Biodiversity conservation in human-dominated landscapes

A.J.T.Johnsingh, Nature Conservation Foundation,

Mysore and WWF-India.

Primula calderia Rhododendron thompsonii,

Definition of biodiversity

Biological diversity (= biodiversity) manifests itself at many ecological scales that begin at the level of simple genes and run through species, populations, communities and ecosystems (Solbrig, 1991).

‘Biodiversity hotspot’ ? (Norman Myers 1988)

Primula denticulate Rhododendron arboretum

Values of biodiversity

Direct (food, medicine), Indirect (ecosystem services, pollination by bees), Social or cultural values (many plants and animals are sacred, Ficus

religiosa, peacock, cobra, and tiger for some communities like Mishmis in Arunachal Pradesh), sacred groves.

What is a human dominated landscape? Landscapes, based on their inherent characteristics, differ in their

capability to support human population

Extremely productive landscapes like Gangetic plains have high human population density

Bangladesh for example on the average is reported to have a density of 1030 people per.sq.km

If human population level goes beyond certain density it can negatively affect biodiversity …. What level, how and why are debatable

• Tigers have lost 93 % of their range and the rest of the range is dominated by humans.

•As a result of the demand by Traditional Chinese Medicine recovering, establishing, maintaining and increasing the tiger numbers is nearly impossible

A remarkable picture of a tigress with five cubs (four females and one male), Pench TR (MP), April 2012. Photo: Indrajeet.

Biogeographic zones of India which have varying human population density and biodiversity values.

Conservation scenario varies from zone to zone. Worth discussing.

At what levels human population density can affect biodiversity?

This depends upon the food habits and lifestyle of the people.

Meat-eating lifestyle, whether it is in a wildlife habitat or in a non-wildlife habitat, can have much greater impact on the biodiversity

Yet the western world because of their low population density and well-managed wildlife areas is keeping their wildlife populations intact. Populations of many species like the lynx, brown bear, wolf, moose and bison in Europe are increasing. Grizzly bear in north America is maintaining its population.

Poverty is a great threat to biodiversity

So the situation is different in Asia.

Situation in South Asia Pakistan (227 persons/sq.km, 5 % forest cover) has lost tiger, lion, cheetah, rhino (two

reintroduced in 1983 from Nepal) swamp deer and hangul

Bangladesh (1034/sq.km, 6 %) has lost buffalo, gaur, Javan rhino, hog deer, swamp deer and may be sambar too

India (364/sq.km, 24 %) has lost Javan and Sumatran rhino, cheetah, the next large species to become extinct could be Great Indian bustard. Lion, hangul, brow-antlered deer occur as single population.

Bhutan (19/sq.km, 65 %), Sri Lanka 309/sq.km, 29 %) and Nepal (180/sq.km, 27%) have not lost any large animal. Nepal possibly had pygmy hog in the past.

Myanmar (75/sq.km, 49 %) may have lost its Javan rhino, Sumatran rhino may be critically endangered and banteng endangered.

Banteng

Sumatran Rhino Javan Rhino.

Pygmy Hog

What factors contribute to the loss of biodiversity?

Loss of habitat due to various human activities leading to fragmentation of habitat, largely as a result of increase in human population and consumption levels

Invasives, there are numerous plant and fish examples. The only alien invasive mammal species in India is the Norwegian brown rat (Rattus norvegicus)

Climate change

Poaching, over-harvesting and illegal trade

Pollution (including noise) and pesticides (garbage?)

Mortality on roads and railway tracks

Lack of political will and accountability

An example of a fragmented wildlife habitat.Chilla-Motichur corridor, across Ganges, aerial view

Another view from the hill east of the corridor. Thirty years have gone yet we have not established the corridor

Some examples of plant invasive’s that can and should be controlled, Ipomoea carnea,

Opuntia dillenii

Cassia spectabilis

• Two species of alien fishes have contributed to the decline of our fresh water fishes.

• Mouth breeding tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica) and the recently introduced carnivorous cat fish Clarias gariepinus are the two worst examples.

•The cat fish is easy to cultivate, grows fast (wastes from slaughter houses are fed) and the greedy and the ignorant farmers cultivate them.

• When it gets into native aquatic habitats local fishes are eaten up. Both are from Africa.

•Feeding on cat fish is unhealthy for humans.

The monster of climate change

• Co2 levels in the atmosphere touched 400 parts per million (ppm) on 6th May 2013

• Safe level is 350 ppm or lower

• Ice caps in the Antarctic region were formed when co2 level was around 240 ppm

• Ice caps in Antarctic region first to go with the increase in temperature Co2emitted remain in the atmosphere for several millennia

• Climate change largely irreversible.

Three examples are given to highlight the impact of climate change.

• Observations made in Scotland indicate that cooler and wet climate continuing in to the autumn affects the survival of young of golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos).

• Other bird species affected are Hen harrier, Peregrine falcon, Red grouse and Ptarmigan.

• Heaviest bird of prey (females average 7.6 kg)

• 5000 largely confined to coastal north-eastern Asia

• feeds on salmon and trout

• failure to breed as a result of flood in rivers in summer (chicks are young) due to climate change

Steller’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus)

Polar bear (Ursus maritimus)

• 20-25,000 animals in 19 sub-populations and eight are declining.

• Amazing swimmers. There is a record of a radio-tagged female bear swimming for 232 hrs. (>9 days) covering 687 km.

• Feed on ringed and bearded seals.

• A victim of climate change resulting in the melting of ice which affects the availability of seals resulting in the decline of the body condition of the bears.

Poaching and hunting by the tribal‘s have not diminished.

• Tribals with hunted Amur Falcons (Falco amurensis) in Nagaland.

• These insectivorous falcons migrate to South Africa from Siberia.

• 120,000-140,000 were slaughtered.

Photo: Conservation India.

Heavy exploitation of Rauvolfia serpentina a highly prized medicinal plant.

• Harvested for its medicinal roots (to cure high blood pressure).

• Frequent fires and proliferation of alien invasive species are also contributing to the decline of the abundance of this species.

Juniperus indica (Black Juniper) is a juniper native to high altitudes in the Himalaya and eastern Tibet.

• It is an extremely slow growing shrub (mostly prostrate).

• Seeds are highly medicinal.

• The leaves and all aerial parts contain aromatic resin which are usually collected for making incense by the local communities and also highly preferred by Buddhists.

• Shepherds and local herb collectors in the Himalaya use the shoots of this plant for lighting fire as it can be easily burnt even if it is wet and green.

• It’s populations have drastically dwindled all across the Himalaya except in some strictly protected nature reserves.

A white-rhino resting under an Acacia tree in Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park, South Africa.

• In 2012 poachers killed 500-600 rhinos in South Arica known for its acclaimed ways of wildlife conservation.

• Rhino horns largely end up in China and Vietnam.

• When fruit-eating and seed-dispersing large animals like elephants and hornbills are hunted out the tree species that were dependent upon them for the dispersal and germination of their seeds face a bleak future.

• Tree species that were dependent upon elephants for dispersal of their seeds (seeds going through the gut germinate well) will have problem of survival in the long run.

• Myrianthus arboreus fruits are dispersed by forest elephants, (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and Balanites wilsoniana by savannah elephants (L. a. africana).

• Last decade 62 % of forest elephants in Congo basin were killed for meat and ivory

Hornbills feed and disperse seeds of large seeded species (eg., Aglaia spectabilis, Dysoxylum

binectariferum)

If hornbills are hunted out, forests can be dominated by small seeded species.

Between the mid 1970s and 2008 the United Kingdom sparrow population declined by 71 %, sharpest decline occurring in towns and cities largely related to noise pollution which seems to affect the communication between the adults and the chicks

• Brahminy kite (Haliastus indus), a bird of prey, which has declined drastically as a result of pesticide use largely DDT (Dichlorophenyl trichloroethane) and bio magnification effect.

• India is among top DDT users.

• The population of Pariah kite (Milvus migrans) is still abundant.

• What is the reason ?

• Community support is crucial to ensure the future of Sarus cranes (Grus antogone).

• They are the tallest flying bird breeds and roosts in the agriculture fields.

• The total population of these birds in India and Nepal is 15,000-20,000 and more than 50% of this is in UP.

• Males take the primary role in the defense of the nest.

• Threats: collision with electric wires, pesticides, pet trade leading to the collection of chicks, sugar cane crop, free-ranging dogs, cats.

Great Indian bustards (Ardeotis nigriceps), two males displaying.

• Heaviest flying bird in India

• The males can attain a weight of 15kg.

• K-selected species

• There might be only 200 left.

• The population is declining rapidly.

• Habitat disturbance largely through grazing, inappropriate habitat management and poaching.

• Bulk of the population is found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

• Gharial is one of the three species of crocodiles in India

• Only species whose adults exhibit sexual dimorphism

• Critically endangered by overfishing, sand mining and perhaps pollution in the rivers.

• Maximum of 200 presently found in Narayani, Rapti, Babai (Nepal), Chambal, Ken, Son, Girwa and Mahanadi (?, India).

• Same is the fate with Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica)

An adult male gharial photographed in Girwa river, Uttar Pradesh, March 2008

Byasa polla, a rare protected species of butterfly found in

Nagaland

Symbrenthia silana, a rare protected species of butterfly, photographed in

South Sikkim.

Rare and beautiful butterflies are threatened by collectors (poachers).

Other threats are climate change, pollution and habitat loss.

Golden mahseer (Tor putitora) one of the unique ecotourism species.

Dynamiting the river is a huge threat.

The best way of saving this species is to go for catch-photograph-release involving the locals.

Fishing for golden mahseer in the sub-montane rivers is a sport fit for kings: Jim Corbett

The number of people speaking for mahseer conservation is too on a rapid decline.

• Killing on the roads

• Himalyan langur, red fox (mother and a grown up young female) and a young king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) killed on the road.

• Vehicles have killed and are killing more animals than poachers.

Addressing the above problems in a human-dominated country?

Corridors and landscapes are crucial

Have to address the problem of invasives

Are we helpless against climate change? Cycle lanes in the cities? Native tree species and creation of millions of garbage-free water bodies.

Poaching for local consumption and trade? Chinese and Vietnamese?

Can we ban harmful pesticides?

Speed breakers, overpasses, underpasses and only two-lane roads through forest areas

How can we make every one involved with conservation dedicated and accountable?

Restoration Ecology

With meticulous planning, implementation, monitoring and management several plant and animal species can be and should be restored. Rhinos have been restored in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve and tigers have been reintroduced in Panna and Sariska Tiger Reserves.

Thousands and thousands of mahseer young have gone from Tata Power – Lonavla mahseer breeding centre (near Pune) for restocking water bodies in the country but there is no monitoring to find out whether the replenishing a success.

A proposal for reintroduction of Nilgiri tahr in Kottangathatti in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve and in the Glenmorgan mountain in Nilgiri North FD has been approved by MoEF and now Tamil Nadu Government has to work on the proposal with all sincerity to bring back the tahr in

these mountains.

In the landscape between Eastern and Western Ghats (600 sq.km) there is an opportunity to reintroduce both chinkara and nilgai, Phythian-Adams 1951

• What could be done to strengthen and enhance the biodiversity values of Uttaranchal?

• 51,125 sq.km, 93% mountains. 64% forest cover.

• Wildlife corridors in the mountains and bhabar tract vital, fodder and firewood plantations are a must.

• Control of poaching particularly in the mountains is a must and trout and mahseer conservation should be promoted.

• The ecological and environmental role of the mountains (not economic role) should be venerated

• Endangered plant and animal populations should be protected and monitored.

Conclusion…..

• Lasting conservation efforts in human modified landscapes demand new alliances among foresters, conservation biologists, farmers, local people, social scientists and rural social movements.

• There should be collaboration and understanding to formulate policies, conduct research, design and implement conservation programs to enhance biodiversity conservation (in human modified landscapes) and to promote sustainable living.