeveloped to produce foodandprotectbiodiversity.Organicfarmingisconsideredanenvironmentally-friendlyformoffoodproductionandre-ceivesagri-environmentalpayments for theprotectionofbiodiversity.Butdoesorganicfarmingliveuptothisexpec-tation?Alotofscientificeffortshavebeenmadetoanswerthisquestion.Thepresentedmeta-dataanalysiswasmadetogiveanup-to-dateevaluationofthestateoftheart.

2 The background

Biodiversityisdefinedasthevariabilityamonglivingor-ganisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,marine,andotheraquaticecosystems,andtheecologicalcomplexesofwhich they arepart; this includesdiversitywithinspecies,betweenspeciesandofecosystems(Refer-ence).Thisbiodiversity isthreatenedbyhumanactivities.Landusechanges,degradation,pollution,climatechange,anddesertificationandlastbutnot leasthumanpopula-tiongrowthenforcedthelossofbiodiversitybyfactor100to1,000whencomparedtonaturalextinction. In1992,the United Nations agreed to rescue the world’s biodi-versity.TheConventionofBiologicalDiversity (CBD:192countriesandtheEuropeanUnion)isoneofthethreeRioconventions. “The target agreedby theworld’sGovern-mentsin2002[Rio+10summitinJohannesburg;GR],“to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”, hasnot beenmet. This disappoint-ingconclusionistheintroductionofthe“GlobalBiodiver-sityoutlook3oftheUnitedNationsin2010”,theyearofbiodiversity.Thisfatalsituationneedstobefacedthoughmorethan170countries(87%ofthePartiestotheCon-vention,includingGermanyandtheEuropeanUnion)im-plementednationalbiodiversitystrategiesandactionplans(ConventionofBiologicalDiversity(CBD),2010).It is a fact that theworld’sbiodiversity is still decreas-

ing.TheglobalLivingPlanetIndex(LPI)1

1 TheLivingPlanetIndextracksnearly4,000populationsof241fish,83am-TheLivingPlanetIndextracksnearly4,000populationsof241fish,83am-phibian,40reptile,811birdand302mammalspecies(WWF,2010).

(WWF,2010)has

declinedbymorethan30%since1970.WhiletheTropi-calLPIdeclinedbyalmost60%,theTemperateLPI[includ-LPIdeclinedbyalmost60%,theTemperateLPI[includ-ingGermany] increasedby15%.Obviously, the effortstoprotectenvironmentandnatureintemperateclimates(mainlydeveloped countriesof thewesternworld) havebeen successful after substantial declines in the past.About1.75million species aredescribedworldwidebuttheyareprobablyonlyasmallshareofthetruetotalnum-ber(estimatesprovideanumberofupto13millionspe-cies;CBD,2010).InGermany,48,000animalspeciesaredescribed(Anon-

ymous,2011a),and3,600differentplantscanbefoundofwhich2,800areindigenous(BundesamtfürNaturschutz(BfN) ,2007). These figures include 77 tree species; 111shrubs;33,305insects;4,000bacteria(estimationsare1million bacteria species exist); 703 vertebrateswith 100mammals;256birdspecies;14reptiles,and21amphib-ians.Mostof the3001higherplant andanimal speciesareendangeredbecauseoflandusechangesandlanduseintensification (Rahmann, 2000). Among the Europeancountries, losses in biodiversity are highest in Germany.About28%of theflora speciesandevenmoreanimalspecies(44%ofthebirds,51%ofthemammals,61%of ants, and 52% of bees) are extinct or endangered(Anonymous,2011b;BfN,2008).Agro-biodiversityisanimportantpartoftheworldbio-

diversity. From the 250,000 worldwide described plantspecies, about 30,000 are edible, and about 7,000 arecurrentlyused for consumption.Notmore than30 spe-ciescomprisemorethan95%ofthefoodcomposition.Anditisonlythreespecies(rice,wheat,corn)whichsupplymorethan50%oftoday’shumanfood(BundesanstaltfürLandwirtschaftundErnährung(BLE-BEKO),2008).About75% of the genetic diversity of cultivated plants is al-readyextinct(geneticerosion).Particularlyfruitsandveg-etablesspeciesandvarietiesareendangered(Anonymous,2011c).Cropproductiondominatesthelanduseofmanycountriesoftheworld.InGermanymorethan50%ofthelandsurfaceisusedforagriculture.Onlyasmallnumberofdifferentcropspeciesareplanted:Atotalof27%ofthearablelandisusedforwheat,17%forbarley,15%forcorn,12%foroilseedrape,4%forryesothatonlyaquarterof the land is cultivatedwithanyotherplant.Counterproductiveintermsofbiodiversityisthatcropsareregularlycultivatedinmonoculture.Theuseofpesticidescausesachangeofthehabitatandreduce/eradicatewildplantsandwildanimalbiodiversityonaregionalscale.Asimilartrendcanbeobservedinpens.Morethan25

animalspeciesaredomesticatedbutonly11ofthemareof economic relevance. Human selection has created alargenumberofdifferentbreeds.Many livestockbreedsareendangered,especiallysheepandgoatbreeds(Sam-braus, 1999; www.g-e-h.de).The FAO registered more

G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 191

than7,600differentbreedsworldwide(FAO,2007),andmorethan1,500ofthemareendangered.The protection and backing of biodiversity is one of

themainchallengesoffarming.Evenbeforepublic lawsenforced protection ofwild plants and animals, organicfarminghaddeclaredtheaimtoprotecttheenvironmentandbiodiversity in thefirstversionofprinciples (IFOAM,1980;www.ifoam.org).Oneofthefourprinciplesoforganicfarmingisdefined

by the International Federation of Organic AgriculturalMovement (IFOAM, 2007): “The Principle of Ecology: Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them. […] Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity. Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.”ThepreambleoftheEUregulation834/2007confirms

the IFOAM principle: “Organic production is an overallsystem of farmmanagement and food production thatcombinesbestenvironmentalpractices,ahighlevelofbio-diversity,thepreservationofnaturalresources,theappli-cationofhighanimalwelfarestandardsandaproductionmethodinlinewiththepreferenceofcertainconsumersforproductsproducedusingnaturalsubstancesandpro-cesses.”InArticle3(Objectivesandprinciplesfororganicproduction)isfixedthat“Organicproductionshallpursuethefollowinggeneralobjectives:(a)establishasustainablemanagementsystemforagriculture that: (i) respectsna-ture’ssystemsandcyclesandsustainsandenhances thehealthofsoil,water,plantsandanimalsandthebalancebetweenthem;(ii)contributestoahighlevelofbiologicaldiversity;” This includes soil and aquatic biodiversity (ar-ticle5 (a) (n)aswellasfarmcropand livestockdiversity(889/2008introduction(8)).Incontrasttothesegregationstrategyofconventional

farming (production or protection), biodiversity is an in-tegral component of organic farming (production andprotection) (Rahmann et al 2006; Schnug et al., 2008).Thereforewildplants, livestockandagriculturalbiodiver-sityarefoundasco-productsofthefarmingactivity.Theuseofherbicides(butalsootherpesticides) isprohibitedwhichprotectsthenaturalfloraandfauna.Onlymanual,mechanical and heat measures are permitted for weedcontrol.Wildfaunasuchasinsects,snails,beetles,andspi-derscanbecontrolledthroughbiotechnologicalmeasures(traps, lime, etc.) and natural insecticides (Annex II of889/2008/EU)(Kühneetal.,2006).Organicfarming isbasedonnormswhichare inforce

worldwide(IFOAM,2005).Organicproductionisexpand-

ingcontinuouslyandispracticedinmorethan160coun-tries(ofatotalof195countries;intheyear2000only86countriesweredocumentedwithorganicproduction). In2007,morethan1,800,000farms(677,000organicfarmsonlyinIndia)manageabout38millionhectaresfarmlandorganicallywith certification (0.9%of total agriculturalfarmland;plus42millionhectarewildcollectionarea).2/3oftheworld’sorganicfarmlandisgrassland(Willeretal.,2011).Europe was and is the most driving continent in the

developmentandestablishmentoforganicfarming.Onequarter of the world’s organic farm land is in Europe(200,000farms,7.8millionhectares,1.9%shareoftotalfarmland). IntheEuropeanUnion(EU27)about180,000farmsmanage7.2millionhectareslandorganically(4%ofthetotalfarmland;2007)andgenerateproduceworth16.8 billion Euros (2008).With 5.9 billion Euros (2010),Germanyhasthebiggestorganicmarket inEurope.Themarket share of organic products in the German foodmarket is about 3%, about half of the Danishmarketsharewith6.7%,andAustriawith5.7%.Theworldor-ganic purchases are 6 Euro per capita and year (2009).IntheUSA,about50Euroc-1yr-1werespentin2008percapita.With26Euroc-1yr-1theorganicpurchasesarelessin the EU27. Danish citizens purchase about 132 Euroc-1yr-1,whileGermanyisinthemiddlefieldwithabout71Euroc-1yr-1(AMI,2010).94%oftheGermanconsumersbuyorganicfoodbutonly3%ofallGermanconsumersarerelevantfor39%ofallorganicsales.Theseintensivebuyersspendabout730Europeryearandhouseholdonorganicfoodproducts.Thisis39%oftotalfoodpurchaseofthesehouseholds(BÖLW,2011).TheSecondNationalNutritionStudyofGermany(MRI,2008)foundthatorgan-icfrequentconsumershaveahealthierlifestylecomparedwithnon-organicconsumers.CurrentlytheGermanfarmersdeliverabout50%ofthe

organicproductsfortheGermanmarket,theotherhalfisimported,mainlyfromotherEUcountries(BÖLW,2011).Thefarmersgetabout20%ofthemarketsales.Thatmeans,that80%ofthevalueoforganicproducts(finalconsumerspending)isearnedintransport,processingandtrade.Thisiscomparabletoconventionalfamers(AMI,2010).The implementation of official standards and regula-

tionsintheEUin1992(2092/91/EEC,834/2007/ECandrelated regulations; http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/or-ganic/home_en)andthepoliticalsupport–Europeanac-tionplanfororganicfoodandfarming(since2004)andnationalprogrammesliketheGermanBundespropgrammÖkologischer Landbau (www.bundesprogramm-oeko-landbau.de)withmore than 75million Euro R&D fundsince2002–wereandare themaindriving forces.TheGerman speaking countries (DE, CH, AT) comprise themostrelevantorganicfarmingresearchintheworld.

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Attheendof2010,morethan21,000Germanfarms(5.6%oftotalGermanfarms)managedmorethanonemillionhectaresfarmlandorganically(5,6%oftotalfarm-land)(BMELV,2011).About50%oftheGermanorganicfarmlandisgrassland,whiletotalfarmlandcomprisesonly30%inGermany.Grasslandisimportantforbiodiversityandhasseverelydecreasedinthelastdecades(SoussanaandDuru,2007),particularlyinthelastyearsinGermanyinareasofbiomassencroachment.Thequestionis:Doesorganicfarmingfulfilthepromisetoprotectthebiodiversi-tybetterthannon-organic(conventional)farming?Ame-ta-dataanalysiswasperformedtoanswerthisquestion.

3 Material and methods

The term “biodiversity” has many facets: It is com-monlyinterpretedasspeciesrichness,onlyoccasionallyasthe richness of varieties, cultivars or genetic expressions(e.g.micro-organisms) (Buchs,2003;Buchsetal.,2003;KasperczykandKnickel,2006).Notallpapersgaveclearanswersonhowtomeasurebiodiversity.Classicalecologyindexeswereusedtodeterminerichness(S),butbiodiver-

sity(H’)anddominance(D)weresometimesmissinginthestudies(Crowderetal.,2010).Theimpactofalpha(with-(Crowderetal.,2010).Theimpactofalpha(with-.Theimpactofalpha(with-in-fieldlevel),beta(between-fieldlevel)andgammadiver-sity(landscape-level)isanimportantcriterion(Rundlofetal.,2008).Here, it isnecessarytoevaluateandcomparecultivationintensities,landscapes,micro-climateandagro-environmentstorespectthesensitivityofthebiodiversityasanindicatorofmanagement.Themeta-dataanalysiswasperformedonthebasisof

scientific publications listed in theWeb of Science and‘grey literature’ inMarch2011.ThescientificpapersareidentifiedthroughaonlinedatabasecheckintheWebofScience(www.isiknowledge.com),usingEndnote®asthesearchandcitation software, theonlinepublicationandprojectdatabaseorganiceprints(http://orgprints.org)andgreyliteratureingoogle(www.google.com),allunderthesearchwords“organicfarming,”“biodiversity”,“[year]”and“[country]”inMarch2011(Table1).Inaddition,theproceedingsofthemainscientificconferencesoftheor-ganicsectorinGermanspeakingcountrieshavebeenas-sessedasthesepapersarenotlistedinISI.

Table1:

Resultsofthewebsearch“Organicfarming”,“biodiversity”,“[year]”,“[country]”

Results Web of Science(Endnote®searchMarch2011)

Organic eprints(March2011)

Google(x1.000)

“biodiversity” 97,215 n.a. 16,700

“Organicfarming” 19.158 10.876** 8.860

“Organicfarming”,“Germany”: 1.276 2.923** 7.740

“Organicfarming”,“biodiversity”: 766 96*** 3.390

-Yearofpublication:

<1991 0 0 142

1991–1995 17 1 145

1996–2000 78 3 142

2001–2005 250 37 530

2006–2011 421 55 2.010

-selectedcountries,continents:

Germany 44 35 672

EuropeanUnion 287* 83 1.978

USA,Canada 38+14 3+0 497

India 31 3 161

China 10 1 155

Australia,NewZealand 10+6 0 188

Africa 15 1 166

Countrynotspecified 311 5 n.a.

*EU27includingGermany**Includingprojectsandinstitutionsasdatasetbesidepublication***Onlypublications

G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 193

4 Results

4.1 The search results

Inthelastyearsthenumberofstudiesonorganicfarm-ingandbiodiversity increased significantly (Table1).De-1).De-).De-spitetherelativelynewseriousrecognitionoftheorganicsystem as a field of scientific relevance in the scientificworld,about19,000publicationswerefoundintheWebof Science (www.isiknowledge.com) under the word of“organicfarming”.Outofthesepapers1,200werefromGermany (6%). 766 publications were foundwith thesecondsearchword“biodiversity”(3.5%);halfofthemwerepublishedinthelastfiveyearsbyEuropeanresearch-ers.Thisdatasetincludespapersofthemaininternationalorganicfarmingconferences.IncontrasttoISIlisteddatabanksintheWebofScience

itisusuallyhardtofindgreyliterature.Thesepapersmaywellmeetscientificstandardsbutmissascientificplatformfor publication (e. g. diploma thesis, reports). The databankhttp://orgprints.orgwasestablishedin2001bytheDanishDARCOF(todayICROFS)andjointbyFiBLandBÖLtogivegreyorganicfarmingpapersaweb-basedsource.All international and European organic conferences usethe web platform for submission of papers (Table 2).Nowadaysthisorganicfarmingdatabankhasmorethan10,000 entries. The majority of papers is from Europe,withaboutonethirdfromGermany.Atotalof1,154sub-missions dealwith environmental aspects, but only 526publicationsfocusonthesubject“biodiversityandecosys-tem service.” 96publications concentrate exclusively on

Table2:

Proceedingsofthescientificconferencesoforganicfarminginthelast10years,publishedunderhttp://orgprints.org

SelectedscientificOrganicFarmingconferences Place Year Paperstotal

PapersBiodiversity

13stInternationalIFOAMScientificconference Basel,CH 2000 500 19

6.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Freising,DE 2001 116 10

14thIFOAMOrganicWorldCongress Victoria,CA 2002 294 13

7.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Wien,AT 2003 214 7

1stISOFARconference1 Adelaide,AU 2005 141 5

8.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Kassel,DE 2005 215 6

JointOrganicConference Odense,DK 2006 275 1

9.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Hohenheim,DE 2007 245 19

2ndISOFARconference Modena,IT 2008 385 15

10.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Zürich,CH 2009 287 10

11.WissenschaftstagungÖkologischerLandbau1 Gießen,DE 2011 209 6

Total 2,881 111

1ThepapersofthebiannualGermanspeakingorganicfarmingconferencesarenotfoundwithEndnote®inwebofscience(ISI).Thepapersoftheseconferenceshavebeenassessedadditio-nallybecauseoftheirrelevanceonaglobalscale.

biodiversity(1%).Themainactivitiesoforganicfarmingresearchareinthefieldofdevelopmentoforganicfarm-ing,whilelessattentionhasbeenpaidtoenhancingandstrengtheningsustainability(10%).Onereasonistopicoftheorganicfarmingconference.TheGoogle search brought toomany results without

relevance to this study. This source was not consideredforfurtheranalysis.However,itgivesanimpressionabouttheimportanceofthistopicintheweb.Theproceedingsof themost important scientific conferences of organicfarmingprovedtobethebestsourcetogetanoverviewofmainresearchtopicsandtherelevanceofbiodiversityin scientific studies.At themomentbiodiversity is still aminor topicasonly105papersdedicated their researchtothusfieldofresearch(Table1).Thisequals4%ofallpapers.

4.2 Meta-analysis of ISI listed papers

The meta-data analysis tried to answer the question,whetherorganic farmingbenefitsbiodiversity. From766studiesfoundwithEndnote®inWebofScienceusingthekey words “organic farming” and “biodiversity,” nearlyhalfofthereferences(343)couldbeusedfortheassess-ment,423hadtoberejected(Table3).Becausesomestud-ieshaveassessedmorethanonespecies,multipleanswersweregiven.Thussomestudiesarecitedmorethanonce(totalcitations=396).Notallstudiesmadeclearcompari-sonsbetweenorganicandconventionalfarmingsystems(Pimenteletal.,2005;Pimpinietal.,2005).Nevertheless,themeta-dataanalysiscomestotheunequivocalconclu-

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sionthatbiodiversityishigherinorganicfarmingthaninconventionalfarming.327citationsbackedthisresult,56werenotclearandonly13suggestedthatbiodiversitywaslowerunderorganicfarmingmanagement(Table3).

Table3:

Impactoforganicfarming1onbiodiversityincomparisontoconventi-onalfarming(no.ofcitationsinISIlistedpublications2)

Subject Morebiodiversity

Unclear,indifferent

Lessbiodiversity

Landscape 28 5 0

Floraonarableland 61 3 0

Floraongrassland 20 5 0

Floraperenniallanduse3 12 1 2

Invertebrates 77 12 7

Vertebrates 26 5 0

Bacteria,yeast,pests 6 2 1

Soilbiota 38 15 0

Agro-biodiversity 28 2 0

Biodiversityingeneral 31 6 3

Total 327 56 13

1Thisincludesorganicfarming,wildplantcollection,traditionalfarmingunderorganicstandards(withoutcertification).2Multiplecitationsof343usedpapersarepossibleduetodifferentconclusionsfordifferentspecies.3Perenniallanduse:vineyards,orchards,specialbiotopesareforexample:orchards,hedges,ponds,farmbuildings,paths,fences,forestsorstoneheaps,specialbuildings,plantationorfacilitiesfornature(e.g.,herbloops).Theyareassessedinthecontextofadjacentfarmingsystems.Source:WebofSciencesearchusingEndnote®inMarch2011;seeAnnex1)

Most of the 396 citations were from Europe (80%;onlyEU2772%),North-America(6%)andLatin-Amer-ica (5%) (Table4). Important countries for comparativestudiesonbiodiversitywereUK(65citations;20%),DE(51;16%),SE(30;9%),CH(27;8%),IT(24;7%),FR(23;7%),NL(21;6%),US(20;6%)andES(18;6%)(McLaughlinandMineau,1995).

Table4:

Originofthecitations1aboutcomparativestudiesoforganicandcon-ventionalfarmingonbiodiversityindifferentlandusesystems

Region more unclear less Total

Europe(fromEU27) 258(228) 48(47) 11(11) 317(286)

NorthAmerica 20 4 1 25

LatinAmerica 16 3 0 19

Asia 11 0 0 11

Africa 4 0 0 4

Oceania 9 1 1 11

miscellaneous 9 0 0 9

Total 327 56 13 396

1Multiplecitationsof343usedpapersarepossibleduetodifferentconclusionsfordifferentspecies.Source:webofsciencesearchusingEndnote®inMarch2011;seeAnnex1)

Organic farmingwas in favour for all species. The re-stricteduseofpesticidesandlownutrientinputinorganicfarmingwereidentifiedasmainfactorsforahigherbiodi-versityoffloraandfaunawasusually(FrostandArdeshir,2004).Agro-biodiversityandlandscapearchitecturewereless often identified as key parameters for biodiversity.Somefloraandfaunahaveadaptedonintensiveconven-tional farming (highnutrient level in soilsandhighcropyieldsetc.):epigaeicspiders,birds,plantslikeUrtica dioica(Nettel)(RydbergandMilberg,2000).Usuallythesefloraandfaunaisnotendangered.

4.3 Long term trials

Itseemssafetoassumethattheinfluenceofthelandusemanagement isbest reflectedandassessed in long-term field experiments. And all long-term field studies(BMELV,2005)withthetopic“organicversusconventionalfarming”(Raupp,2009)confirmtheadvantageoforganicfarming to improve biodiversity (soil biota, flora, arthro-pods):Glenlea long-termrotationstudy inCanada (Entzetal.,2005);theDOC-trialinSwitzerland(Pfiffner,1996;Fliessbachetal.,2000;Maderetal.,2002);StateResearchInstitute at Osiny in Poland (Feledyn-Szewczyk, 2008);Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial (Hepperly et al.,2006);EkhagaExperimentalFarminSweden(Lundkvistetal.,2008);TrenthorstorganicfarmingsystemcomparisonstudyinGermany(Rahmannetal.,2006);MediterraneanArableSystemsComparisonTrial(MASCOT)and(MOLTE)in Italy (MiglioriniandVazzana,2006;Mazzoncinietal.,2010).

4.4 Other meta-analysis

Pfiffner (1996) compiled 44 studies related to faunarichness of different land usemanagement systems (Ta-ble4).Theyconcludedthatfaunaismorediverseonor-ganiccomparedtoconventional farmland.BartramandPerkins(2003)foundanadvantageoforganicfarminginbiodiversityin33UKstudies,too.Lynch(2009)analysedstudiesfromCanadaandtheUSAandconcludedthator-ganic farming contributes to diversity of cropping, floraandhabitat.Bengtssonetal. (2005)foundintheirmeta-dataanal-

ysis of literature, published before December 2002 thatorganicfarmingincreasesspeciesrichnessingeneral.Spe-cies richnesswasonaverage30%higher than in con-ventionalfarmingsystems.However,theresultswerevari-ableamongstudies,and16%ofthemactuallyshowedanegativeeffectoforganicfarmingonspeciesrichness.Onaverage,organismswere50%moreabundantinor-ganicfarmingsystems,buttheresultswerehighlyvariablebetweenstudiesandorganismgroups.Birds,predatoryin-

G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 195

Table5:

Significantimpactoforganicfarmingonselectedfauna

AbundanceoffaunaNo.ofstudies1,where...

DiversityoffaunaspeciesNo.ofstudies1,where...

Faunagroup2 Organicmorethanconventional

Organiclikeconventional

Organiclessthanconventional

Organicmorethanconventional

Organiclikeconventional

Organiclessthanconventional

Earthworms 17 1 0 4 3 0

Groundbeetles 13 2 0 6 2 0

Spiders 6 1 0 0 0 0

Millipedes 4 0 0 1 1 0

Bugs 2 1 0 1 1 0

Mites 2 0 1 1 1 0

Birds 5 0 0 1 1 0

Total 49 5 1 15 7 0

1Resultsof44studies;multipleanswerpossible.2Mostofthesegroupshaveimportantfunctionsinagro-eco-systems.Source:Pfiffner,1996

sects,soilorganismsandplantsrespondedpositivelytoor-ganicfarming,whilenon-predatoryinsectsandpestsdidnot.Thepositiveeffectsoforganicfarmingonabundancewereverifiedatplotandfieldscale,butnotonfarmlevel.Bugg (2002) found in studies conducted in the USA

(PennsylvaniaandNorthDakota),UK(WalesandEngland)and Canada (Saskatchewan and Ontario) that organicfarming and minimum tillage systems support a higherbird diversity and abundance than do conventional sys-tems.Mondelaersetal. (2009)performedameta-dataanal-

ysis of the peer reviewed literature comparing the envi-ronmental impactsoforganicandconventionalfarming.Theyconcludedthatsoilsinorganicfarmingsystemshave,onaverage,ahighercontentoforganicmatterandthatorganicfarmingcontributespositivelytoagro-biodiversity(breedsusedbythefarmers)andnaturalbiodiversity(wildlife).

4.5 Agro-biodiversity

Biodiversityisnotonlydefinedforwildfloraandfaunabut also for cultivated crops (Mondelaers et al., 2009).Whileahigherdiversityofcultivatedandwildplantsandassociatedfaunaisfoundongrassland,arablelandusuallylacksbiodiversityduetopesticideapplications(Geigeretal.,2010).MorethanonethirdoftheGermansurfaceisarablelandandveryoftenthecultivatedcropsaretheonlyplantsontheseareas.Thereareabout40differentcrops/cropgroupscultivatedonorganicandconventionalfarms.These crops have different importance (abundance) andarenotequallydistributedoverthearea.Somecropspe-ciesdominate,whileothershaveonlyaverysmallshareTable5).Theimpactonagro-biodiversitycanbemeasured

throughtheinequalityofthedistribution.Usingthestatis-ticaldatafromthecroppinginorganicfarming,thisislessequalthanonconventionalfarming.TheGinicoefficient2

2 TheGinicoefficientisdefinedasaratiooftheareaontheLorenzcurvedia-TheGinicoefficientisdefinedasaratiooftheareaontheLorenzcurvedia-GinicoefficientisdefinedasaratiooftheareaontheLorenzcurvedia-gramandcanbefrom“0”(veryequal:allcropsarecultivatedonthesamenumberofhectares)upto“1”(veryunequal:nearlyallhectaresareusedforonlyonecrop).

fororganicfarmingis0.69andforconventional0.82.Thehigherequalityoforganicfarmingcanbeeasilyexplained.Thecroprotationisbroaderthaninconventionalfarming(aminimumof six versus amaximumof three differentcropsintherotation).

5 Conclusions

In the presented comprehensive meta-data analysis,publications were assessed to prove whether organicfarminghasanadvantageforbiodiversityornot.Thisandothermeta-analyses(Pfiffner,1996;BartramandPerkins,2003;Bengtssonetal.,2005;Chamberlainetal.,2010)provideevidencethatorganicfarmingenhancesandcon-serves biodiversity. A total of 766 ISI-listed publicationswerefoundwiththesearchwords“organicfarming”and“biodiversity”,83%fromEurope.Halfofthemwerepub-lishedinthelastfiveyears.396paperscouldbeusedfortheanswerand327(83%)ofthecitations(multicitationsofthe343paperswerepossible)foundanadvantageoforganicfarmingformorebiodiversitycomparedwithcon-ventional farming.56 (14%)citationswerenot sureortheyfoundnodifferenceandonly13(3%)cametotheconclusionthatorganicfarminghaslessbiodiversity(7ofthemforsoilinvertebrates).

196

Table6:

StatisticaldataoncultivatedcropsinrelationtothelandusesysteminGermany(2008)

Crop Organic(x1,000ha) %oforganic Conventional(x1,000ha)

%ofconventional Percentageorganic(%)

Farmland(utilised) 908 100.00 16,926 100,00 5.09

Cropland 385 42.40 12,103 71,50 3.08

Grassland 490 54.00 4,789 28,30 9.28

Mixedorchard/pasture 13 1.43 300 1,77 4.15

Permanentculture 12 1.32 200 1,18 5.66

Grain 188 20.70 6,518 38,50 2.80

Winterwheat 40 4.41 3,164 18,70 1.25

Summerwheat 7 0.72 43 0,25 13.10

Rye 52 5.73 737 4,35 6.59

Triticale 21 2.31 399 2,36 5.00

Winterbarley 9 0.94 1,418 8,38 0.60

Summerbarley 13 1.43 544 3,21 2.33

Dinkel 18 1.98 0 0,00 100.00

Oat 23 2.53 179 1,06 11.49

Maize(corn) 5 0.50 515 3,04 0.87

Maize(silage) 8 0.88 1,672 9,88 0.48

Mixedfeedcrops 9 0.99 126 0,74 6.67

Legumefeed 76 8.37 206 1,22 26.95

Cultivatedgrassland 24 2.64 392 2,32 5.77

Pulses 24 2.64 84 0,50 22.22

Fababeans 6 0.66 11 0,06 35.29

Lupine 9 0.99 20 0,12 31.03

Peas 9 0.99 48 0,28 15.79

Potatoes(fresh) 7 0.77 109 0,64 6.03

Potatoes(industry) 1 0.08 73 0,43 0.95

Sugarbeets 1 0.12 369 2,18 0.30

Feedingbeets 0 0.01 4 0,02 2.44

Rape 2 0.25 1,371 8,10 0.17

Sunflowers 2 0.18 25 0,15 6.02

Soybeans 1 0.06 0,00 100.00

Flax 0 0.04 4 0,02 8.70

Medicalplants 1 0.07 6 0,04 9.77

Cannabis 0 0.04 0,00 100.00

Hops 0 0.01 18 0,11 0.55

Carrots 1 0.15 10 0,06 12.30

Cabbage 0 0.03 7 0,04 3.45

Onions 0 0.04 9 0,05 3.54

Redbeet 0 0.03 2 0,01 13.33

Salad 0 0.01 10 0,06 1.31

Asparagus 1 0.07 18 0,11 3.49

Strawberry 0 0.04 13 0,08 2.66

Flowers 0 0.01 34 0,20 0.36

Apples 3 0.30 32 0,19 7.83

Wineyards 4 0.48 102 0,60 4.14

Treenursery 0 0.05 22 0,13% 2.08

Source:AMI2010usingthebasisofthetestfarmnetdataoftheBMELV.

G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 197

Long-termfieldstudieson“organicversusconventionalfarming” confirm the advantage of organic farming toimprovebiodiversityforsoilbiota,flora,arthropods(Pfiff-(Pfiff-ner,1996;Maderetal.,2002;Entzetal.,2005;Feledyn-Szewczyk,2008)andcontributetoabetterunderstand-andcontributetoabetterunderstand-ingoffunctionalbiodiversity(Wolfe,2002;Zhongetal.,2005). The impact can be found on the farm land andattachedareassuchashedges.Herbaceousfieldbounda-riesarerich inbiodiversityandcanbeusedasasepara-tionbetweenorganicandconventionalfields(Moonenetal.,2006;Gardarinetal.,2007).Ifthelocalbiodiversityisalreadypoorduetointensivefarminginthesurroundingarea,organicfarmingcannotcompensatethelossofbio-diversity.Thiswasforinstanceshownforflowervisitingin-sects(HopkinsandFeber,1997;Brittainetal.,2010).Seedbankswerenotinfluencedbymanagement(Hawesetal.,2010). It isnosuitablepoliticalsolutiontodefineprefer-. It isnosuitablepoliticalsolutiontodefineprefer-enceareasfororganic (remoteand lowproductivesoils)and conventional farming (high potential soils) as everyregionshouldhaveamixtureoforganicandconventionalfarmingsystems(Taubeetal.,2006).Conventional farming can have similar results in the

caseofcompulsoryset-asidefarmland(segregation).MacDonaldetal.(2007)andNemeceketal.(2006,2011a,b)foundadvantagesoforganicfarminginalpha-diversitybutstatethatset-asidelandonconventionalfarmscanequa-lizethisadvantage.Buton-farmsegregationlikeset-asidelandcanbeariskforlong-termbiodiversityprotection.AstheEUsettheobligationforset-asidefarmlandtozeroin2008,conventionalfarmershaveconvertedset-asidelandintocropland(Rundlofetal.,2010).Thishasbeenfollowedbylossesofbiodiversityonconventionalfarms.Agri-environmental schemes (AES) have a high im-

portance in biodiversity protection (Purtauf et al., 2005;Rund-lof et al., 2008; Taylor andMorecroft, 2009). Thiscanbecarriedoutasorganicfarming(paidundertheagri-environmentalschemes)orasapartofconventionalfarm-ing(natureprotectionareas)(Schaderetal.,2008).Goodfarmingpracticebecomesmoreimportanttoenhanceandimprovebiodiversityinorganicandconventionalfarming(RydbergandMilberg,2000;StrasserandRyffel,2010).Biodiversityassessmentisnotpartoftheinspectionproc-ess(889/2008/EC)sothatitispossiblethatitdependsonthe organic farm manager whether biodiversity will bepromotedorrepelled.Themainquestionistheantagonismbetweenfoodse-

curityandbiodiversity.Oneoptionstosolvethisproblemissegregation(conventional)andintegration(organic)(Ga-(Ga-brieletal.,2009).Differencesinbiodiversityhaveaposi-.Differencesinbiodiversityhaveaposi-tiveandanegativeimpact:Forexample,weeds,pestsandparasitesdominateinorganicfarming(morebiodiversity),are,however,negativeforcropyield,productqualityandanimalwelfare(Poetschetal.,2005;Meylingetal.,2010).

This has to be considered in the analysis of the impactofbiodiversity (LetourneauandGoldstein,2001;Letour-(LetourneauandGoldstein,2001;Letour-neauandBothwell,2008;Ryanetal.,2010).Biodiversityneedsequilibriumbetweenbiodiversityandfoodproduc-tion(Vandana,2000;Crowderetal.,2010;ChappellandLaValle,2011).Biomassproductionisanewchallengeforbiodiversityprotection,particularlyifmaizeisencroachingasamonoculture(Fritsche,2004).Inaddition,itshouldbedecided,if“organic-herbicides”areastrategy(additionaltomechanicalandtemperatureweedcontrolmeasures).Astrongargumentagainstsuchprocedureisthatorganicfarmingwould start togo conventionalwith the riskoflossofbiodiversityandlossofconsumerconfidence(Darn-(Darn-hoferetal.,2010).Holeetal. (2005) came to theconclusion, that“(1) It

remains unclear whether a ‘holistic’ whole-farm approach (i.e. organic) provides greater benefits to biodiversity than carefully targeted prescriptions applied to relatively small areas of cropped and/or non-cropped habitats within conventional agriculture (i.e. agri-environment schemes); (2) Many comparative studies encounter methodological problems, limiting their ability to draw quantitative conclu-sions; (3) Our knowledge of the impacts of organic farm-ing in pastoral and upland agriculture is limited; (4) There remains a pressing need for longitudinal, system-level studies in order to address these issues and to fill in the gaps in our knowledge of the impacts of organic farming, before a full appraisal of its potential role in biodiversity conservation in agro-ecosystems can be made”Thepresentedmeta-dataanalysisconfirmstheconclu-

sions of Hole et al. (2005). However, it is important toemphasisethefactthatnumerousstudiesfavourorganicfarmingforimprovingbiodiversityincomparisontocon-ventionalfarming.Yet,itneedstobetakenintoaccountthat farming systems (includingorganic) and farm func-tions change rapidly. Energy farming and agri-environ-mental schemes force science tounderstand the impactmorerapidlythaninpreviousyears.Forexample,biomassproduction can have a negative impact on biodiversity(maize domination) andbiogas-facilities are installed formanydecades.Infuture,theaspectsoffoodsecurityandfoodsafetywillgainincreasingimportanceirrespectiveofthelandusesystem.Putativesolutionstowardsmorebio-diversityistheuseofsetasidefarmlandforsegregationasitcanhavethesameorevenbetterimpactonbiodiver-sitythanintegratedmeasuressuchasorganicfarming.Amixtureofintensivefarmingwithsetaside,non-farmland,agri-environmental schemes and organic farmsmay de-liverahighrangeofbiodiversitythroughoutalllandscapes(Hollandetal.,2007).Aseparationofthesesystemsintospecific farmingareas (intensive/conventionalandexten-sive/organic)iscounter-productive.

198

6 Annex

Annex1:

ComparisonofOrganicfarming1(OF)andConventionalfarming(CF)onbiodiversity(bycountries2)

Subject More biodiversity Unclear, indifferent Less biodi-versity

Landscape,wholefarmapproachonbiodi-versity

BE:(Beideretal.,2007);CA:(Lynch,2009);CH:(Schaderetal.,2008;SteinerandPohl,2009);CR:(Blanco-MetzlerandDiazPorras,2008);DE:(HaasandWetterich,2000;Holzschuhetal.,2010);DK:(TybirkandFredshavn,2003;Tybirketal.,2004);ES:(Menaetal.,2009;Jose-Mariaetal.,2010);FR:(Gardarinetal.,2007);IT:(RonchiandNardone,2003;Moonenetal.,2006;Lazzerinietal.,2007);SE:(Weibull,2002;RundlofandSmith,2006;Rundlofetal.,2008;Rundlofetal.,2008;Rundlofetal.,2010);UK:(Nortonetal.,2006;Watsonetal.,2006;Gibsonetal.,2007;Watsonetal.,2008;Nortonetal.,2009;vanderGastetal.,2011);US:(Smukleretal.,2008;Lynch,2009;Smukleretal.,2010)

DE:(Holzschuhetal.,2007);NL:(ManhoudtandSnoo,2003);SE:(Weibull,2002);UK:(Holeetal.,2005;Hollandetal.,2007)

Floraonarableland AT:(KaarandFreyer,2008);AU:(Macfadyenetal.,2009);CA:(Lynch,2009);CH:(Maderetal.,2002;Nemeceketal.,2006;Hiltbrunneretal.,2008;WyssandPfiffner,2008;Nemeceketal.,2011);CZ:(Tyseretal.,2008);DE:(Albrecht,2005;Roschewitzetal.,2005a;Glemnitzetal.,2006;HimstedtandvanElsen,2006;Cloughetal.,2007a;Albrecht,2008);DK:(Audeetal.,2003;Audeetal.,2004);ES:(Romeroetal.,2005;Caballero-Lopezetal.,2010;Jose-Mariaetal.,2010);EU:(Albrecht,2003);FI:(Hyvonenetal.,2003;Ekroosetal.,2010);FR:(Bochuetal.,2004;Mesleardetal.,2005;Chateiletal.,2007);HU:(Glemnitzetal.,2006);IT:(Caporalietal.,2003;MiglioriniandVazzana,2007;Mazzoncinietal.,2010);LT:(Balezentiene,2008;Balezentiene,2009);NL:(Alebeeketal.,2003;Manhoudtetal.,2007);PL:(Feledyn-SzewczykandDuer,2006;Feledyn-Szewczyk,2008;Krawczyk,2009;Krawczyketal.,2010);SE:(Mattsson,1999;RydbergandMilberg,2000;Belfrageetal.,2005;Bengtssonetal.,2005;Lundkvistetal.,2008;Rundlofetal.,2010);UK:(Cobbetal.,1999;Leake,2002;BartramandPerkins,2003;Asterakietal.,2004;Turner,2004;Fulleretal.,2005;Holeetal.,2005;Gibsonetal.,2007;Brandaoetal.,2010;Hawesetal.,2010);US:(Hepperlyetal.,2006;Lynch,2009;Ryanetal.,2010;Wortmanetal.,2010);ZA:(Baudronetal.,2009);Nospecificcountry:(Leifertetal.,2007;Mondelaersetal.,2009;Ulberetal.,2009)

CH:(AavikandLiira,2010);FI:(Hyvonen,2007);SE:(Mattsson,1999)

Floraongrassland AT:(Matthesetal.,2002;Poetschetal.,2005);BR:(Aroeira,2003;AroeiraandPaciullo,2004);CH:(Schmidetal.,2001;Britschgietal.,2006);DE:(Elsasser,2000;Haasetal.,2001;Mayeretal.,2008;Muller-Lindenlaufetal.,2010);DK:(Petersenetal.,2006);EE:(GehermanandViiralt,2004);ES:(Menaetal.,2009);NL:(Baars,2002);PT:(Crespoetal.,2004);UK:(Adamsonetal.,2004;Fulleretal.,2005;Holeetal.,2005;YounieandBaars,2005);

CA:(Brandtetal.,2010);CZ:(Sa-rapatkaandCizkova,2007);EE:(GehermanandEllermae,2001);FR:(Benoitetal.,2005;Fiorellietal.,2008)

Floraonperennialcropland3

BR:(Batistaetal.,2002);CR:(SomarribaandHarvey,2003;Somarribaetal.,2003);DE:(Ammeretal.,1995;Geieretal.,2000);DK:(Boutinetal.,2008);ES:(Cotesetal.,2009;Minarroetal.,2009;Cotesetal.,2010);US:(Reganoldetal.,2001;Nichollsetal.,2008);ZA:(GaigherandSamways,2010)

ES:(Minarroetal.,2009) ES:(Minarroetal.,2009);IT:(Bruggisseretal.,2010)

Invertebrates:insects,spiders,beetles,parasites,earthworms,nematodes

AT:(Matthesetal.,2002);AU:(Macfadyenetal.,2009);AR:(ZalazarandSalvo,2007;Fernandezetal.,2008);BG:(Andreevetal.,2001);CA:(Lynch,2009);CH:(Pfiffner,1996;Maderetal.,2002;Britschgietal.,2006;Nemeceketal.,2006;Nemeceketal.,2011);CN:(Zhongetal.,2005;Chenetal.,2010;Yuanetal.,2010);DE:(Cloughetal.,2005;Roschewitzetal.,2005b;Schmidtetal.,2005;Humann-ZiehankandGanter,2006;Cloughetal.,2007a;Cloughetal.,2007b;Cloughetal.,2007c;Hallmannetal.,2007;Holzschuhetal.,2007;Holzschuhetal.,2008;BatesandHarris,2009;Diekotteretal.,2010;Holzschuhetal.,2010);DK:(Boutinetal.,2009;Meylingetal.,2010);ES:(Cotesetal.,2009;Caballero-Lopezetal.,2010;Cotesetal.,2010);FR:(Garcinetal.,2004;ViauxandRameil,2004;Mesleardetal.,2005);FI:(Salonenetal.,2001a;Salonenetal.,2001b;Salonenetal.,2005;Ekroosetal.,2008;Ekroosetal.,2010);IN:(Suthar,2009);IT:(Benvenutietal.,2007;MiglioriniandVazzana,2007;Peverierietal.,2009;Maz-zoncinietal.,2010);IR:(HuttonandGiller,2003);NI:(Ottonettietal.,2010);NL:(Mulderetal.,2003;Postma-Blaauwetal.,2010);NZ:(Bowieetal.,2003;Molleretal.,2007);PK:(Siddiquietal.,2005);PT:(Santosetal.,2007);SE:(Belfrageetal.,2005;Bengtssonetal.,2005;Oberg,2007;Rundlofetal.,2008;Rundlofetal.,2008);UK:(Cobbetal.,1999;Leake,2002;Asterakietal.,2004;Wickramasingheetal.,2004;Fulleretal.,2005;Holeetal.,2005;Birkhoferetal.,2008;Eyreetal.,2009;Mondelaersetal.,2009;Hodgsonetal.,2010;EyreandLeifert,2011);US:(Nichollsetal.,2008);ZA:(Carvalheiroetal.,2010;GaigherandSamways,2010);Nocountryspecified:(BoisclairandEstevez,2006;Crowderetal.,2010)

DE:(Doringetal.,2003;Irmler,2003;Purtaufetal.,2005);DK:(Boutinetal.,2009);FR:(Ricardetal.,2007;Pelosietal.,2009);SE:(Weibulletal.,2000;Weibull,2002;WeibullandOstman,2003);UK:(Feberetal.,1998;Feberetal.,2007;Birkhoferetal.,2008)

DE:(Cloughetal.,2007a);BE:(Albertetal.,2003);IT:(BoisclairandEstevez,2006;Brug-gisseretal.,2010);FR:(Garcinetal.,2004);SE:(Oberg,2007;Oberg,2009)

G. Rahmann / Landbauforschung - vTI Agriculture and Forestry Research 3 2011 (61)189-208 199

Subject More biodiversity Unclear, indifferent Less biodi-versity

Birds,mammals,aqua-ticfauna

DE:(Bataryetal.,2010);CA:(FreemarkandKirk,2001;Bugg,2002);IT:(Ciani,1997;Genghinietal.,2006);FR:(Mesleardetal.,2005;Ondineetal.,2009);PA:(Baeletal.,2007);NL:(KragtenanddeSnoo,2007;KragtenanddeSnoo,2008);SE:(Belfrageetal.,2005;Bengtssonetal.,2005;Danhardtetal.,2010;Smithetal.,2010);UK:(McLaughlinandMineau,1995;Bugg,2002;Leake,2002;Potts,2002;Wickramasingheetal.,2003;Wickramasingheetal.,2004;Fulleretal.,2005;Holeetal.,2005;McKenzieandWhittingham,2009;Mondelaersetal.,2009;Chamberlainetal.,2010);US:(Bugg,2002)

NL:(KragtenanddeSnoo,2007;KragtenanddeSnoo,2008);FR:(Ondineetal.,2009);SE:(Danhardtetal.,2010);UK:(Chamberlainetal.,2010)

bacteria,yeast,pests AU:(Bissettetal.,2006;Bissettetal.,2007;Macfadyenetal.,2009);ES:(Escuderoetal.,2007;Cordero-Buesoetal.,2011);US:(LetourneauandGoldstein,2001;LetourneauandBothwell,2008)

BE:(Coorevitsetal.,2008);US:(LetourneauandBothwell,2008)

FR:(Benoitetal.,2005)

Soilbiota AU:(BruggenandTermorshuizen,2003;Belletal.,2004);BR:(Lal,2005);CH:(Fliessbachetal.,2000;Maderetal.,2002;Oehletal.,2004;Nemeceketal.,2006;Oehletal.,2009;Nemeceketal.,2011);DE:(Povedaetal.,2006;Diekotteretal.,2010);CL:(Peredoetal.,2009);DK:(Hansenetal.,2001);FR:(Peresetal.,2008);GR:(Tsiafoulietal.,2006);HR:(CustovicandTvica,2004);IN:(Tilaketal.,2005);IT:(Cardellietal.,2004;MiglioriniandVazzana,2007;MocaliandBenedetti,2008;Campaneilietal.,2010;Mazzoncinietal.,2010;Paolettietal.,2010);JP:(Nakamuraetal.,2000);NL:(Mulderetal.,2003;Breureetal.,2004;vanDiepeningenetal.,2006;Verbruggenetal.,2010);PK:(Ranaetal.,2010);UK:(Leake,2002;Shannonetal.,2002;Mondelaersetal.,2009;StockdaleandWatson,2009;vanderGastetal.,2011);US:(Wanderetal.,1995;Tuetal.,2006;Reeveetal.,2010);Nocountryspecified:(Creameretal.,2010)

CL:(Peredoetal.,2009);DE:(Schraderetal.,2006;Chirindaetal.,2008);FR:(Peresetal.,2008;Pelosietal.,2009);IT:(Bedinietal.,2008;Paolettietal.,2010);NL:(Zanenetal.,2008;Galvanetal.,2009);NZ:(Parfittetal.,2005);UK:(Shannonetal.,2002;Brussaardetal.,2004;Orretal.,2011);US:(Bossioetal.,1998;Sanchez-Morenoetal.,2008)

Agro-biodiversity AT:(VoglandVogl-Lukasser,2003);CA:(Scott,2000;Lynch,2009);CH:(Freyer,1997);DE:(Mulleretal.,2000;Wolffetal.,2002;Buchs,2006);EU:(BocciandChable,2009);ES:(Correaletal.,2006;Menaetal.,2009;Cordero-Buesoetal.,2011);FR:(TronelandCodarin,2010);HU:(Biroletal.,2005;Biroletal.,2006);IT:(RonchiandNardone,2003);IN:(VijayalakshmiandArumugasamy,2004);HR:(Lottietal.,2008;Matotanetal.,2008);NL:(BuerenandOsman,2001;Buerenetal.,2002);SE:(RydbergandMilberg,2000);UK:(Leake,2002;Holeetal.,2005;Gibsonetal.,2007;McKenzieandWhittingham,2009;Mondelaersetal.,2009);US:(Lynch,2009);Nospecificcountry:(Shiva,1997)

DE:(LangerandFrederiksen,2008)

Generalandnotspecies-specifiedcommentsconcerningorganicfarmingandbiodiversity,farmassessments

AT:(Loidl,2007);BE:(Baltus,1997);BH:(AzizandAl-Barakah,2005);BR:(Al-varengaetal.,2002);CH:(Fliessbachetal.,2000;Wolfe,2002;Nemeceketal.,2006;StrasserandRyffel,2010;Nemeceketal.,2011);CN:(Wangetal.,2007;Wangetal.,2009);CR:(SomarribaandHarvey,2003;Somarribaetal.,2003;Dahlquistetal.,2007);DE:(Ammeretal.,1995;Elsen,2000;Stein-Bachingeretal.,2005;Gabrieletal.,2006;GabrielandTscharntke,2007;Stein-BachingerandFuchs,2008;Gabrieletal.,2009;Gabrieletal.,2010;Muller-Lindenlaufetal.,2010);DK:(PorterandPetersen,1997;Noeetal.,2005;Vaarst,2010);ES:(CaleroCastillo,2003;Parra-Lopezetal.,2007);EU:(Bandarra,2001);FR:(Chableetal.,2002;DronandFerron,2003;LamineandBellon,2009);GE:(Adletal.,2006);HU:(TothandBaldi,2006);IN:(AyyappanandJena,2003;Singh,2005a;Singh,2005b;Singhetal.,2007;SinghandSatapathy,2007;DubeyandSharma,2008;Subhasisetal.,2008);IT:(Pacinietal.,2003;RonchiandNardone,2003;MiglioriniandVazzana,2007);MX:(Brayetal.,2002;Escamillaetal.,2005);NL:(SmisandMeijerink,2006);NO:(OlssonandRnningen,1999);PO:(Link,2004);UK:(McLaughlinandMineau,1995;Cobbetal.,1999;Atkinsonetal.,2002;Dab-rowskiandAbanowska-Bury,2005;Firthetal.,2006;Norton,etal.2006;Watsonetal.,2006;Watsonetal.,2008;Nortonetal.,2009;TaylorandMorecroft,2009);US:(Altieri,1999;Lotter,2003;Snappetal.,2010;ChappellandLaValle,2011);Nospecificcountry:(MansveltandLubbe,1999;Leake,2002;Scialabbaetal.,2003;Xieetal.,2003;Kairo,2005;Pimenteletal.,2005;Leifertetal.,2007;Briggs,2008;Schnugetal.,2008)

AT:(Darnhoferetal.,2010);MX:(Philpottetal.,2007);NL:(BuerenandOsman,2001;Ammann,2007;Ammann,2008;Ammann,2009)

US:(Avery,1996);SE:(KirchmannandThor-valdsson,2000);NZ:(Rowarth,2008)

343paperswereassessed.Multiplecitationsarepossibleduetodifferentconclusionsfordifferentspecies.1Thisincludesorganicfarming,wildplantcollection,traditionalfarmingunderorganicstandards(withoutcertification).2ISOcountrycodesareused.3Perennialcropland:e.g.,agro-forestry,orchards,vineyards.Source:webofsciencesearchusingEndnote®inMarch2011)

200

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