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BiodiversityStrategy

andAction Plan

Commonwealth of Dominica

2001 - 2005

BiodiversityStrategy

andAction Plan

Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategyand

Action Plan

i

Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

2.0 COUNTRY OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

3.0 VISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

4.0 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

5.0 GUIDING PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

6.0 TERRESTRIAL RESOURCES OF DOMINICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

7.0 COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES OF DOMINICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

8.0 AGRICULTURE AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

9.0 HUMAN SETTLEMENT, DEVELOPMENT, AND BIODIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

10.0 BIODIVERSITY AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE/CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

11.0 BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

12.0 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOSAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

13.0 ACTION PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

14.0 IMPLEMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

15.0 MONITORING AND REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

ANNEX 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

ANNEX 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

ANNEX 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

ANNEX 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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The Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by theCommonwealth of Dominica on the 5th July 1994 represents a shared commitment to the conservationof biological diversity, the sustainable use of biological resources, andthe fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use ofgenetic resources. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan isintended to implement the country’s obligations under theConvention.

For us in Dominica the conservation and protection of our naturalecosystems and species is deeply entrenched in the national values ofour people. Indeed, the country has accepted our rich biodiversity asthe basis for sustainable national development. In recognition of theneed to conserve and protect these vulnerable resources we haveestablished from 1975 a system of national parks and protected areas

that presently cover in excess of 20% of our land area. Dominica’s system of national parks includes twomarine protected areas and the Morne Trois Piton National Park, which in 2000 was declared a WorldHeritage Site by UNESCO.

The Government and people of Dominica are pleased to pledge our support to the implementation ofDominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.This Strategy and Action Plan establishes for the first timea strategic framework to guide the continued conservation and protection of Dominica’s vulnerable naturalresources. It also outlines strategies and actions to address newly emerging concerns relating to the controlof biotechnology, the impacts of climate change on biodiversity, and the protection and enhancement of tra-ditional knowledge, values and culture.

Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan presents a challenge that must be faced at all levels. It willbe a challenge, within our government and the public sector, to ensure that adequate resources are provid-ed to implement this strategy. It will be a challenge for our international relations, both bilateral and multi-lat-eral; to ensure that financing for biodiversity conservation is secured and mobilized in a responsible way andon terms that are sustainable. And finally, it will be a challenge to all the peoples of Dominica. We mustbecome more aware of how our actions, individually and collectively, affect our environment, our economy,and our nation. We must encourage and continue to foster a responsible and caring attitude towards ourtruly unique island and the surrounding marine resources, upon which our on-going development as a nation,and indeed our survival, depend.

Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan represents the commitment by our present generations toput our country firmly on a path to sustainable development in order to secure the future for our youngpeople and for future generations.

…………………HONORABLE PIERRE CHARLESPRIME MINISTER

FOREWORD

Honorable Pierre CharlesPrime Minister


iii

The Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment wishes toacknowledge persons and organizations for their efforts towards the completion of the Dominica NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

1. The Steering Committee

Mr. Errol Harris, ChairpersonMr. David LangDr. Vivian MoiseMr. Harold GuisteMr. Arlington JamesMr. Oliver GrellMr. Henry ShillingfordMr. Alvin Bernard

3. Permanent Secretary and staff of the Ministry of Agriculture & The Environment

4. All stakeholders and the Media who participated in the consultations and made valuable contributionstowards the development of Dominica National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan

5. The UNDP/GEF for providing the funding and the guidelines for the Project

2. Project Team

Mr. Mark John, Head of the Environmental Coordination UnitMrs. Kongit H. Gabriel, National Biodiversity CoordinatorMr. George H. de Berdt Romilly, International ConsultantMr. Oliver Grell - Consultant, Agro-BiodiversityMr. David Williams – Consultant,Terrestrial BiodiversityMr. Harold Guiste – Consultant, Marine BiodiversityMs. Marie-Jose Edwards – Consultant,Tourism & ManufacturingMr. Charles Pierre – Consultant, BiosafetyMrs. Annie Edwards – Consultant, Geographic InformationMr. Henry Shillingford – Consultant, Legal SystemMr. Ronald Charles – Consultant Public Awareness

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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Dominica is a small volcanic Island state with one of thelowest population densities and the most intact forestcover in the Caribbean. This Nature Island of theCaribbean with eight active volcanoes and the only boilinglake in the Western Hemisphere, possesses tremendousterrestrial and marine biodiversity and exhibits a high levelof endemism.

Dominica’s biodiversity is under threat largely from theimpact of human activity and natural disasters. Majorthreats are presented by:

In 2000 the Government of Dominica embarked upon thepreparation of its Biological Diversity Strategy and ActionPlan in fulfilment of its obligations under the Conventionon Biological Diversity and as part of the Government’scommitment to the sustainable management of the coun-try’s natural resources. This Strategy and Action Plan isbased on a series of sectoral studies and seven stakehold-er consultations (five local and two national workshops).Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan highlightsthe vision, goals and objectives, and guiding principles thatare to direct the implementation of specific strategies andactions for the conservation of the country’s biodiversity.

With the high retention of in-situ biodiversity in Dominicaand its clear importance to economic development, theimplementation of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan is an urgent national imperative.This Strategyand Action Plan is a five-year program of action aimed atestablishing the mechanisms to provide for the conserva-

tion and sustainable management of Dominica’s terrestrialand marine biodiversity to facilitate intra- and inter-gener-ational equity.Key elements of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan include:

• Inventory of biological resources;• Improved and expanded measures for the conserva-

tion and protection of threatened marine and terres-trial ecosystems and species;

• The implementation of a comprehensive public edu-cation and awareness campaign on biodiversity con-servation so as to reduce the impact of human devel-opment;

• The development of comprehensive legislative andinstitutional regimes for environmental management,biodiversity conservation, and natural resource man-agement;

• The establishment of a comprehensive frameworkfor the management of all natural resources toachieve equitable sharing of the benefits derived;

• The protection, enhancement and encouragement oftraditional knowledge, culture and values;

• Adapting to the impacts of climate change on biodi-versity and the resilience of natural systems; and

• The regulation of biotechnology.

• Deforestation;• Over-exploitation of wildlife;• Encroachment;• Unregulated development;• Introduction of foreign species;• Loss of agro-biodiversity;• Impacts from climate change;• Uncontrolled use of biotechnology;• Pollution;• Natural disasters;• Loss of traditional knowledge;• Inappropriate legal/institutional frameworks.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


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Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is to be implemented through a collaborative effort involvingthe public and private sectors and civil society. It will be monitored by the Ministry of Agriculture and theEnvironment, in collaboration with the National Biodiversity Committee and will be reviewed in five years toevaluate whether intended goals and objectives have been achieved.

Trafalgar Falls

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1. Awareness of the Earth’s dwindling bioticwealth during the years leading up to the 1992 EarthSummit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in the conclusion, atthis global conference, of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity.The shared sense of urgency led 156 nationsand the European Union to sign the legally bindingConvention before the conclusion of conference pro-ceedings.

2. Currently, a total of 168 nations have signedthe Convention on Biological Diversity. In ratifying theConventions, nations accept responsibility to safe-guard the profusion of species, genetic materials, habi-tats and ecosystems that make up the natural world.Signatory nations also agree to foster developmentthat use biological resources in a sustainable manner,and agree to recognize each other’s sovereignty overthe biodiversity found in respective territories.Additionally, member nations commit themselves tofinding equitable ways to share biodiversity’s monetaryand non-monetary values, to spur technical coopera-tion, and to establish mechanisms to finance invest-ments in maintaining the diversity of life on Earth.

3. In July 1994, the Government of Dominicasigned the Convention on Biological Diversity, therebyagreeing to support the following three basic objec-tives of the Convention:(a) The conservation of biological diversity;(b) The sustainable use of all biological resources; and(c) The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits

arising out of the use of genetic resources.

4. As a means of achieving these objectives,Article 6 of the Conventions requires that:Each Contracting Party shall, in accordance with itsparticular conditions and capabilities:

(a) Develop national strategies, plans or programs for theconservation and sustainable use of biological diversity oradapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or pro-grams which shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set outin this Convention relevant to the Contracting Party con-cerned; and (b) Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, theconservation and sustainable use of biological diversityinto relevant sectoral or cross-cutting sectoral plans, pro-grams and policies.

5. Article 26 of the Convention requiresContracting Parties to submit National Reports to theConference of the Parties. At its second meeting(Jakarta, November 1995) the Conference of theParties decided that the first national reports shouldfocus in so far as possible, on the measures taken forthe implementation of Article 6 of the Convention, aswell as the information available in national countrystudies on biological diversity.

6. In April 1998, the Government of Dominicasecured financial support from the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) to assist with thedevelopment of the country’s Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan, and First National Report to theConference of Parties of the Convention onBiodiversity.

7. As a first step in the process to developDominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, theNational Biodiversity Coordinator was appointed inSeptember 2000.A National Steering Committee wasestablished in October 2000 to guide and implementthe development of Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan.

8. As a next step a series of studies were under-taken on the state of Dominica’s biodiversity. Thesestudies are consolidated into a "Country Assessment"which constitutes the technical basis upon which theStrategy and Action Plan has been developed.

9. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Planhas been developed through an extensive consulta-tion process. In order to facilitate the preparation ofDominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, a seriesof workshops and consultative meetings took placebetween March to August) 2001. A list of the organi-zations and persons consulted in the development ofDominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is con-tained in Annex 1 and Annex 2.This process was com-plemented with an extensive public education andawareness campaign.

10. Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Planhas been reviewed by the Cabinet of Ministers andwas approved on January 15th, 2002.

INTRODUCTION


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DOMINICARainfall

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DOMINICA – AN OVERVIEW

2.1. Location

The Commonwealth of Dominica is situatedbetween Guadeloupe to the north and Martinique,to the south, at 15º 30’ North Latitude and 61º 25’West Longitude, making the island the most norther-ly of the sub-regional Windward Islands grouping.Located in the middle of the Lesser Antilles, with atotal land area of 750.6 km2 (290 sq. miles),Dominica is the also the largest Windward Island. In2000, the population was estimated to be 71,242with a growth rate of approximately 1.3% perannum. With a population density of 94.8 persons

per km2, Dominica is the least populated of theWindward Islands.

2.2.Vegetation, Climate and Geology

Sixty-five percent (65%) of Dominica’s land area iscovered by natural vegetation ranging from dry scrubwoodland on the west coast to lush, tropical rain for-est in the interior and a wide variety of flora. Theinterior is interspersed with rivers, waterfalls andlakes, and these attributes have earned Dominicathe name "The Nature Island of the Caribbean".

Dominica's climate is classified as humid tropicalmarine, with average temperatures of 27ºC (80ºF).Because of the island's rugged topography micro-cli-matic variability exist within very short distances,influenced by the high moisture content of the airmasses that enter the region from the AtlanticOcean. This makes Dominica a very high rainfallcountry, with an average rainfall of 175 inches peryear ; most of that amount falls during the wet sea-son. Rainfall increases from the leeward side east-ward towards the central parts of the island where itreaches approximately 400 inches annually. The highrainfall makes the country susceptible to landslides,particularly in the more mountainous regions.

Dominica is affected by hurricanes, and as a smallisland developing State is vulnerable to impacts fromclimate change.Within the last decade the social andeconomic infrastructure of the country was severelyaffected by a number of hurricanes. It should also benoted that besides the impacts on social and eco-nomic infrastructure, tropical weather systems alsoaffect biodiversity (e.g. they may introduce newspecies, or even decimate populations of indigenousspecies).

SECTION 2


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DOMINICANational Parks & Forest Reserve


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SECTOR 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Agriculture -8.1 5.5 1.5 -2.0 -0.5

Manufacturing 2.3 6.0 2.5 16.8 -19.0

Tourism 2.6 -5.4 2.0 -4.0 4.3

Government Services -1.3 1.5 2.9 5.5 0.23

Total 1.6 3.1 2.0 2.4 0.9

Source: CSO/ECCB

Table 2.1 - Rate of Growth of GDP by Economic Activity at Factor Cost (1990 prices)

ECONOMIC INDICTORS 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

EC$-US$ Exchange Rate 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7

Inflation Rate (%) 1.3 1.7 2.4 1.0 1.2GDP at Factor Cost (1990prices)

% Contribution of: 410.3 422.9 431.3 441.8 445.8

Agriculture 20.0 20.8 20.0 19.2 18.9

Manufacturing 6.8 7.0 7.0 8.0 6.4

Tourism 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.5

Government Services 17.3 17.1 17.2 17.7 17.6

Table 2.2 - Dominica’s Key Econimoc indicators (Source: Central Statistical Office)

A volcanic island with a series of complex mountainranges, Dominica is characterised by very rugged andsteep terrain. This mountainous topography hasmade it difficult to clear the lush vegetation and hascontributed greatly to the island's dramatic beautyand the conservation of its natural resources. Forestsand arable land estimated at 22.6% and 27.8%respectively of total land area, along with an exten-sive network of surface and underground water,make up the majority of the natural resource base.Dominica possesses hydroelectric energy sources,and extensive marine resources including impressivecoral reefs. Since the last decade increasing attentionhas being placed on the sustainable use of these nat-ural resources.

Dominica's rugged topography, rural ambience, andlimited urbanization make it an ideal nature destina-tion. Dominica has coined the title "Nature Island ofthe Caribbean" as its logo for eco-tourism promo-tion and offers services such as adventure excur-sions, habitat research, hiking, river bathing, sightsee-ing, whale watching, and scuba diving.

2.3. Economic Development

Dominica's economy has always been based on theutilization of its land resources and on the productiveinitiatives of an educated and healthy labour force ofapproximately 40,000. The small domestic marketmakes economic growth highly dependent onexports. Over the five-year period 1995 - 1999 realgrowth averaged 2.0% per annum. Growth is esti-mated at less than 1% for the year 1999. Decline andstagnation characterised the major productive sec-tors, viz.,agriculture and manufacturing and tourismduring the period 1995 - 1999. Government servic-es contribution, the second largest sub-sector of theeconomy, has been variable against the backgroundof world-wide reduction in aid flows (Table 2.1).

The difficulties experienced in the banana industryand fluctuation in non-banana exports contributedto the deterioration in the visible trade balance forthe period, moving from minus EC$142.3M in 1995to minus EC$185.6M in 1999. However, the inflationrate has been moderate, averaging less than 2% overthe last four years, and the exchange rate has beenstable (Table 2.2).


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VISION

We the people of Waitukubuli recognise Dominica’s unique and fragile ecosystems as the basis for thedevelopment and advancement of our people and nation. As custodians of nature’s biodiversity, we aspireto integrate the endowed gifts of our biotic wealth, with our cultural knowledge, to ensure economic, cul-tural and ecological integrity for the well being of present and future generations.

SECTION 3

The Carib name for Dominica,Waitukubuli, means “tall is her body” in reference to the island steep mountainous terrain.

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GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

GOALS

1. The conservation and sustainable manage-ment of Dominica’s terrestrial and marine biodiversi-ty to ensure intra- and inter-generational equity.

2. The promotion of sound and sustainableagricultural practices and technology within existingagricultural human capital so as to minimise the lossof agro-biodiversity, and reduce vulnerability todesertification, soil loss, and the contamination ofwater resources.

3. To ensure that biotechnology knowledgeand concerns are widely distributed so that all life isguarantee and benefits derived are equitably shared.

OBJECTIVES

1. To secure a biologically rich and diverseDominica which:• maintains optimum systems resilience;• maintains resistance to invasive alien species;

• maintains ecosystem structure and function;• maximizes ecological integrity by reducing neg-

ative environmental impact of human influ-ences; and

• is populated by a diversity of peoples whopromote and undertake the wise and sustain-able use of natural resources.

2. To reduce or eliminate the potential risksfrom the use of biotechnology and its by-productswhile at the same time exploiting opportunities pre-sented that are in keeping with Dominica’s sustain-able development agenda.

3. To reduce and/or minimise the loss of ter-restrial and marine biodiversity.

4. To ensure that the basis for development isthrough the sustainable use of terrestrial and marinebiological resources.

5. To ensure the equitable and sustainable dis-tribution of social and economic benefits from theuse of terrestrial and marine biological resources.

SECTION 4


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GUIDING PRINCIPLES

- Dominica as a Small Island State rich in biodiversi-ty recognises its ecological, economic, social, culturaland intrinsic values of these biological resources, andtherefore all development decisions must reflecttheir optimal utilisation.

- All living things including humans are ultimatelyconnected and dependent on each other for theirexistence.

- Dominicans depend on biodiversity and have aresponsibility to understand, appreci ate and con-tribute to its conservation.

- All Dominicans should be empowered throughinclusion in the decision-making process to sustain-ably use their biological resources and equitablyshare the benefits derived from such use.

- The knowledge, innovations and practices ofindigenous and local communities should be respect-ed and mediated by the best knowledge availableand approaches refined as new knowledge is gained.

- The conservation, management, and sustainable useof biological resources should be based on anecosystem approach, mediated by the best knowl-edge available and refined as new knowledge isgained

- Dominica seeks to co-operate with all other terri-tories and regional and international institutions inthe conservation of biodiversity and expects reci-procity from the said territories and regional andinternational institutions.

SECTION 5

Objectives of theConvention on BiologicalDiversity:

(a) The conservation ofbiological diversity;

(b) The sustainable use of allbiological resources; and

(c) The fair and equitablesharing of the benefitsarising out of the use ofgenetic resources.

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TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES OFDOMINICA

6.1 Terrestrial Flora

The island of Dominica was originally covered withdense primary oceanic forest sustained by high annu-al rainfall ranging from 10,000mm (400 in.) in thecentral zone to 1,200mm (50 ins.) on the leewardcoast. Numerous plant taxonomists have beenattracted to the impressive natural rain forest, whichis relatively pristine in many regions of the island.Documentation of the flora of Dominica is verycomprehensive.

6.2 Diversity of Flora

Dominica boasts a phenomenal plant diversity ofapproximately 155 families, 672 genera and 1226

species of vascular plants. The number of indigenousspecies includes Pteridophytes (194), Gymnosperms(1), Monocotyledons (518) and Dicotyledons (1,445).Dominica has several plant species which are record-ed as endemic to the island, e.g. Sabinea carinalis(Bwa Kwaib) the National Flower of Dominica.

6.3 Vegetation Communities

The natural vegetation is delineated into 7 commu-nities, namely: Coastal Swamp, Littoral Woodland,Dry Scrub Woodland, Deciduous/Semi-evergreenForest (including Grassland and savannah sub-types),Rain Forest, Montane Rain Forest, and ElfinWoodland. Fumarole vegetation associated withgeothermal areas is also present.

Family

Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Melastomataceae

Melastomataceae

Melastomataceae

Myrtaceae

Asteraceae

Asteraceae

Gesneriaceae

Bromeliaceae

Scientific Name

Sabinea carinalis

Inga dominicensis

Phyllanthus megapodus

Charianthus purpureus var.

Rugosus Miconia mornicola

Miconia ernstii

Eugenia hodgei

Chromolaena impetiolaris

Chromolaena macrodon

Besleria petiolaris

Pitcairnia micotrinensis

SECTION 6

Table 6.1 – List of Endemic Plant Species in Dominica


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DOMINICAGeneralized Soils Map


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6.4 Terrestrial Fauna

Dominica is host to the most diverse assemblage ofwildlife species remaining in the Eastern Caribbean.All the faunal groups are well represented. It is thegreat diversity of habitats encompassed within thisisland of only 750 square kilometers (290 sq. mile)that gives rise to this rich diversity of animals and fau-nal communities.The greatest diversity of animal lifeoccurs in the rain forest with birds and bats particu-

larly well represented.

6.4.1 Birds

Dominica has the most diverseavifauna of the Lesser Antillesdespite its geographic locationwithin the center of the islandchain. Numerous studies onspecies diversity have beenconducted, and to date onehundred and seventy-fivespecies of bird have beenrecorded for Dominica. Manyof the birds are migratory, whilesixty species breed on theisland. Dominica's resident

birds include two single-island endemics and nineregional endemic species.

Dominica's two endemic parrot species - the impe-rial parrot or "Sisserou" (Amazona imperialis) and thered-necked parrot or "Jaco" (Amazona arausiaca) areboth considered threatened (IUCN Red Data List)and are "specially protected" birds under Dominicanlaw.The most recent (1999) population estimate putthe parrot populations at approximately 200 A. impe-rialis, and 1,500 A. arausiaca. Although A. imperialismay never have been abundant in Dominica, it is nowconsidered to be the world’s most critically endan-gered Amazon parrot. Both species have been nega-tively impacted by the combined effects of forestclearance for agriculture and the damage to theforests caused by hurricanes. The populations ofthese two endangered parrots reached critical levels,as low as 60 A. imperialis and 200 A. arausiaca, fol-lowing Hurricane David in 1979.

Vegetation Type Area (ac) % of Landmass

Coastal Swamp 74.13 0.1

Littoral woodland 345.94 0.2

Dry scrub woodland 15,419.04 7.9

Deciduous/Semi-evergreen forest 17,717.07 9.1

Rain forest 82,931.18 42.5

Montane Rain Forest 10,971.24 5.6

Elfin woodland 420.07 0.3

TOTAL 127,878.67 65.7

Table 6.2 - Vegetation Types Found on Dominica

Sisserou Parrot

Source: Prins (1987)State - 51,169 (40%)Private - 76,754 (60%)


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The nine regionally endemic bird species found inDominica are the Blue-headed Hummingbird(Cyanophaia bicolor), Plumbeous Warbler (Dendroicaplumbea), Forest Thrush (Cichlherminia lherminieri),Scaly-breasted Thrasher (Margarops fuscus), BrownTrembler (Cinclocerthia ruficauda), Lesser AntilleanPewee (Contopus latirostris), Lesser Antillean Swift(Chaetura martinica), Lesser Antillean Flycatcher(Myiarchus oberi), and the Lesser Antillean Bullfinch(Loxigilla noctis).

Dominica is also important for seabirds and the mostcommon breeding species are the White-tailedTropicbird (Phaethon lepturus); Red-billed Tropicbird(Phaethon aethereus); Common Tern (Sterna hirun-do); Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii); Bridled Tern(Sterna anaethetus); Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata); andBrown Noddy (Anous stolidus). The MagnificentFrigatebird (Fregata magnificens) is a non-breedingresident species. Breeding colonies of most of theseabird species are small and concentrated on rela-tively inaccessible coastal cliffs and islets where pre-dation pressures are lower. One of the seabirdspecies of regional interest is the Black-capped Petrelor “Diablotin” (Pterodroma hasitata) recorded onDominica up to the latter half of the 1800s. For sev-eral years the Diablotin was considered to be extincton Dominica. However, a sighting in 1984 could bean indication that the species may be breeding onremote inaccessible coastal cliffs on the island.

6.4.2. Mammals

Eighteen species of wild terrestrial mammals havebeen recorded for Dominica. These include twelvenative species of bats, one species of opossum, onespecies of feral pig, and four species of rodentsincluding the agouti.

Dominica has no single-island endemic species ofmammal. Of the twelve bat species recorded on theisland four are regionally endemic viz. Monophyllusplethodon, Ardops nicholsi, Myotis dominicensis, andBracyphylla cavernum. Diversity and density of batsare highest in and around rain forests.The impacts of

agricultural cultivation and hurricanes have reducedbat species populations and diversity on the island.

The other six wild terrestrial mammalian speciesfound in Dominica were all introduced. The Agouti(Dasyprocta leporinus) was introduced from SouthAmerica possibly by the pre-Columbian Arawak andCarib Indians. The Opossum (Didelphys marsupialisinsularis), the Wild Pig (Sus scrota), two species of rats,viz. the Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) and the BlackRat (Rattus rattus) and one species of mouse - theHouse Mouse (Mus musculus) were all introduced onthe island by Europeans, and have become natu-ralised.

6.4.3. Reptiles

Nineteen species of reptiles have been recorded forDominica consisting of fifteen terrestrial species andfour marine species. The fifteen terrestrial reptilesinclude ten lizard species, four sub-species of snakeand one tortoise species. Of the ten species oflizards, the Ground Lizard (Ameiva fuscata) and theTree Lizard (Anolis oculatus) are endemic.The LesserAntillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima) is endemic to afew islands of the Eastern Caribbean, from Anguillato Martinique (Schwartz and Henderson, 1991).Three species of litter lizards have been recorded onDominica, viz. Sphaerodactylus fantasticus, S. vincenti,and S. microlepsis.

Greater Bulldog or Fishing Bat


15

Of the four species of snakes, Typhlops dominicana isendemic to Dominica, while Alsophis antillensis andLiophis juliae are endemic to the Lesser Antilles.TheBoa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor nebulosa),which is the largest snake on the island, is widely dis-tributed throughout Dominica.

The Tortoise (Geochelone carbonaria) is consideredan introduction to Dominica.

6.4.4.Amphibians

The amphibian fauna in Dominica consists of fourspecies of frogs, one of which is endemic to theisland. The most prominent is Leptodactyllus fallax, alarge frog commonly referred to as the Crapaud orMountain Chicken, which is endemic to Dominicaand Montserrat. The other amphibian species arethree species of small (tree) frogs consisting of onesingle-island endemic species Eleutherodactylusamplinympha - that is restricted to higher elevationson Dominica, and two regionally endemic species ,viz. the Tink Frog (Eleutheordactylus martinicensis) andJohnstone’s Whistling Frog (E. Johnstonei) which wasfirst recorded in Dominica following Hurricane Davidin 1979.

6.4.5. Fish

Although the freshwater fish of Dominica have notbeen thoroughly studied, at least some species havebeen identified.This includes the American eel, gob-ies - which are locally called “lòsh” (Sicydium spp. andEleoris Pisonis) and "Titiwi" in the post-larv al stage -the mountain mullet (Agonostomus monticola), andthe striped mullet or "Mèy", among several otherspecies. The majority of freshwater fish species onDominica migrate between freshwater and saltwater, while some spawn at sea. Introduced Tilapia(Tilapia mossambica) occurs in the Freshwater Lakewhile Tilapia nilotica and T. aurea are reared in pondsand on aquaculture farms.

6.4.6. Invertebrates

Invertebrates as a group are well represented onDominica. However, further scientific studies andecological surveys are required to determine thetrue status of various invertebrate species on theisland.

6.4.6.1. Crustaceans

The terrestrial and freshwater decapod crustaceansin Dominica include eleven species of freshwatershrimps and twenty species of freshwater/terrestri-al/semi-terrestrial crabs. None of the crustaceans areendemic to the island and most are widely distrib-uted in the Caribbean.The twenty crab species occurin ecologically diverse habitats but most occur incoastal habitats.

Shrimps are common in Dominican streams with adistribution ranging from cascading mountainstreams to slow flowing river mouths. Shrimps fromthe following genera have been recorded onDominica: Atya, Jonga, Micratya, Potimimirum,Xiphocaris, and Macrobrachium. Several of the largerspecies are used as food on the island.

Dominica’s endemic tree frog


16

6.4.6.2. Insects

The class Insecta has not been fully surveyed on theisland and as a result the species list is incomplete.Species from the following Orders are present:Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Coleoptera,Lepidoptera, and Tricoptera. The population status ofmost of these species is not known.

Fifty-five species of butterflies have been recorded inDominica.Two species are endemic to the island andseven are endemic to the Lesser Antilles and areconfined to montane areas in Dominica andGuadeloupe.

Eleven species of Phasmids (stick insects) have beenrecorded for Dominica One species (Diapheromerasaussurei) is a confirmed endemic for the island, whiletwo others (Diapherodes gigantea dominica andLamponius dominicae) are supposed to be endemicbut need further investigation.

The Hercules Beetle (Dynastes hercules hercules),which occurs on montane areas in Dominica, is alsofound in Guadeloupe. It is one of eight recognizedraces of this beetle whose distribution extends southfrom Guadeloupe into much of South America.

6.5. Loss of Terrestrial Biodiversity

The root causes of loss of terrestrial biodiversity inDominica are attributed to the following factors:

6.5.1. Deforestation

Deforestation is considered to be the main contrib-utor to biodiversity loss in Dominica. Agriculturalexpansion and to a lesser extent timber harvestinghave resulted in the rapid removal of natural vegeta-tion on both private and public lands. Forests onunallocated State lands are being sold as a means torelieve agricultural land hunger without adequatecontrols to protect against soil erosion and otherforms of land degradation. Rain forests and othervegetation zones, particularly in coastal regionswhere littoral forests and dry scrub woodland maybe found, have been considerably reduced in thepast forty years.

The conversion of natural forest to agriculture andfor urban expansion has resulted in the fragmenta-tion of natural vegetation types, reduction in the per-centage of natural forests particularly rain forest,adverse effects on wildlife habitats, and adverseeffects on water quality and quantity, with negativeimpacts on biodiversity particularly aquatic organ-isms.

Male Hercules Beetle


17

6.5.2.Agrochemical Pollution

The significant expansion of agriculture, particularlybanana cultivation, with the resultant use of agro-chemicals has had negative impacts on the island’sbiodiversity. Qualitative and quantitative observa-tions in and around banana cultivations revealed nomarked declines in terrestrial vertebrates (birds, bats,and amphibians) that might be attributable to pesti-cide contamination (Rainey et al, 1987). However,bird mortality linked to agrochemical use has beenreported. Also, pesticide runoff in streams has result-ed in isolated fish kills and may have negativelyimpacted other aquatic fauna.

6.5.3. Natural Disasters

Many natural hazards periodically affect or threatenDominica, among them are hurricanes, earthquakes,volcanic eruptions, storm surges, and landslides.These natural disasters, particularly hurricanes, canbe attributed as one of the root causes of biodiver-sity loss in Dominica. Hurricane David in 1979 didsignificant damage to the forest resource by damag-ing 50% of the trees in the southern half of the island.Hurricanes also cause loss of habitat and food sup-plies for wildlife species and sometimes result inwildlife mortality.

An indirect resultant effect of hurricanes such as“David” is the conversion of wildlife habitat to agri-culture. In accessible areas the toppled trees providean opportunity to more easily clear land for farming,resulting in a further fragmentation of wildlife habitat.

6.5.4.Hunting and Capture of Wildlife

The Forestry and Wildlife Act (1976) makes provisionfor wildlife management and protection in Dominica.The Act also provides for hunting and fishing seasons,both of which usually last six months. Such huntingand fishing activities pose major threats to the wildlifeand freshwater fish resources respectively. Legislationis inadequate and fines and fees are low. Theresources are not managed on a scientific basis and

little is known about the extent of the resource orsustainable exploitation levels.This situation has beenexacerbated by the current socio-economic situationwhich has resulted in increased exploitation ofwildlife resources.

6.5.5. Impact of Squatters

Squatting or the practice of shifting cultivation is notconsidered a major problem in Dominica. Therehave been isolated reports of trespassing and defor-estation in Forest Reserves, National Parks and onunallocated State lands. Illegal tree cutting and char-coal production is a minor problem. However, theypose a continuing problem as these activities arespecies selective on forest resources. State landsaffected by illegal encroachment and intensive culti-vation include lands in the Brandy area and an areaalong the southern boundary of the Morne TroisPitons National Park near Petite Savanne, an areawhich was cultivated long before the Park was estab-lished.The slash and burn method of cultivation usedby subsistence farmers has proven to cause seriousnegative environmental impacts on wildlife habitat.

Matthieu dam and reservoir, 1997


18

6.6 Strategic Directions

Strategy 1 - Develop a comprehensive national land use plan / legislation with the involvement of all key stake-holders.

Strategy 2 - Review / amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respect to:

• Conservation and management of terrestrial biodiversity;• Regulation of the introduction of alien species;• Protection of indigenous species/ ecosystems;• Protection of watersheds, stream bank reserves, and riparian ecosystems;• The implementation and enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in

Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES);• Forestry / wildlife and national parks management;• Management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture, urban);• Conservation and protection of agro-biodiversity.

Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment of all relevant agencies andcommunity groups.

Strategy 3 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training programme onissues of environmental protection and conservation of terrestrial natural resources/biodiversity.

Strategy 4 - Identification and protection of sensitive / fragile / threatened ecosystems with priority given to theIndian River wetland among others, and Dry Scrub Woodland, and the identification and protectionof buffer areas required to protect and conserve threatened flora/fauna and ecosys tems.

Strategy 5 - Research to develop wildlife farming technology to reduce stress on wild populations.

Strategy 6 - Research, inventory and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database and meta-data on:• Terrestrial/ Aquatic fauna and flora;• Species and ecosystem distribution description;• Medicinal Plants.

Strategy 7 - Develop a national policy on water use, conservation and extraction.


19

Boa constrictor

Crayfish


20

MARINE AND COASTAL RESOURCES

7.1. Coastal and Marine Areas of Dominica

The coastal waters of Dominica are richly endowedwith an abundance and very diverse array of aquaticflora and fauna. The island’s shores are washed bythe Caribbean Sea on the western side and by theAtlantic Ocean on the East.The sub-marine topogra-phy is similar to that of the land, rugged and moun-tainous with very deep valleys.There is a very narrowcontinental shelf around the island and as a result thewater plummets to depths in excess of 200 feet veryclose to shore.There is also a wide range of estuar-ine habitats resulting from the many rivers found onthe island.

7.2. Marine and Coastal Habitats

The topography as well as the geological features,rainfall and climate of the east coast and west coastare different and hence provide differing habitats.

7.2.1. Beaches

The beaches of Dominica are predominantly dark incolour due to their volcanic origin. However, thebeaches on the east and north-eastern coast, whichis washed by the turbulent Atlantic Ocean, are lighterin colour indicating their coral limestone origin. Thebeaches along the west coast of Dominica undergodramatic changes at various times of the year, varyingfrom sandy to stony. Some east coast beaches aremade of large boulders whilst in other cases clifffaces drop sharply into the sea. These dramatic vari-ations of topography, accessibility, wave action andhuman activity have a profound effect on marine andcoastal biodiversity.

7.2.2. River Estuaries and Wetland Areas

Dominica is blessed with numerous rivers andstreams, which flow from the rugged mountains intothe Caribbean Sea on the west coast and into theAtlantic Ocean on the east coast of the island. Theinterface between sea and river varies depending onthe size of the river and the gradient of the land as itapproaches the sea.

In some cases the sea enters the river for some sig-nificant distance inland forming a large pool of brack-ish water. In other cases the river is slightly elevatedabove the level of the surf and the river water fallsinto the sea.This condition enhances the biodiversityof the island by providing a habitat and nursery formany organisms which thrive in brackish water orwaters of varying salinities.This habitat also providesa haven for anadromous fish and some crustaceans,which live most of their adult life in the rivers, butwhose larval and part of the juvenile stages are spentin the sea. Juvenile marine shrimp also spend sometime in the river estuaries.

SECTION 7

Indian River Wetland


21

DOMINICACoastal & Marine Resources


22

7.2.3. Coral Reefs

Dominica has a very narrow continental shelf on thewest coast and a fairly large shelf on the east coast.As a result there are not many very large expansesof coral reefs on the west coast of the island (seemap). A total of 32 species of hard corals and 16species of soft corals have been identified, including28 species of hard coral and 10 species of soft coralin the Scotts Head/Soufriere Marine Reserve alone(Evans, 1990).The majority of corals are in a healthystate. There are marked differences between thespecies found on the west and east coasts, althoughsome species of coral occur on both coasts. In thisregard, many more studies have been done on thewestern coast owing to the calm nature of theCaribbean Sea, and these studies have indicated thatthe coral diversity on the west coast of the island isgreater than on the east coast.

The Scotts Head / Soufriere area in the south of theisland possesses some of the most pristine coralreefs with tremendous diversity. Owing to therugged nature of the sea bed there exists coral grow-ing on submarine cliff surfaces that provides for very

good wall diving. Coralsare also found growingon granite rock, and incave formations in verydeep water. Furthernorth to Anse Bateau areunique fringing coralreefs that withstand thevery warm waters pro-duced from hot volcanicvents found on theseabed, which are locallycalled “champagne bub-bles”.

The most highly stressedareas of coral reef onDominica occur alongthe west coast of theisland, in an area stretch-

ing from Point Michel to Colihaut.The greatest factorcontributing to the stress of these corals is sedimen-tation from quarrying operations along the westcoast where the majority of these facilities are locat-ed. Corals occurring in deeper waters and on theeast coast are in a much healthier state.A 1994 studydescribing the status of the coral reefs of Dominicafound that 75% of the coral reefs were in a healthystate.

7.3.Species Diversity

The marine and coastal habitats of Dominica sup-port a wide diversity of species.

7.3.1. Fish

The coastal waters of Dominica provide differenttypes of habitat for many different species of fish.Thecoral reefs around the island, which are located atdepths between 10m and 60m, are endowed with avery wide diversity of species. No documented list ofspecies has ever been complied for Dominica. Someof the most common species identified in the fishlandings of Dominica are lobster, many species ofgroupers and snappers, squirrel fish, black bar soldierfish, shrimp, goatfish, grunts, many species of wrasse,parrotfish , and file fish.

Further offshore in waters of about 200m to 300min depth, very large groupers and snappers abound.These are called deep slope species and are relative-ly under-exploited in Dominica. The main speciescaught is Etellis oculatus (Valenciennes,1828) thequeen snapper. A considerable amount of study isrequired to determine the potential and diversity ofthis resource.

Coastal pelagics are found in the water columnabove the reef ecosystem. These include ballyhoo,sardines, jacks, scads, sprats, skipjack tuna and black-fintuna. Further offshore migratory pelagics occur,including dolphin fish, wahoo, flyingfish, yellow-fintuna, skipjack, black-fin tuna and other tunas andtuna-like species (e.g. mackerel).

Tube Sponge


23

Reef Fisheries

Deep Slope Fisheries

Coastal pelagic Fishery

Migratory Pelagics

Declining both in termsof catches and size ofindividual fish

Production hasremained relativelysteady over the years ata low level of exploita-tion

Shows an increasingtrend

Increasing trend

Fisheries can besustainable ifmanaged properly

Has greatpotential forincrease in pro-duction

Shows greatpotential fordevelopment asit is caught inlarge quantities

Has greatestpotential fordevelopment

145.9

67.3

470.8

437

In addition to heavy fishingpressure, there are negativeimpacts on habitat fromland based sources of pollu-tion & development activi-ties.

• Lack of line haulers andother tackle.

• Small and unstable fishingplatforms for use on theAtlantic Ocean.

• Bottom long lines andpalangue very expensiveto maintain.

• Habitat affected by landbasedsources of pollution.

• Some species are under-utilized

• Small size of boats• Lack of use of navigational

aids• Fishing fleet presently

operates within a 12 mileradius of the island

7.3.2.Turtles

There are four species of turtle found in Dominicanwaters. The hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata)(Linnaeus, 1766) is the most common and nests onDominica. The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys cori-acea) is the next most commonly observed turtlenesting on Dominica, and usually nests on beacheson the east coast of the island. The green turtle

(Chelonia mydas mydas) (Linneus, 1758) and the log-gerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) are also found in thewaters around Dominica. There are reports of theloggerhead turtle being caught in Dominican watersbut no evidence of nesting.There has been some evi-dence of nesting behaviour of the green turtle on theisland. However much is not known of this species’distribution in terms of nesting areas.

Exploitation level (tons)Fisheries Groups Trends ConstraintsPotential

Table 7.1 - Status of Major Fisheries (1999)

7.3.3. Marine Mammals

The coastal waters of Dominica present a haven formany marine mammals. Several species of whalesand dolphins have been observed during studiesconducted by the Fisheries Department and under-taken in collaboration with WoodsholeOceanographic Institute, including:

• Sperm Whale (Physter catodon)• Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera edeni)• Short-fined Pilot Whale (Globicephala

macrorhynchus)• Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostis)• Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps)• Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaenglia)• Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus)• Spinner Dolphin (Stenella clymene)• Spotted Dolphin (Stenella sp)• Frasers Dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei)• Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

Dominica has developed a growing whale-watchingindustry where day trips are organised for visitorsand locals alike. The whales are located from about0.5 miles to 4 miles from the coastline. In some casesland-based whale-watching can also be done.

Dominica is a breeding ground for the Sperm Whalewhich is the most commonly observed marine mam-mal around Dominica, and a resident population isobserved all year round off the west coast. Matingbehaviour has been observed on many occasions,and adult Sperm Whales, with newly born calves withthe umbilical cord still attached, have also been seen.

7.3.4. Invertebrates

A very wide diversity of marine invertebrates existsin the waters off Dominica. Limited studies havebeen conducted in Dominica, although studies doneon invertebrates in the wider Caribbean region alsoapply to species found in Dominica.

7.3.4.1. Cindarians

The growing dive tourism industry in Dominica isheavily dependent on the quality and diversity ofcoral reefs present in the waters around the island.Acomprehensive list of the coral species of Dominicahas not yet been compiled. However, species identi-fication undertaken in the wider Caribbean regionappears to apply.

7.3.4.2. Crustaceans

Dominica possesses an abundance and diversityof crustaceans. These include land crabs, whichspend their larval and juvenile stages in the sea,many species of marine crabs, and white brackishwater mud crabs. There are also marine shrimpand many fresh water prawn species which inhab-it the estuarine conditions of the many riversfound on the island. The mantis shrimp and fourspecies of lobster are also found in Dominica’swaters.


24

Sperm Whale


25

7.3.4.3. Lobster

The main species of lobster found in Dominica arethe spiny lobster (Panlirus argus) and Panulirus gutatuswhich are mainly found throughout the island’sdeeper coastal waters. Both species are relativelyabundant, having been protected from over-exploita-tion by a closed season and the fact that they aregenerally to be found in deeper waters. Additionally,Dominica has prohibited the capture of lobster withSCUBA gear.

7.3.4.4. Porifera

Many species of sponges are found in the waters ofDominica.They inhabit the same habitat as corals andexperience the same adverse effects from anthro-pogenic sources of pollution.

7.3.4.5. Echinoderms

A fairly diverse range of species of thisgroup are found in Dominican waters. Atleast two species of sea cucumbers andthe brittle star exist, and two main speciesof sea urchins, the long-spine black seaurchin (Diadema antillarium) and thewhite sea urchin (Tripneustes ventricosus)commonly referred to as the "sea egg".

The white sea urchin (T. ventricosus),which is found mainly on the east andsouth-east coast of Dominica, used tooccur in great abundance. In recent yearsthere has been a noticeable decline in thepopulation. The reason for this decline isnot well understood. There has never

been a fishery for white sea urchins in Dominica, andtherefore the decline cannot be attributed to overfishing.This variety of sea urchin inhabits very shallowwater and uses dead leaves and debris for camou-flage. The cause of the decline needs to be investi-gated.

The long-spine black sea urchin is the most common

and well known, and is found on coral reefs in watersall around Dominica. In 1983 and for a few yearsthereafter, the population was decimated. This wasdue to a disease that affected the whole Caribbeanregion.This situation caused an imbalance in the reefecosystem that resulted in a profuse growth ofmarine algae and death of coral reefs in some areas.Over the past five years there has been some recov-ery and the urchin population has taken an upwardturn.

7.3.4.6. Molluscs

The molluscs found in Dominica include whelks,nudibranchs, oysters, octopus, squid, chitons andconch species including the queen conch (Strombusgigas).

7.3.4.7. Conch

The conch fishery in Dominica suffered a significantdecline in the population in the 1970s, and necessi-tated the imposition of a ban on harvesting.The banis still in effect although the conch population hasnow increased to sustainable levels. There is no sig-nificant conch fishery in Dominica, and that is due inpart to the very deep waters at which they occur.No export of the conch occurs.

7.3.4.8.Welks

The welk (Cittarium pica) is usually found in rockyareas, stony beaches attached to rocks in the surf,and in very shallow waters. This species is prevalentalong the entire east coast and on the south eastcoast of the island. The welks are not presentthroughout the year. It is not certain where they dis-appear to but it is thought that at breeding time theyburrow into the sand. Since no studies of the lifecycle of this species have been done locally, thebehaviour of the welk still is not well understood.However, the absence of the welks for at least 8months of the year serves as a self-control measureand helps to prevent over fishing. A limited numberof welks are harvested by skin divers.

White Sea Urchin


26

Species Status Cause

White Sea Urchin Endangered Exact cause is not known.There is no fishery for thisresource - some environmental factors such as poorwater quality are suspected

Marine Turtles Threatened Illegal harvesting, loss of habitat and nesting grounds

Corals Severely Threatened Siltation due to erosion from poor land managementpractices, anchor damage, scuba diving, collection of coral for export, poor fishing practices, natural disasters.

Sea grass Threatened Siltation is the main cause of death of this species

Reef Fish and Threatened Habitat destruction, poor water quality poor fishing praccoastal pelagics tices along west coast of Dominica.

7.3.4.9. Marine Algae

Many species of algae occur in the waters ofDominica, ranging from green to brown algae.Although no comprehensive study of marine algaehas been done in Dominica a few species which areused commercially have been identified. Gracilariasinensis is the most common alga used in the seamoss industry. Other species identified includeGelidiella acerosa, Ulva fasciata, Dilohus guineensis andHypnea musciformis.

The Gracilaria sp. is processed locally and bottled forlocal consumption and export. However, most of theraw material is imported from neighbouring islandsof the Caribbean. Large quantities of the wild stockof sea moss continue to be removed using harmfulharvesting practices which pose a threat to the sus-tainability of this small but growing industry.Commercial farming may be a solution to this par-ticular problem.

7.4.Loss of Coastal and Marine Biodiversity

Although it has not been scientifically proven thatcoastal and marine species of Dominica are actuallythreatened with extinction, there have been clearsigns of decline in the populations of some speciesover the years.

The loss of biodiversity is most evident in areas ofhigh concentrations of human activity, especially nearestuaries and in near-shore areas. With very tall andrugged mountains occupying Dominica’s interior,human settlement developed and continues toexpand along the narrow coastal belt and close torivers.The principal causes for the loss of coastal andmarine biodiversity are the following:

Table 7.2 - Threatened Coastal and Marine Species


27

7.4.1.Human Threats

Generally, negative impacts on marine biodiversitycaused by human activity can be categorized into fivemain areas; physical alteration, marine pollution,unsustainable exploitation, introduction of foreignspecies and climate change.

7.4.1.1 Physical Alteration

The development of shoreline and sea defense struc-tures contributes significantly to loss of biodiversity inDominica. These structures replace valuable habitatand in addition alter the pattern of sediment andnutrient transport. The erection of jetties, breakwa-ters and submerged groins prevent re-nourishment

by currents in some areasalong the coast thereby caus-ing beach erosion and loss.The development of hotelson the beach also posesproblems in addition to theerection of structures for theprotection of frontline prop-erty. The above alterationsimpede the transplanting ofsea grass to other locations

by current activity and have significantly affected theland crab population in the south of Dominica andhas totally destroyed turtle nesting grounds in someareas, for example, Pottersville and Mero.

Illegal sand mining activities alter the nature of thecoastal areas, and predisposes the coastline to ero-sion from wave action thereby resulting in sedimen-tation of coral reefs. These illegal activities alsodestroy turtle nesting habitat.

Some of the greatest causes of coastal alteration,degradation and loss of biodiversity in Dominica areuncontrolled and unregulated quarry operations.These operations are located along the coast anddischarge thousands of tons of mud and silt into themarine environment causing death of coral reef andother marine organisms.

7.4.1.2 Marine Pollution

The single greatest source of marine pollution inDominica is due to improper treatment and dispos-al of sewerage.The discharge of untreated sewerageand other liquid waste directly into the coastal andmarine habitats has severe negative impact on biodi-versity.The turbidity caused by such suspended solidsresults in death of sea grass beds, marine algae andother dependent organisms. A sewerage collectionsystem is being established in Roseau to gather thecity’s sewerage outfalls that will be redirected out tosea through one outfall that terminates 300 feet off-shore.Although it is intended that this system reducelevels of pollution occurring very close inshore, it isuncertain as to whether it will have any positiveimpact upon marine ecosystems and species.

Household detergent/chemical disposal, discharge ofspent engine oil into drains and waterways, inade-quate disposal of solid waste and effluent from fac-tories remain some of the main causes of habitatdegradation and loss of marine and aquatic biodiver-sity. Poor land management and agricultural practicescoupled with the very steep slopes of Dominicacauses soil erosion and eventual sedimentation ofthe marine environment. Although no studies havebeen done to determine pesticide levels reaching themarine environment, very significant quantities ofpesticides are used in the agricultural sector and thebanana industry in particular, eventually reaching themarine environment.

Easy access to beaches with no waste disposal facili-ties results in littering of beaches and immediatemarine space with plastic and other debris. Shipborne waste particularly disposal of waste fromsmaller and older ships, poses a threat to marine bio-diversity in Dominica. Inadequate facilities exist forthe disposal of ship waste, and therefore ships dis-charge both solid and liquid waste in the coastalwaters of Dominica. This issue is difficult to addressdue to a lack of surveillance capability on the island.

Colihaut Quarry


28

7.4.1.3 Overexploitation

Unsustainable use of coastal and marine resources isa prime cause of loss of biodiversity. Dominica hasattempted over the years to take precautionarymeasures to address this problem.

The artisanal commercial fishing fleet of Dominica ischaracterized by low technology and the use of smallboats. By its mere nature fishing has been sustainablein most of the commercial fisheries exploited by localfishermen. However, in the immediate near shorereef areas, which are very limited in Dominica, signsof decline in many reef species have been noticedboth in terms of quantity and size of fish. The catchcomposition of the fishermen has changed slightly insome fishing grounds along the west coast of theisland.

Although it is thought that fishing pressure on theseresources may have been responsible for some ofthe decline, it is also very obvious that some forms ofland based sources of pollution have played a part. Insome areas there are obvious signs of coral and reeffish habitat degradation due to causes other thanfishing (e.g. anchor damage from yachts, coral reefbleaching and damage from hurricanes).

The status of the lobster and conch fishery ofDominica is not well known mainly because of thedeep waters immediately surrounding the island.Some limited lobster fishing is done on the east coastof the island where 95% of the lobster and conchlanded are adult size. There is no significant lobsterfishery on the west coast. A moratorium has beendeclared for the conch fishery and for turtles butsome illegal fishing for turtle is still observed.However, no significant illegal activity is noticed forconch.

Dominica adheres to the management regimes putin place by the International Commission for theConservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) as far as themanagement of large migratory pelagics are con-cerned. However, studies indicate a general decline in

the population of these species.

Illegal Unregulated and Unreported (IUU) fishing byforeign fishing vessels and companies pose a veryserious threat to biodiversity of migratory pelagicspecies. Illegal fishing in marine reserves, collection ofcoral for sale and export, sand mining and use of ille-gal fishing methods results in habitat degradation andloss of biodiversity in coastal areas. Marine mammalsare threatened by movement of ships and heavy nau-tical traffic. From time to time whales die from hugeinfected cuts from boat propellers. Whales are nothunted in Dominica either commercially or for localuse. However, Pilot Whales are sometimes landed asan "incidental catch".

7.4.1.4 Transboundary Movement of Marine Species

Introduction of foreign species into Dominica canresult in adverse and unexpected biological prob-lems. There is little research in this area and subse-quently a limited amount known about the impactscreated by foreign introduced species. Local speciesare being smuggled out of the country from time totime.This results in the loss of genetic material fromthe country. On a number of occasions the FisheriesDepartment has intercepted persons leaving thecountry with species of coral, sponges, marine algae,and reef fish. The implementation and enforcementof the Convention on the International Trade inEndangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) hasbeen hampered by the absence of an enforceableregulatory framework.

Stone Beach - Petite Savanne


29

7.5. Strategic Directions

Strategy 8 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training pro-gramme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of coastal and marineresources/biodiversity.

Strategy 9 - Review/amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respectto:

• Conservation and management of coastal and marine biodiversity• Protection of vulnerable/fragile/indigenous marine species and ecosystems• Coastal zone management • Coastal and marine parks and protected areas• The implementation and enforcement of the Convention on the International Trade in

Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) • Local and community participation in coastal and marine conservation/management• Management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture, urban).

Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment and strengtheningof all relevant agencies and community groups.

Strategy 10 - Identification and protection of sensitive/fragile/threatened coastal and marine ecosystemsand establishment of coastal and marine protected areas and restocking of endangeredspecies where necessary.

Strategy 11 - Involve community participation in coastal and marine management and to provide alterna-tives to unsustainable exploitation of resources (coastal and marine).

Strategy 12 - Research, inventory, mapping and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database andmeta-data on:

• Coastal and marine species and ecosystems • Species and ecosystem distribution description • Marine and coastal medicinal species


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AGRICULTURE AND BIODIVERSITY

8.1.Agriculture in Dominica

The agricultural sector plays a major role in eco-nomic and rural development in the country.Throughout the decade of the 1990s Dominica'seconomy continued to be led by output from theagricultural sector. Gross agricultural output averaged19.8% per annum of GDP between 1995 and 1999,peaking at 20.8% in 1996. Over the same periodcontributions from the other output sectors, manu-facturing and tourism, remained well below that ofagriculture, with averages of 7.0% and 2.6% respec-tively. In spite of government policies providing incen-tives and investment opportunities in the tourismand manufacturing sub-sectors, the productivecapacity of these have not been developed in anyappreciable amount to complement and/or matchagriculture's contribution.

Within the agricultural sector, crop production is ofgreatest economic importance as it is the primaryforeign exchange earner in the sector, accounting for78.5% of all agricultural production. Although bananaproduction has decreased by 50% over the last tenyears, banana still accounts for 30% of total crop pro-

duction, employing approximately 2,500 farmers -approximately 30% of the agricultural labour force.The livestock, fisheries and forestry sub-sectors con-tribute very little to foreign exchange earnings, theireconomic significance being in their contributionmade to food security, employment in rural commu-nities, and in the case of fisheries and livestock, a vitalsource of meat for home consumption.

8.2. Crop Production and Biodiversity

A wide variety of crops are grown on integratedfarms in Dominica. These include bananas, citrus, oil-based crops, coffee and cocoa, a number of foodcrops and non-traditional fruits, vegetables and flow-ers. Because of the rugged topography it is notuncommon to see a three-tiered system of farmingon the island, with tree crops on the steeper slopes,bananas or food crops interplanted with tree cropson less steep slopes, and bananas or vegetables onthe flatter areas.

8.3.Agricultural Diversification

Since the early 1950s, banana production has beenthe main economic activity on the island. Althoughthe banana industry is still a leading contributor tothe economy, banana production has been decreas-ing since the early 1990s.To offset this decline, pro-grammes aimed at diversifying the production baseand seeking alternative markets were intensified.These agricultural diversification programmes weredesigned to support policy objectives of increasedforeign exchange earnings, income and employmentgeneration, food security, and agro-biodiversity con-servation and environmental preservation. Over thepast seven years millions of dollars have been spenton the diversification effort.

SECTION 8

Typical diversified farm


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DOMINICAGeneralized Land Use Map


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8.4. Food Crops

Food crops, including plantains and root crops(dasheen, tannia, yam, sweet potato and to a lesserextent white potato) are important contributors todomestic food production, income and crop diversi-ty. Plantain and dasheen are more extensively plant-ed and traded.

8.5. Livestock and Biodiversity

Over the last few years the contribution of livestockproduction to overall agricultural production hasincreased slightly from 6.5% in 1991 to 7.4% in 1999(CSO, 2000). Based on data from the 1995Agricultural Census, local production is estimated atapproximately 1,209,970lbs of meat annually, approx-imately 15% of the total meats consumed. Pork, freshwhole chicken and chevron account for 48%, 11%and 8% of local production respectively.

Livestock is produced mainly by many small farmersusing traditional systems of production, which arepart of the wider integrated farming systems prac-ticed island-wide. Pigs (Porcine spp.), goats (Caprinespp.), sheep (Ovine spp.) and poultry (Avian spp.) arethe major domesticated species reared commercial-

ly for meat. Other domesticated species include cat-tle (Bovine spp.), rabbit (Laprine spp.), dogs (Caninespp), cats (Feline spp.), horses (Equine spp.) and don-keys.Dominica has a comparative advantage in the pro-duction of mutton, chevron and rabbit meat. Thesesmall stock are effectively integrated into our smallfarming systems, and their high rates of multiplication,utilisation of local farm by-products and intensivelygrown fodder enables them to make significant con-tributions to farm incomes. They are also readysources of disposable income. The technologiesintroduced over the years (shelters, anthelmintictreatment, cut & carry systems and strategic feedsupplementation) are relatively simple and thereforehave been easily adopted by farmers.

8.6.Agriculture and Biodiversity

Dominica’s landscape and rugged topography is char-acterized by micro-climates that support indigenousplants in particular conditions that support their cul-tivation. Over 30 percent of the island is covered byforest. However, over the years, deforestation foragricultural purposes has been the greatest contrib-utor to the loss of natural biodiversity.

The agricultural diversification program has beenvery successful in contributing to biodiversity conser-vation. Present agro-biodiversity knowledge originat-ed from a combination of knowledge from slavesbrought in from Africa and the indigenous people ofDominica, the Caribs, as they made use of diverseplants, livestock, and agro-ecosystems. Over the cen-turies, local farmers have employed numerous prac-tices to use, enhance, and conserve agro-biodiversitywithin their traditional integrated/mixed farming sys-tems.

Penned goats


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For example, the use of diverse species in these sys-tems has lessened the risks associated with pests'outbreaks. The integration of different types of fruittrees and the maintenance of windbreaks haveenhanced this diversity.

Detailed knowledge about biodiversity has allowedagriculture to evolve over thousands of years.Although sometimes perceived as an enemy to bio-diversity conservation, agricultural production is verydependent on the combined use of a number ofnatural resources, including richly diverse biologicalresources, land, and water resources.The many typesof biological resources tied to agriculture include:

• Genetic resources, which consist of large quanti-ties of genetic information in plants and animalsthat, are essential for the continued survival oflife on earth;

• Edible plants and crops including traditional vari-eties, cultivars, hybrids and genetically modifiedplants;

• Livestock and freshwater fish and other animals;• Soil organisms that are essential for soil fertility,

structure, quality and soil health;• Naturally occurring insects, bacteria, fungi that

control insect pests and diseases of domesticat-ed plants and animals;

• Ecosystems that provide environmental servicesrequired for nutrient cycling, stability and pro-ductivity that are so essential for agricultural pro-duction.

8.7. Impact of Agriculture on Biodiversity

Loss of Dominica’s biodiversity is caused primarily byconversion of natural land areas into agricultural andresidential development areas. This occurs becausefarmers generally consider that the rate of returnfrom development of the land is greater than that ofconservation. The benefits accrued from develop-ment of the land will be greater than the costbecause the farmer (or any individual land owner)has a positive rate of time preference, therefore mak-ing it more profitable to develop the land than to

conserve it. Most of the benefits of conservation areintangible, with no markets existing for them.

8.7.1. Land Use

Data collected in the agricultural census conductedby the Ministry of Agriculture in 1995, indicate thatonly 52,256 acres (27%) of total land area is in farms.Of this 31,631 acres (60.5%) is cropped and 14, 803acres (8.3%) is in forest. These figures indicate thatalthough there has been clearing of more land foragriculture over the years, there has been only aslight increase in actual percentage of total land areain farms. This is due mainly to the removal of landsfrom agriculture into other sectors such as housing,tourism and other infrastructural and commercialdevelopment. In many of these cases the flat or gen-tly sloping more productive land has been removed,leaving the steeper lands more prone to soil degra-dation for agricultural production. 70% of Dominica'sland resources have been classified as unsuitable foragriculture mainly because of erosion risks, water sat-uration due to heavy rainfall, or poor soils.


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DOMINICALandslide Hazard Map


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• Approximately 37% of Dominica’s total land area is classified as land with high erosion risk.• 20% of the total land area is classified as land with moderately high erosion risk, found mainly in the

Northern Forest Reserve and the south of the country.• 13% of the total land area is classified as poor agricultural land, found mainly on the southern edge of the

Central Forest Reserve and northwest of the Morne Trois Pitons National Park.

With increasing settlement on the scarce agriculturallands, steeper lands under forest are being clearedfor conversion into agriculture. This has had seriouseffects, the most visible being soil erosion and land-slides leading to loss of soil fertility. Some farmersalso practice slash-and-burn during the dry season,mainly along the coastal regions. Many of these firesget out of control and cause destruction of naturalhabitat, loss of biological resources and landslides.Thesituation is aggravated when bananas are planted ininappropriate areas and little attention is given togood husbandry practices.

8.7.2. Land Distribution

Through land distribution programmes, theIntegrated Rural Development Project and otherland reform projects, crown lands and several estateswere divided into small parcels, usually in plots ofapproximately five acres and distributed/sold tofarmers. Despite these land distribution efforts, farm-ers continue to demand land for agricultural produc-tion. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Dominica'snatural vegetation was cleared at an increasing rateas farmers cleared land for agriculture, primarily forbananas. Much of this land, however, was unsuitablefor banana cultivation, and at the same time suitablelands were being under-utilised. Farming on thesesteep slopes and the clearance of river buffer beltsand natural windbreaks have caused soil erosion andnutrient loss through run-off during heavy rains.

The expansion into forested lands, the continuedconversion of former agricultural lands into other

uses and the monoculture of banana productionhave served to reduce the size and diversity of natu-ral habitats, eroding the biodiversity of existing floraand fauna.

8.7.3. Land Tenure

In the past, a few individuals owned large portions ofland on Dominica. In a census carried out in 1961,the wealthier 1.4% of farmers occupied 56.4% of theland. However, by 1995, through the re-distributionof land, 8,434 farmers held all the farmlands, provid-ing an average farm size of a mere 6.2 acres. Sixty-five percent (65%) of the 8,434 farmers own theirfarms, 11% farm family-owned farms, 5.5% farm onrented lands, and 10% have not stated land owner-ship status.

The division of family land among children into small-er farms or parcels has also encouraged the frag-mentation of land. This land tenure system alsoencompasses a number of other issues such asunclear land ownership or title and non-payment ofrentals for leased lands. Generally family members orfarmers without secure title for land are unwilling tomake improvements and undertake investments ontheir farms, thereby impacting adversely on the con-servation of agro-biodiversity. In addition farmersleasing land and squatters place much strongeremphasis on short-term crops and without legalownership do not adopt any appreciable level ofstewardship towards the natural resources of thoselands.


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DOMINICAWater Resources


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8.7.4.Water Resources

Dominica has seven major watersheds found mainlyin the central region of the island on both the wind-ward and leeward sides.There are also three smallerwatersheds located in the north of the island.Wateris provided for domestic consumption, export toother Caribbean countries, and for generating hydro-electric power.Water from the rivers and streams isalso used for fishing, laundering, bathing, swimming,boating and other activities. This abundant supply offresh water has prevented the early development ofirrigation systems for agricultural production.

Almost all the forty-three (43) water-catchmentareas in Dominica are located on privately ownedlands where there are no effective controls on landuse activities. Most of these catchment areas areunder cultivation, and in some cases inappropriateland use activities such as deforestation and bananacultivation on steep slopes have caused soil erosionand landslides. This has resulted in changes to thelandscapes of the ecosystems (e.g. steeper slopesand silting of rivers and streams), but because of thefast growth of ground cover, the impact has beenconsiderably lessened.

8.7.5. Loss of Agro-Biodiversity

The diversity of crop species and the diversity ofvarieties within species have traditionally strength-ened the resilience of agriculture.With the introduc-tion of new commercial farming practices and as thenumber of crop species declines, local nitrogen-fixingbacteria, mycorrhizae, predators, pollinators, seeddispersers, and other species that co-evolve overcenturies with traditional agricultural systems die-out.While there has been little research conducted intothe resilience of domestic varieties, or their evolvingadaptation to changing local circumstances, it isapparent that Dominica’s agro-biodiversity is underthreat.

An important factor contributing to loss of agro-bio-diversity is the demise of the tradition of passing on,

from generation to generation, information andknowledge of traditional agricultural practices andanimal husbandry, and the use of native plants(including medicinal plants), their properties anduses. Dominica’s agro-biodiversity has been affectedby invasive vegetation, and periodic outbreaks ofpests and diseases. Historically, with few mechanismsin place to control the importation of foreign vari-eties/organisms/species and prevent unintendedharm to the agricultural sector, there have been inci-dents where a foreign introduced species/organ-ism/variety has resulted in an unintended impact ondomestic agro-biodiversity. Additionally, storms andhurricanes have promoted the use of storm-resistantspecies by farmers, thereby reducing the variety ofcrops that are grown.

The introduction of high-yielding planting materialand varieties adapted for intensive managementregimes have lessened the demand for traditionalproducts on the international market.This has led insome instances to the erosion of the genetic pool oftraditional agricultural species. However, it shouldalso be recognized that the introduction of new plantmaterial has been beneficial in increasing the overallgenetic base on the island. Agricultural productivityassistance such as modernized farm techniques, irri-gation and new crop varieties have all helped farm-ers cope with marginal lands, and agricultural diversi-fication programs have been very successful in con-tributing to biodiversity conservation.

Dominica does possess, through its wide range ofplant and animals species, a pool of genetic materialthat if properly identified, developed and sustainedcould be of immense potential to its continueddevelopment and prosperity. Continued conserva-tion of Dominica’s agro-biodiversity requires thatimmediate attention be given to harnessing all avail-able information that will guide sector/sub sectorstrategy formulation and future agricultural develop-ment.


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There are a number of measures that can be takento encourage agro-biodiversity and sustainableagriculture.These include:

• develop all-inclusive inventories or "indicators"of agricultural diversity (e.g. number of vari-eties/breeds/species, location, distribution), andestablish a monitoring program to documentany changes;

• eliminate agricultural policies that promoteexcessive uniformity of crops and crop vari-eties, or that encourage the overuse of chem-ical fertilizers and pesticides;

• establish a gene bank to preserve valuableagricultural genetic material;

• institute "genetic diversity checks" for majorcrop varieties to minimize the risk of crop fail-ure, and undertake tests to evaluate threats posed by "genetic uniformity" in Dominica’smajor crops/livestock;

• preserve traditional knowledge of agriculturalpractices and animal husbandry, and the use ofnative plants (including medicinal plants), theirproperties and uses;

• create a greater appreciation for the soil as aliving entity important for sustained produc-tion;

• grow different types of fruit trees and maintainwindbreaks for enhancing agro-biodiversity.

• regulate land use practices and changes thatinfluence agricultural practices such as shiftingfrom mono-cropping patterns, agro-forestryand tree crop plantations, especially in degrad-ed lands and on steep slopes.

• encourage sound water and land manage-ment practices such as -i. Establishing and maintaining buffer zones

along riversides and windbreaks; andii. Conserving tillage and mulching practices

that influence the biological processing of decomposition and mineralisation;

• promote investment in technology develop-ment and research aimed at evaluating andimproving various soil conservation/land man-agement practices under different agro-eco-

logical zones and especially in degraded land areas;

• monitor changes in soil quality under each landuse/management practice and channelinginformation to the farmers through on-farmtechnical assistance and extension education.

Priority should be given to the use of biologicalagents as the preferred method of pest and dis-ease control.The trend towards organic crop pro-duction and marketing should be enhanced andstrongly supported. Attempts at converting landsfrom conventional to organic production are to begiven priority in implementation.



Strategy 13 – Develop a comprehensive national land use plan/legislation with the involvement of all keystakeholder.

Strategy 14 - Develop germplasm/gene banks.

Strategy 15 - Increase agricultural productivity and "value added" through the maximization of the use ofappropriate technology.

Strategy 16 - Conserve and improve Agriculture Land Base through sound agricultural/conservation practices.

Strategy 17 - Research, inventory and monitoring to develop a comprehensive database and meta-data on:• Agro-Biodiversity;• Species distribution description (crops and livestock);• Medicinal Plants;• Traditional agricultural practices.

Strategy 18 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and trainingprogramme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of agro-diversity.

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40

HUMAN SETTLEMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND BIODI-VERSITY

9.1. Human Settlement and Development

9.1.1. Natural Ecosystems and Agro-Ecosystems toMid-Twentieth Century

The immediate pre-Columbian Afootprint com-prised Carib small villages with family lands wherebiodegradable houses were constructed and regulargardening done using a wide variety of well under-stood crops with many purposes. Further inland, insmall short-lived clearings in rain forest or dry forestwere other Carib family gardens, which shifted asnecessitated by diminishing returns. During this timetrails were of little impact on the natural ecosystemsbut the Carib agro-ecosystem introduced a fewcrops, perhaps including the highly important cassava,and some animals. Extraction from the natural forestwas selective, with Gommier (Dacryodes excelsa) andLarouman reed (Ischnosiphon arouma) harvested forcanoes and baskets, respectively. The whole lastingimpact was relatively small.

With the arrival of Columbus and the subsequentintroduction of European plantations, the countrywitnessed widespread clearing, on a more extensivescale than previously, especially in valleys near thecoast. The development of coffee and then sugarestates, particularly in the dry forest areas, resulted insevere erosion in many places (Atwood, 1791).Smaller proprietors occupied steeper land on ridgesand the mainly black peasantry occupied even moremarginal land. Permanent structures were built ofstone and compartmentalisation of ecosystems byroads began. In some areas land modification by ter-racing further affected the natural landscape, thehydrology and the ecology.

New crops and new cultivars were introduced froman early stage and some, like the root crops fromseveral sources (Pacific, Africa, Asia) expanded therange of food crops or (e.g. Pandanus), substitutedlocal industrial materials. Successive waves of crop

failure and development of a new crop after a peri-od of low husbandry affected the pattern of terres-trial ecosystem regeneration. The persistence ofsome crops in long abandoned estates has con-tributed to the mixed secondary vegetation of someareas, but information on the old cultivars and theirrelative persistence is scarce. The development ofwindbreaks of a single species (Galba, Gliricidia etc.)which persisted, fur ther diversified secondaryregrowth.The secondary forest of later years is var-ied and reflects the different uses and abuses of var-ious systems and the extent to which the extensiveecosystems have been replaced by parcels of differ-ing nature.

Emancipation saw the spread of coastal villages bothat the sea (e.g. fishing villages such as Mero - and onridge tops (e.g. Morne Jaune) - and use of the ridgesand side slopes increased with more shifting cultiva-tion and differential impact on native species. Thedemise of plantations commencing soon after theGreat War of 1914 - 1918 saw the increasing peas-ant population squatting on abandoned estates andmoving inland to extend the areas of modified forestusing shifting cultivation.

SECTION 9


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DOMINICAGeneralized Vegetation Map


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9.1.2. Developments after 1950

Economic development in general, including someagro-processing, attempts at forest exploitation, thedevelopment of services such as water supply, thedevelopment of banana cultivation, governmentchanges, and the sale of Crown Lands saw the rateof modification increase rapidly. Works of soil con-servation introduced long-lasting vetiver lines andshort-lived contour drains, then the banana mono-culture, avoiding the use of ground cover first bymechanical and later by chemical means, producedmajor soil modification and erosion over large areaswhere it had previously been rare and selectivelyreduced some weeds while encouraging others.Other Anew crops were of less significance, andsome government subsidized tree crop plantingshave become part of secondary forest.

The introduced fire-resistant lemon grass crop beganto take over dry forest and is now established alongroads and even in a few rain forest areas. Brush fires,especially during the dry season, have resulted inwidespread destruction of the dry forest lands onthe leeward side of the island and their replacementby invasive lemongrass. Roads constructed to facili-tate farming and general movement encouragedlandslides, further divided the landscape, and resultedin the loss of ecosystem diversity.The use of bulldoz-ers made the cutting of roads easier and badlyaligned roads, access roads to farms and constructionsites in particular, have greatly increased erosion - theclassic examples being where successions of land-slides have persisted for over 40 years.The bulldozeralso suddenly made the complete clearing of largeareas cheaper and easier, but in doing so itrearranged the soil, reduced fertility and modifiedlocal hydrology through soil compaction and reduc-tion of the capacity of the soil to absorb and holdwater, especially on the fragile low bulk density soilsof most of the interior. In doing this it replaced thetraditional "underbrushing" (cutlassing and burning inplace with the larger trees left standing) form of landclearing.

Blue Mahoe and Mahogany were planted in areaswhich had been selectively cut during attempts toexploit the major timber trees of the rain forest.Popular trees such as Gommier, Garapite, Cedar, andothers - continue to be selectively felled with orwithout license, and the harvested land has not beenrestored to its former state.

9.1.3. Urban Systems

The initial pre-Columbian settlements were smalland biodegradable.The peasant villages, which grad-ually covered many coastal sites, were similarlyephemeral in nature. Plantations introduced smallareas of stone buildings and yards which were long-lived but could be gradually overtaken by naturalforces.

In the last 50 years of urbanization, large areas of for-merly agricultural land have been covered by con-crete houses, shaven lawns, non-native plants, andpaved yards, with attendant modified drainage sys-tems and roads which further compartmentalize theland. These have extended so far inland that, apartfrom the national parks and forest reserves, there areno longer continuous areas of natural forest or sec-ondary forest of any size.While many of these urbandevelopments exist as isolated "islands" of differingecology, particularly in their chemistry, urban spreadalong roads is inexorable and change to the remain-ing secondary forest and some natural forest is alsolikely. The roads, which were formerly longer narrowstrips between high forest, have been widened withthe use of new technologies and equipment. Theerection of telephone, cable and power lines, andconstruction of storm drains along roads have creat-ed ecological barriers and increasing vehicle use haveaffected the ecology near roadsides.

Concomitant with the construction of the newurban areas, largely centred on very resistant and lessbiodegradable concrete buildings, is the large scalequarrying of stone and tarrish, producing large barerock surfaces, and new breaks in the continuity ofecosystems.


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The removal of wood from forest land for charcoalproduction and for construction purposes has fur-ther contributed to loss of forest cover.

With increased urbanisation and modernisation,Dominica has witnessed a change in compositionand volume of solid and liquid wastes, with negativeimpacts on the natural environment. Traditional dis-posal practices for largely biodegradable wastes areno longer able to deal with the increased volume andcomplexity of modern human waste. Modern waste

collection, treatment anddisposal systems arebeing established, butare not yet able to signif-icantly reduce theimpact of human wasteon the natural environ-ment.

The ever-increasingdemand for portablewater continues to placepressure on the coun-try’s limited fresh watersupplies. The modifica-tions necessary to pro-vide water supplies alsoaffect the hydrology andthereby the ecology wellbeyond the limits ofactual urban sites.

9.2.Tourism inDominica

Dominica’s economy hasbeen dependent on agri-culture with bananas

contributing up to 70% ofexport earnings.This has declined considerably overthe last eight years. As a result, emphasis is beingplaced on tourism development as a means of diver-sifying and boosting the economy. 1999 figuresshowed that agriculture’s contribution to GDP was

19.1%, and tourism (hotels & restaurants) contribut-ing 2.6%.Tourism development is at an infancy stagein Dominica.Total (stay-over) tourism arrivals in 1999amounted to 73,506. Cruise tourism has developedat a phenomenal rate. There has been an almostthree hundred–fold percent increase over the lasteight years to 244,603 passengers. This expansionposes potential real threats to the island’s biodiversi-ty and, as such, a management plan embracing carry-ing capacity issues is an imperative.

9.3. Dominica’s Tourism Product

The primary tourism resource base in Dominica is itspristine natural environment.The volcanic landscapewith its lush rain forests supports a rich diversity offlora and fauna are of great interest Tourism inDominica

Dominica’s marine environment supports majortourism activities such as diving, snorkeling, whale anddolphin watching, kayaking and to a lesser extent,sports fishing and windsurfing. Approximately 30% oftotal tourist arrivals are divers. At present, there aresix dive operations in Dominica four of which offerwhale and dolphin watching tours.While Dominica isstill considered to be largely unspoiled by eitherdevelopment or pollution, there are indicators and infact examples of the negative impact of tourism attwo levels - the development of tourism infrastruc-ture and services and the utilization of tourismattractions and amenities.

The Tourism Policy of 1988 speaks to the conserva-tion of animal and plant life within the general andspecific objectives outlined.Within the general objec-tives, it states that one of the benefits to be derivedfrom the development of the tourism sector is as fol-lows:

"The conservation of the physical resources of the coun-try" and "earning of finance for conservation and devel-opment of Dominica’s renewable natural resources i.e.plant life and wildlife and the protection of their envi-ronment".

Total visitor arrivals toDominica including cruise visi-tors, amounted to 396,221 in1997.

The number of hotel roomsincreased from 567 in 1991 to867 in 1999 an average of 37.5rooms a year.

Contributions to foreignexchange earnings increasingfrom U.S.$ 28.1 million in 1991to U.S.$47.9 million in 1999,representing an average annualincrease of 8.8 % over the lasteight years.

Revenue from tourist visits tonational parks amounts toEC$4.5 million since thenational parks user fee wasestablished in 1997.


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DOMINICATourism Map

9.4. Impact of Tourism on Dominica’s Biodiversity

There are several impacts of tourism developmentwith negative implications for the marine and terres-trial environment.These are as follows:

9.4.1. Inappropriate Land Use

The lack of zoning for tourism development hasallowed development of tourism structures and facil-ities to take place in areas that are not suitable forthis type of development, and in direct conflict withtraditional uses of the resource base. This has beenexacerbated by the fact that traditionally, planning fortourism has been oriented towards the needs of thedevelopers and the tourism industry itself and hasnot taken into account the impact on biologicalresources.

9.4.2. Disruption of Biological Resources

Disturbance of wildlife habitat as a result of develop-ing trade in endangered species, and high visitationrates in areas of attraction are some activities withnegative impacts on the ecology of the areas. Otherserious impacts are increased soil erosion anddestruction of flora and fauna.

9.4.3. Marine Pollution

The principal causes of marine pollution fromtourism related activities include:• Construction, dredging and sand mining;• Solid waste disposal;• Liquid waste disposal;• Chemical pollution; and• Uncontrolled multiple use of marine resources.

Most of the major hotels are located along coastalstrips south of Roseau, along the west coast, and inthe Picard area. The majority of hotels have nosewage treatment plants except for primary treat-ment with final discharge into the marine environ-mental. In addition to this, wastewater from kitchens,

bathrooms and laundry areas of hotel establishmentsare usually discharged directly to the sea. As such,there tends to be some level of marine and coastalpollution in these areas.


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Visitors at Indian River

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9.4.4. Destruction of Coral Reefs, Wetlands andBeaches

Tourism related activities have resulted in thedestruction of coastal ecosystems through;

• Untreated effluent, silting and boat anchors;• Dredging and filling of mangrove wetlands for

hotel development, cruise ship berths or forbeach nourishment;

• Beach degradation from sand mining, dredging orviolation of shore line Building Codes and set-back requirements;

• Solid waste disposal.

9.4.5. Destruction of the Landscape

Fundamental change in the landscape as a result ofconstruction of buildings, urbanisation and road con-struction leading to deterioration of aesthetic valuesimportant in the built environment. Some wetlandareas have been disturbed as a result of hotel devel-opment.The Cabrits Freshwater wetland fell prey tothe development of a hotel in the area.The wetlandwas drained and this changed the ecology of thearea. Some wetland areas have been disturbed as aresult of hotel development.The Cabrits Freshwaterwetland fell prey to the development of a hotel inthe area.

9.4.6. Destruction of Flora

While this is not a very serious problem, certain treespecies such as "Bois bandé" (Richeria grandis) havesuffered from being debarked to the extent of beingkilled through infestations. Others such as orchidsand some species of ferns tend to be pilfered.

9.4.7. Destruction of Fauna

The two endemic species of parrots, Amazona impe-rialis and Amazona arausiaca, have been threatenedas a result of increased tourism and black markettrade in endangered species.These parrots are verysensitive to increased human activity within their

range. As such, increased tourism activity could con-tribute to their decelerating population.

Visitors on Trafalger Falls Trail

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9.4.8. Soil Compaction and Erosion

In areas like the Emerald Pool and to a lesser extent,the Trafalgar Falls, large volumes of visitors over ashort period of time tend to compact and erode thesoil. Use of outboard motors for boating on theIndian River has increased erosion of the river bankand toppling of river bank species like Pterocarpusofficinalis, "Bwa Mang" a tree species important forthe stability of the bank.These conditions bring to thefore the need for carrying capacity consideration.

9.4.9. Impact on Whales

The impact of regulated whale and dolphin watchingactivities on these creatures of the sea may disturbtheir reproductive processes and parenting activities.

9.4.10.Tourism Infrastructure

The development of tourism-related infrastructure –hotels, cruise ship berths, airports, roads- has had thegreatest negative impact on Dominica’s coastal andmarine resources.There are five major ports of entryfor sea and air passenger-three shipping ports andtwo airports. Both the Canefield and Melville HallAirports had major impact on the natural courses ofthe rivers adjacent to them, the Canefield River andthe Melville Hall River. In the case of the Melville HallRiver, there was a diversion and the airport structure,in fact, was built on the bed of the River. TheCanefield airstrip is built over two rivers.The expan-sion of the Woodbridge Bay Port modified the beachstructure and wave pattern in the area.

9.5. Manufacturing and Quarrying

Manufacturing activities in Dominica are very diverse,ranging from agro-processing, to the production ofsoap, soap products, toothpaste, paints and varnishes,plastic products, solar water heaters, alcoholic andnon-alcoholic beverages. Mining operations, con-struction and furniture operations all form part ofthe manufacturing industry. Most manufacturingenterprises are located in close proximity to coastal

areas.

There are approximately eight quarries in Dominica,five along the west coast, one located in Canefieldand another adjacent to the Emerald Pool area andone along the southern coast.

9.5.1. Impact of the Manufacturing Sector on Dominica’s Biodiversity

Activities of the manufacturing sector cause the fol-lowing impacts upon Dominica’s natural resourcesand biodiversity:

9.5.1.1.Wastewater

Agro-industries generate large volumes of waste-water that are discharged into rivers which eventual-ly find its way into the sea. A large quantity of waste-water used for cleaning or sanitising equipment findits way to rivers and streams and the sea through thesewage or drainage systems. These pollutants affectDominica’s sensitive aquatic and coastal ecosystems.


48

9.5.1.2. Solid Waste

Solid waste generated by the manufacturing sectorconsists primarily of plastics, cardboard and cartonboxes, broken wooden palettes, pepper, grapefruitand lime residues, metal, plastic drums, broken glass,scrap aluminium, stainless steel, copper, galvanisedmetal and fibre glass.A small amount of stainless steeland copper is collected for recycling. Grapefruit andlime residues are utilised for animal feed and forother agro-products.All other materials are disposedof at the two landfills or at the Jimmit dumpsitewhere steel and galvanised metal are disposed.Contamination of rivers from the disposal of solidwastes has resulted in damage to Dominica’s sensi-tive aquatic and coastal ecosystems.

9.5.1.3. Heat

Heated effluent from some manufacturing entitiesthat drain directly into rivers and streams, hasincreased the temperature of the receiving areas andhas adversely affected the ecology of the steams.Reports from the Forestry Division indicate that theLoubiere River had experienced dead crayfish in1998 as a result of such discharges. Increased tem-perature and chemical outflow has vir tuallydestroyed the fish life of the Belfast River.

9.5.1.4. Pumice and Silt from Quarries

There are eight quarries located near the west andsouthern coasts of Dominica. The quarrying opera-tions themselves negatively impact flora and faunawhich are destroyed in the process of excavation.Another major impact of quarries on biodiversity ison the marine and freshwater environment throughsilting of adjacent rivers and the marine environment.Coral reefs on the west coast are very vulnerable tothe impacts of increased sedimentation, which inextreme cases, can result in coral deaths and seriousimpacts on the marine ecosystems.

1st draft workshop of NBSAP


49


Strategy 19 – Develop and implement a comprehensive and integrated framework (i.e. legislation, institu-tional structures, etc.) for natural resource management and physical planning.

Strategy 20 - Develop and implement a comprehensive public education, awareness and training pro-gramme on issues of environmental protection and conservation of natural resources.

Strategy 21 - Review/amend existing legislation, and as appropriate develop new legislation with respectto:• Integrated natural resource management and physical planning;• Environmental management and protection;• Environmental impact assessments (EIAs);• Environmental assessment, monitoring and auditing;• Local and community participation in environmental and natural resource management,

and physical planning;• Pollution control and the management of solid and liquid waste (industrial, agriculture,

urban);• Environmental quality standards, certification and licensing programs;• Engineering and architectural standards to reduce impact on natural resources.

Enforcement of existing and proposed legislation through empowerment and strengtheningof all relevant agencies and community groups.

Strategy 22 - Protect, develop and encourage cultural traditions and traditional knowledge.

Strategy 23 - Develop inter-agency and inter-sectoral communication and information exchange pro-grammes in support of improved environmental protection and integrated resource man-agement.

Strategy 24 - Provide incentives in support of improved environmental protection and integratedresource management.


50

BIODIVERSITY AND TRADITIONALKNOWLEDGE/CULTURE

10.1.Traditional Knowledge

Indigenous cultures, such as the Caribs of Dominica,are a part of the ecological landscape.These originalresidents of Dominica possess considerable knowl-edge about natural resources, and have importantinformation about how the natural landscape andland uses have changed over long periods of time.The ecological knowledge of indigenous people ismost evident in their agricultural systems, which con-tain many different varieties of a single crop, and con-tribute tremendously to the conservation of localbiological diversity. Attempts to harness this knowl-edge about medicinal plants have been made inDominica by non-government organizations such asthe Movement for Cultural Awareness (MCA) andthe Small Projects Assistance Team (SPAT).

In Dominica, knowledge of medicinal plants and theiruses originated with the slaves from Africa and theCaribs. This knowledge base, influenced by colonial-ism, was passed down from generation to generationand adapted as new uses were discovered.To date, atotal of sixty-two (62) plants found in Dominica havebeen identified as a source of traditional medicines.

The potential income which could be derived frombiodiversity prospecting - the exploration of biodi-versity for commercial value of genetic and bio-chemical resource - provides compelling reasons forthe identification and preservation of the world'smost species-rich ecosystems in the tropics. Plantspecies are also very valuable for the medicines theyprovide locally. It is therefore important that tradi-tional practices, culture and knowledge of the peo-ples of Dominica be preserved and conservedbefore this valuable resource is lost.

10.2. Loss of Traditional Knowledge and Culture

The loss of traditional knowledge and culture inDominica has accelerated in the past twenty years.

This is due to a number of factors that by and largerevolve around the globalization of international cul-ture and its associated lowering of the value of tradi-tional knowledge and culture.

The specific elements that have contributed to theprocess are the lack of documentation on traditionalpractices and the disuse or breakdown in mecha-nisms that have historically been utilized for transmit-ting such knowledge throughout the community andto the young. Modern education systems have dis-couraged and in some instances dismissed the valueof traditional knowledge, practices and culture, whilerural and regional migration has contributed to thefurther loss of such knowledge at the communityand local levels. Compared to other countries in theCaribbean region, Dominica still retains much of itstraditional culture and knowledge – which largelyvests with the Carib peoples who are recognized asa distinct culture that is afforded some protectionthrough the establishment of the Carib Territory andthe Carib Council. However, easier access to moderntechnology combined with the lack of appreciationof traditional values and the associated breakdown ofthe traditional family and village unit have combinedto create a situation whereby access to traditionalpractices, cultures and knowledge will shortly be for-ever lost to future generations unless immediateaction to redress the situation is initiated.

SECTION 10

Carib Basket Weaver

51


50


Strategy 25 - Develop inventory of biomaterials and their traditional uses.

Strategy 26 - Ministry of Community Development shall develop (through broad consultation) andimplement a policy and strategy for the protection, encouragement, enhancement, and con-servation of traditional knowledge, culture and values.

Strategy 27 - Formulate and implement a Development Plan for the Carib people that shall be fully inte-grated into the national development planning process.


52

BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

11.1. Background

Climate plays a primary role in determining both thegeographic distribution of organisms and the distri-bution of the habitats upon which they depend.Climate also plays a significant role in plant growingcycles, and may impact upon the reproductiveregimes of some animal species. Dominica’s naturalsystems feature unique microclimates, which areextremely sensitive, and any change in climate willtherefore have a profound impact upon individualspecies of flora and fauna, natural ecosystems andbiodiversity in general.

There is growing concern that increased levels ofatmospheric pollutants from the burning of fossilfuels and the emission of other "greenhouse gases" iscausing significant changes to global climate patterns.The recently completed Third Assessment Report ofIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)has confirmed that global warming is already takingplace, and that significant changes to global climatepatterns are likely to occur in the future.

International concern has led to the development ofthe United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange that establishes a framework to reduce glob-al greenhouse gas emissions, and to address theactual and anticipated impacts of climate change.Dominica signed the Convention in 1993, and is cur-rently in the process of developing appropriatestrategies to reduce the country’s vulnerability to theimpacts of climate change, and to establish appropri-ate adaptation options.

11.2. Climate Change and Biodiversity

Global warming will result in climate change that maybe manifested by:

• Sea level rise;• Changes in local and regional temperatures;• Changes in rainfall patterns;

• An increase in the intensity and frequency ofsevere weather events (droughts, floods, hurri-canes); and

• Changes to ultra-violet penetration levels.

Currently, limited research has been undertaken onthe impacts of climate change on global biodiversity.However, scientist have indicated that project ed cli-mate changes for the next century will result inmajor impacts on forests, biological diversity, waterresources, sea level, marine and aquatic ecosystems,and agriculture. Changes in global climate are likely topresent the following threats to global biodiversity:

• Impacts as a result of warming that exceeds themigrational capacity of species;

• Losses of habitat during progressive shifts in cli-matic conditions;

• Reductions in species diversity through reduc-tions or loss of habitat.

Significant impacts are already being witnessed as inthe case of the Seychelles islands in the Indian Oceanwhere extensive coral loss has been witnessed inrecent years as a result of a rise in coastal watertemperatures. Changing seasonal patterns have alsobeen observed, with a resultant impact on migratoryspecies.

SECTION 11

Erossion


53

11.3. Climate Change Impacts on Dominica’sBiodiversity

Global warming, climate change and sea level rise areissues which can affect coastal areas of Dominica.Hurricane Lenny in November 1999 caused severedamage to the coastline of Dominica. The stormcaused transformation of the seabed and coastline insome areas resulting in total destruction of habitatand consequent loss of biodiversity.

Hurricane Lenny, which was characterised byextremely high impact waves in excess of 60ft high,took a toll on the inshore coral reefs of Dominica.Huge pieces of reef were ripped from the seabedand tossed unto the beach causing severe loss ofhabitat to coastal pelagic and reef fishes. A sizeableamount of coral was washed up on the beaches andareas where there was a rocky shoreline wereturned into sandy beaches and vice versa. It is antic-ipated that global warming and climate change willbring about an increase in the intensity and frequen-cy of such severe weather events in the Caribbeanregion.

It is anticipated that climate change will have a signif-icant impact on Dominica’s biodiversity in the fol-lowing ways:• Intensification of storms as a result will increase

erosion and sedimentation in coastal waters,thereby affecting the resilience of natural systems

• High energy waves will result in increased coastalerosion allowing the sea to encroach furtherinland and also causing severe loss of biodiversi-ty

• Increase in temperature and increase in intensityof ultra-violet radiation will affect sensitivespecies

• Sea level rise will affect low-lying towns and vil-lages and result in extensive economic loss, andgreater development pressure on natural sys-tems

• Change in seasonal weather patterns are likely toimpact traditional farming practices, and affectthe growing cycle of plants:

• Changes in the composition of natural vegeta-tion are likely to result from changing climaticand hydrological conditions.

Climate change is also likely to impact ecologicalinteractions between animal species within and with-out these systems. Increased incidents of floodingwill increase erosion, and affect soil fertility. Sea levelrise will result in the inundation of coral reefs, sea-grass beds and mangrove areas. Fish kills and coralbleaching are likely to result from increased seawater temperatures. An increase in pests and dis-eases is likely to result from changes in seasonal cli-mate patterns. Increased sedimentation from severeweather events will affect fragile aquatic ecosystems.

Wind and hurricane damage


54


Strategy 28 - Adopt and implement Dominica’s Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Action Plan that will,amongst other matters, establish programs for :• Monitoring and research on the potential effects of climate change on biological

diversity;• Implementation of both in situ and ex situ measures to conserve species likely to be

affected by climate change;• Implementation of measures to maintain the maximum possible biological diversity;• Implementation of measures to conserve sufficient natural habitats to enable natural

adaptive mechanisms to function;• Establishment of measures (e.g. pollution control) to enhance the resilience of natural

systems.


55

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOSAFETY

12.1. Background

The Conference of the Parties to the Convention onBiological Diversity adopted a supplementary agree-ment to the Convention known as the CartagenaProtocol on Biosafety on 29 January 2000. TheProtocol has been signed by 104 governments andas of July 2001, five countries (Bulgaria, Fiji, Norway,St. Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago) havenow deposited instruments of ratification. It will enterinto force and become legally binding after 50 gov-ernments have ratified the agreement. The Protocolseeks to protect biological diversity from the poten-tial risks posed by living modified organisms resultingfrom modern biotechnology. It establishes anadvanced informed agreement (AIA) procedure forensuring that countries are provided with the infor-mation necessary to make informed decisions beforeagreeing to the import of such organisms into theirterritory.

12.2. Potential Benefits of Biotechnology

Genetic engineering (GE) promises remarkableadvances in medicine, agriculture, and other fields(such as new medical treatments and vaccines, newindustrial products, and improved fibres and fuels).Proponents of the technology argue that biotechnol-ogy has the potential to lead to increases in foodsecurity, decreased pressure on land use, sustainableyield increase in marginal lands or inhospitable envi-ronments and reduced use of water and agro-chem-icals in agriculture.

12.3. Problems with Biotechnology

There are a number of problems, which have mani-fested themselves internationally since the introduc-tion of GMOs into the environment. Biotechnology isa very new field, and much about the interaction ofGMOs with various ecosystems is not yet known.Some of the concerns about the new technologiesinclude its potential adverse effects on biological

diversity, and potential risks to human health.

Potential areas of concern might be unintendedchanges in the competitiveness, virulence, or othercharacteristics of the target species; the possibility ofadverse impacts on non-target species (such as ben-eficial insects) and ecosystems; the potential for"weediness" in genetically modified crops (where aplant becomes more invasive than the original, per-haps by transferring its genes to wild relatives); andthe stability of inserted genes (the possibilities that agene will lose its effectiveness or will be re-trans-ferred to another host). Consumer groups, environ-mentalists, and scientists have pointed out severalserious problems such genetic tinkering may cause.

1. Crops engineered to resist pesticides and herbi-cides promote reliance on specific chemicals,generally non-organic pest control chemicals, byforcing farmers to buy the type of pesticide orherbicide to which the crops are designed to beresistant.

2. Critics warn that crops engineered to resist pes-ticides and herbicides could pass those traits onto weeds, resulting in herbicide and pesticide-tol-erant "superweeds". Development of such"superweeds" would force farmers to use moreand more herbicides to control plant pests, withunknown effects on the environment and poten-tial risks to food and worker safety.

3. Critics note that GMOs may upset biologicaldiversity. According to a report written for theBritish government, if GMOs eradicate weedsand insects, species that depend on them forfood or habitat, including such birds as the cornbunting, partridge, and skylark, will suffer.Researchers funded by the British governmentfound that plants genetically engineered to resistaphids had serious effects on the fertility and life-span of ladybirds, which feed on aphids.

SECTION 12


56

Furthermore, crops engineered to resist insectpests may also be toxic to harmless or beneficialinsects, such as the Monarch butterflies, greenlacewings and springtails, thereby reducing insectdiversity.

4. Genetically modified foods can pose seriousthreats to consumers with allergies and specificdietary requirements because of ethical, reli-gious, or cultural beliefs. For example, peopleallergic to shellfish could have a reaction tostrawberries with transplanted shrimp genesused to enhance their colour. Scientists havewarned that the altered corn could trigger dan-gerous allergies in some, with children at thegreatest risk.

5. GMO’s might pose human health risks. Scientistsfound that rats fed on the altered potatoes suf-fered stunted internal organ growth and weak-ened immune systems. The Novartis-maize car-ries a resistance gene against a group of antibi-otics, which are used in human medicine, likeAmpicillin, Amoxicililin and various Penicillin-typeantibiotics. These can be transferred to bacteriain the field or in the digestive tract of humansand animals with a result that dangerous bacte-ria could no longer be effectively fought withconventional antibiotics.

6. It has been reported that the contaminationcases in Europe and North America during 2000exemplify that genetically engineered organismscannot be controlled once released into theenvironment. Through pollen flow, unavoidablegrain residues in farm machinery, trucks or ele-vators, or through bagging and handling errors,genetically engineered seeds will eventually showup everywhere in the production chain.

Due to increase public concern about the environ-mental and health risks associated with GE cropsmajor food companies around the world have beenrejecting the use of GE foods.


57

12.4. Biosafety

The rapid pace of advancement in biotechnology and thecommercialisation of Organisms with Novel Traits(ONT’s)/Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s) haveprompted an international movement to create regulato-ry oversight for biotechnology safety (biosafety). To date,biosafety regulation has focused on the movement ofGMOs across national borders and their potential harm toecosystem conservation and the sustainability of biologicaldiversity.

Biosafety is a term used to describe efforts to reduce andeliminate the potential risks resulting from biotechnologyand its products. It refers to the safe transfer, handling anduse of living modified organism possessing a novel combi-nation of genetic material obtained through the use ofmodern biotechnology.

12.5.Biosafety in Dominica

New initiatives in biotechnology have made it necessaryfor countries such as Dominica to protect human, animal,and plant life and the environment. The products ofBiotechnology, generally referred to as "GeneticallyEngineered Organisms" (GEO’s), "Genetically ModifiedOrganisms" (GMO’s), or "Living Modified Organisms"(LMO’s), are created through genetic engineering.Scientists transplant the genes of one species into anoth-er species to try to transfer "desirable" characteristics. Ithas been argued that these genetic changes improveresistance to disease, pesticides, and herbicides, enhancenutritional value, and increase yield. Genetically Modified(GM) crops already have been planted in the U.S.A. forharvest and for test purposes without containment meas-ures to prevent exposure to the broader environment.

A number of organizations in Dominica are involved inbiotechnology research, development and commercialapplication. However, there is little information availableregarding the use, importation or distribution of GMO’sand GMO products. Based on the nature of trade with theWestern World, it is highly likely that genetically modifiedfoods have been inadvertently introduced into theDominican environment.

12.6. Biotechnology

Biotechnology has great potential economic benefits aswell as health concerns. These two issues demand thatthese areas be of critical concern, especially to the legaland institutional requirements. The development of legalcontrols in the importation of GM material and in legisla-tion that protects our biogenetic pool, as well as, an intel-lectual property regime that ensures equitable benefits isa priority.


58


Strategy 29 – Sign and ratify the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

Strategy 30 - Develop comprehensive national biotechnology legislative regime to guide the implementa-tion of bio-safety measures and to ensure protection and use of cultural knowledge that canyield optimal benefit to Dominica.This legislation must seek to compliment the internation-al conventions to which Dominica is signatory.

Strategy 31 - Establish technical committee to:• co-ordinate national biosafety program;• foster greater alliance and cooperation with regional and international institution;• work with government, Non Governmental Organization’s (NGO’s), other agencies and

institutions to foster a national culture of awareness on biosafty;• co-ordinate the development and implementation of public education, awareness and

training programmes at all levels on issues of biotechnology and biosafety.• Develop and implement a national policy on biotechnology.

Strategy 32 - Develop Regional Biosafety Strategy to regulate biotechnology in the CARICOM region,through amongst other things, the establishment of a regional centre to establish the basisfor the introduction of standards for inspection, monitoring and use of biotechnology, tofacilitate and co-ordinate the establishment of a "clearing-house" mechanisms to track theimportation of biotechnology and GMO’s, and to foster greater alliance and co-operationwith regional and international institution.

59


PROJECT TIMEACTIVITIES AGENCIES RESOURCES

1. Inventory ofBiodiversityResources

(Strategy No.6, 12, 17,and 25).

2.Public Information,Awarenes, and Education

Program(Strategy

No.3, 8,18, 20, and

31)

• Consultations and work-shops

• Develop and implementa system for continuoussensitisation of policydecision-makers (publicand private)

• Development of schoolcurriculum

• Inclusion in schools cur-riculum

• Promotional material-visual aids

• Broadcast media, villagemeeting, posters, use offield officers

• Massive Media campaign • Web Page• Public data base

• Radio/ TV inserts • News Paper• Videos• Books • Teachers Guide• Curriculum• Web page• Funding – US$250,000• EU CREP Program

• Teachers • Field officers• ECU• Environmental

Health• Media • Forestry and

National Parks• Fisheries• Coastguard• Dive operators• Tourism operators• Private sector• National Youth

Council • CBOs• Relevant NGOs• SPAT• CCA

6 monthsto Launch

4 yearprogram

INDICATIVE ACTION PLANSECTION 13

• Identify ecosystems /species for inventory

• Design appropriate inven-tory parameters - numberof varieties/breeds/species,location, distribution, etc.

• Undertake all-inclusiveinventories of:• Agricultural diversity • Terrestrial diversity• Aquatic diversity• Marine diversity• Traditional plants and

medicines• Develop and establish

database• Record on database (see

Project No. 9).• Establish a monitoring

program to document anychanges in biodiversity

• Department ofFisheries

• Department ofForestry andNational Parks

• ECU• Department of

Agriculture• National Youth

Council • Carib Council• Ministry of

CommunityDevelopment

• CBOs• Relevant NGOs• Land owners• Dive operators

6 monthsto Launch

4 yearprogram

• Equipment• Training for personnel • Consultants on biodi-

versity inventories• Funding –

US$750,000 (approx.)

60



4. IntegratedLand (Resource) Use Planning andManagement(Strategy No.1,4, 13 and 19.)

5. CapacityBuilding andinstitutionalStrengtheningforEnvironmentalManagement(Strategy No.1,4, 13 and 19.)

Establish/Strengthen LandManagement Unit

• Undertake Resource inven-tory – terrestrial andcoastal

• Development of compre-hensive resource (coastaland terrestrial) use plan

• Development of appropri-ate legal and institutionalstructure (guidelines, zon-ing, set-backs, green belts,etc.)

• Integration into IDPprocess

• Institutional strengthening

• Equipment• Training for personnel • Consultants on Resource

(Land) Use Planning andManagement

• Funding – US$1.5 million(approx.)

• Equipment• Consultants in enviro-

mental management• Funding – US$650,000

• Perform needs assessments• Establish/strengthen regu-

lating agencies• Establish links with regional/

international bodies• Develop a data base of

available skills and expertise • Establish environmental

information system• Establish public sector audit

and review mechanism• Identify training needs and

send persons for training• Identify required technolo-

gies write projects proposalto acquire resources

• Physical Planning Unit• ECU.• NDC• Ministry of

Agriculture and theEnvironment

• Relevant NGO’s • Local Authorities• Lands and Survey

Division

9 monthsto Launch

3 yearprogram

8 monthsto launch

18 monthsprogram

• Physical Planning Unit• ECU• SPAT• NDC• Ministry of Education• Ministry of Agriculture• Other relevant NGO’s • Local Authorities• Manufacturing • Tourism business• Pesticides Control Board • Private sector importers• National Youth Council • Youth Development

Division

3. Development

of Legislative

Framework

(Strategy No. 2,

7, 9, 19, 21, 24,

29, and 30)

• Legal Personnel• Funding –

US$400,000

• Compile and undertake acomprehensive review andevaluation of relevant legis-lation and Conventions

• Identify gaps and inconsis-tencies

• Amend legislation and devel-op new laws as necessary

• Incorporate nationally rati-fied international conven-tions into national laws

• Ensure co-ordination• Lobby for passage• Upgrade and improve

enforcement capacitiesEstablish multi-disciplinarymechanism to facilitate thenegotiation, signing, and imple-mentation of internationalconventions

6 monthsto launch

24 monthprogram

• ECU• Legal Affairs• National Biodiversity

Committee• Relevant NGOs• Foreign Affairs• Ministry of Finance

61



6. Implement a System of Environmental Standards & guidelines (Tourism and manufacturing)(Strategy No.

21).

• Technical Expertise in thearea of environmentalstandards in other coun-tries

• Green Globe• CTO, CAREC• ISO standards• Funding – US$100,000

(Part funded by privatesector)

• ECU and RegulatingAgencies

• Ministry of Tourism• Ministry of

Agriculture• AIC• NGOs• Bureau of Standards• Private sector

• Establish carrying capacity ofterrestrial/marine ecosys-tems

• Consultation with business • Situation assessment of

facilities • Adopt best practices system• Draft standards and guide-

lines• Implement building codes

and engineering/buildingstandards that are sensitiveto natural ecosystems

• Develop monitoring, evalu-ating and reporting systems

6 monthsto launch

24 monthsprogram

Start in 6months

24 monthsprogram

• Establish National WaterBoard to regulate extrac-tion and use

• Inventory/mapping ofwater resources (surface/underground)

• Valuation of water as anational natural resource

• Document water use/ dis-tribution

• Develop water resourcemanagement legislation,policy and plan

• Establish Water Resourcelaws

• DOWASCO• DOMLEC• Forestry Division• Agriculture Division• Environmental Health• ECU• Communication and

Works• Public and private

land owners

• Equipment/GIS system• Consultants in water

resource management• Funding – US$750,000

(Part funded by waterutility)

7. DevelopComprehensive WaterResourceManagementPlan. (StrategyNo. 7).

• Personnel • Information system• SPAT• NDFD• Funding – US$120,000

Start 3months

24 monthprogram

• Community leaders• YES Corp.• Youth Organisations • Local Authorities• ECU community

development • Adult Education• COMPACT• National Youth

Council• Youth Development

Division.

• Develop a data base of tra-ditional farming, construc-tion, medicinal, subsistenceand other practices

• Programs to encouragetraditional farming prac-tices

• Provide technical assistancefor development of tradi-tional practices throughcommunity base organisa-tions

• Incorporate into publicawareness programmes.

8. Develop aprogram thatcaptures and

shares tradi-tional knowl-edge andencouragepractice ofself reliance(Strategy No.11 and 22,25).

62



• Equipment/GIS• Training for personnel • Consultancy on informa-

tion systems design andmanagement

• Funding – US$340,000

* Resources to undertakesurvey and demarcation* Equipment for GIS.

Funding – US$650,000

• Identification of threatenedecosystems/species (terres-trial and marine)

• Survey and demarcate pro-posed protected areas

• Negotiate with land own-ers

• Legally designate• Develop research/manage-

ment programs (e.g. wildlifefarming) for conservationof threatened species

• Establish management pro-gram

Start 3months

12 monthprogram

Start 3months

18 monthprogram

• ECU• Physical Planning• Ministry of Tourism• Forestry Division• Agriculture Division• Academic Institutions• Fisheries Division• Youth Development

Division

• Identify data and informa-tion needs

• Design information man-agement system

• Develop and deploy map-ping and informationmanagement system

• Establish a monitoring andreporting system.

9. Develop adatabase and

informationsystem onterrestrial andmarine biodi-versity(Strategy No.11and 22,25).

10. Identificationand Protection

of Threatened Ecosystems and Species(Strategy No. 4,5 and 10).

Start 3months

5 yearprogram

• Inventory of biodiversityresources

• Establish germplasm/genebank

• Establish Incentive Programfor Conservation of theAgricultural Gene Pool(Livestock and Plants)

• Promote sound conserva-tion practices/technology

• Agro-ecological zoning

• Department ofAgriculture

• Agricultural commu-nity

• Private sector • CARDI• FAO• IICA

• Gene bank• Training for personnel • Consultants• Funding – US$450,000

11.Conservationof Agro-Biodiversity(Strategy No. 14,15, and 16).

Start 12months

3 yearsprogram

• Department ofFisheries

• Department ofForestry andNational Parks

• ECU• Department of

Agriculture• National Youth

Council • Youth Development

Division • Community Groups• Land owners

• Identify interest groups• Develop community own-

ership• Training• Empower communities• Provide incentives• Develop management

plans• Generate financial

resources to sustain con-servation programs

12. Community Participation inTerrestrial and

Marine Conservation(Strategy No. 4 and 11).

• Training for personnel • Consultants on commu-

nity conservation initia-tives and legislation

• Funding – US$150,000

63



• Equipment • Software• Technical support for

committee• Web page• Legal expertise• Infrastructure for

Clearing house mecha-nism

• Funding –US$150,000 (national pro-gram)

US$10 million (RegionalStrategy/Centre)

EU CARIFORUMProject on Biotechnology

6 monthsto launch

18 monthprogramfor nationalactivities

5 year pro-gram forRegionalStrategy

• ECU• Ministry of

Agriculture• Ministry of Health• Customs• CARICOM and

OECS (for RegionalStrategy andCentre)

• Bureau ofStandards

• Co-ordinatingGroup of PesticideControl Boards ofthe Caribbean

• PAHO

• Establish technical commit-tee

• Develop database• Inventory of biomaterials

and their traditional uses.• Capacity building• Web page and clearing

house mechanism• Train Biosafety Officer• Manage database• Co-ordinate drafting of

legislation• Develop Regional

Biosafety Strategy (includ-ing inspection protocols,standards for labelling,monitoring, etc.)

• Establish Regional Centreand clearing-house mecha-nism

• Regulation of BiodiversityProspecting

13. Develop

institutional

capacity for

regulating bio-

technology

(Strategy No.

6,

25, 29, 30, 31

and 32).

Start in 6months

5 yearprogram

• Consultation• Identification of issues• Development of Policy and

Strategy• Implementation of Strategy• Pilot projects• Cultural awareness• Training• Institutional strengthening

• Ministry ofCommunityDevelopment

• CBOs• Carib Council• Village Councils• Relevant NGOs• Ministry of Education• Ministry of Agriculture• Academic Institutions • Documentation

Centre• National Youth

Council

• Technical Assistance• Equipment and materials • Education and training

material• Database• Funding - US$250,000

14. Programfor theConservationof TraditionalKnowledge,

Culture andValues

(Strategy No.26)

64




material• Database• Funding - IDP project


material• Database• Funding - US$400,000

• Technical guidelines• Funding –US$50,000

• Study fiscal incentives inother Countries

• Develop valuation systemfor biological resources/ecosystems.

• Establish economic instru-ments

• Develop promotional cam-paign

• Develop policies/regula-tions to target specificareas

Start in 6months

5 yearprogram

Start in 6months

5 yearprogram

Start 18months

12 monthprogram

• Ministry of Financeand Planning

• Carib Council• Carib Affairs in Prime

Ministers Office• National Youth


Division• Relevant NGOs• CBOs

• ECU• Forestry Division• Agriculture Division• Fisheries Division• Relevant NGOs• National Youth


Division

• NDC• Financial institutions• Legal Affairs• Ministry of Finance • Ministry of Tourism

• Consultation• Identify indigenous issues• Formulate Indigenous

Peoples DevelopmentPlan/Strategy

• Development of mecha-nisms to integrateIndigenous PeoplesDevelopment Plan intonational development plan-ning process

• Integration into IDPprocess

• Implementation of Strategy• Pilot projects• Institutional strengthening

• Adopt/implement relevantelements of Dominica’sClimate ChangeAdaptation Policy andAction Plan

• Monitor/research impactsof climate change on bio-diversity

• Implement conservationmeasures

• Establish measures toenhance resilience of nat-ural systems.

15.DevelopmentPlan for IndigenousCarib Peoples(Strategy No.27)

16.Biodivsreity and Climate ChangeAdaptationProgram

(StrategyNo. 28)

17. Implementa fiscal incen-tive programto encourage commercialventures tomake sustain-able use ofbiodiversity(Strategy No.24).

65


IMPLEMENTATION

The successful implementation of Dominica’sBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan will require thefollowing:

• Public awareness concerning the importance ofthe Strategy and Action Plan, and the generationof broad public support.

• Endorsement of the Strategy and Action Plan bythe Cabinet of Ministers.

• Public participation and involvement in theimplementation of the Strategy and Action Plan.

• The formal establishment of the NationalBiodiversity Committee and NationalBiodiversity Co-ordinator within three monthsof the approval of this Strategy and Action Planby Cabinet.

• The provision of adequate resources (financial,technical, human) from Government,International Agencies, Non-GovernmentalOrganisations (NGOs) and Civil Societies.

• The strengthening of lead agencies involved inthe implementation of the Strategy and ActionPlan, including project development and man-agement skills.

• The integration of the Strategy and Action Planinto national and sectoral planning activities.

• The establishment of out-reach programs andincentives.

It will be the responsibility of the Ministry ofAgriculture and the Environment in collaborationwith the National Biodiversity Committee andNational Biodiversity Co-ordinator to co-ordinateand direct the implementation of Dominica’sBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with supportfrom Government, International Agencies, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and CivilSociety.The Environmental Co-ordinating Unit of theMinistry of Agriculture and Environment shall provideadministrative support to the National BiodiversityCommittee and National Biodiversity Co-ordinatorin undertaking their mandate.

SECTION 14


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MONITORING AND REVIEW

A system of periodic and regular monitoring andreview shall be established to verify that Dominica’sBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is being imple-mented and achieves intended goals and objectives.Every year, on the anniversary of the date of signingof this Strategy and Action Plan by Cabinet, theEnvironmental Coordinating Unit in collaborationwith the National Biodiversity Committee shall sub-mit to Cabinet a report that will:

(a) Document activities that have been undertakento implement the Strategy and Action Plan;

(b) Identify constraints and limitations that have pre-vented the implementation of any aspect of theStrategy and Action Plan;

(c) Indicate activities that shall be undertaken toaddress any constraints or limitations that haveprevented the implementation of any aspect ofthe Strategy and Action Plan;

(d) Provide an overview of progress made in achiev-ing the goals and objectives of the Strategy andAction Plan.

To facilitate the preparation of this Report, everygovernment department and agency shall submit tothe Environmental Coordinating Unit through thecommittee, on an annual basis, a report that docu-ments:

(i) Activities that have been undertaken by thedepartment or agency to implement theStrategy and Action Plan;

(ii) Constraints and limitations experienced by thedepartment or agency that have prevented theimplementation of any aspect of the Strategyand Action Plan;

(iii) Activities that shall be undertaken in the comingyear by the department or agency to addressany constraints or limitations that have prevent-ed the implementation of any aspect of theStrategy and Action Plan.

Additionally, any Non-Governmental Organisation

(NGO) that is undertaking any initiative in support ofthe Strategy or Action Plan, shall periodically reportto the Environmental Co-ordinating Unit through thecommittee on such activities. Upon receiving thereports from the government departments, agenciesand from Non-Governmental Organisations, theEnvironmental Coordinating Unit shall, prior to thepreparation of Government’s annual budgets, conferwith the Ministry of Finance and Planning to deter-mine what measures shall be established to ensurethat Dominica’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan isfully integrated into the national planning process.

Upon reviewing the Report that has been receivedfrom the Environmental Coordinating Unit and theNational Biodiversity Committee, Cabinet shall makethe Report available to the public. A notice to theeffect that the Report is available for public scrutinyshall be published in the local newspapers.

No later than five years after the date of signing ofthis Strategy and Action Plan by Cabinet, theEnvironmental Coordinating Unit in collaborationwith the National Biodiversity Committee shall facili-tate and co-ordinate a broad-based public review ofthe Strategy and Action Plan with a view to deter-mining whether intended goals and objectives havebeen achieved.

The Environmental Co-ordinating Unit shall prepare,on a periodic basis, a State of the Environment Report,that will, amongst other matters:

(1) Document the state of Dominica’s terrestrialand marine biodiversity;

(2) Document the state of Dominica’s agro-biodi-versity;

(3) Document conservation and management activ-ities that are undertaken to protect or conservefragile/vulnerable/threatened species or ecosys-tems;

(4) Identify threats to Dominica’s terrestrial andmarine biodiversity and agro-biodiversity.

SECTION 15

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List of Organisations Consulted

1. AID Bank2. Barclays Bank3. Bureau of Standards4. Canefield Urban Council5. Carib Affairs6. Carib Council7. Colgate Palmolive Co., Ltd.8. COMPACT Project9. Curriculum Unit, Ministry of Education10. Dominica Export Import Agency (DEXIA)11. Division of Agriculture12. Dominica Banana Marketing Corporation (DBMC)13. Dominica Broadcasting Service - Creole Desk14. Dominica Broadcasting Service – News Desk15. Dominica Conservation Association (DCA)16. Dominica Rural Enterprise Project (DREP)17. Dominica Social Security18. Dominica Solid Waste Management Corporation19. Environmental Health department20. ESPWA21. Farmer Groups22. Fisheries Division23. Fishermen Co-operatives24. Forestry,Wildlife & Parks Division25. Government Information Service26. KFC Corporation27. Local Area Management Authority (LAMA)28. Marigot Cooperative Credit Union29. Marpin Telecom & Broadcasting30. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and the Environment31. Ministry of Communication and Works32. Ministry of Finance and Planning 33. Ministry of Sports and Youth Affairs34. Ministry of Tourism35. Ministry of Trade, Industry & Marketing36. National Association for Local Authorities37. National Association for Non-Governmental Organisations (NANGO)38. National Development Corporation39. National Parks Unit40. O. D. Brisbane & Sons Limited.41. Physical Planning Division42. Youth Environmental Services (YES) Corps

ANNEX 1


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ANNEX 21. G. Allport2. Jacqueline André 3. Axel Auguiste4. Kent Auguiste 5. Reny Auguiste 6. Raymond Austrie7. Albert Bellot8. Camella Bellot 9. Alvin Bernard10. Ashton Bertrand11. Moses Brumant12. Myrtle Bruno13. Elude Burton14. Porshia Burton15. Durand Carbon16. Adolphus Christian17. Kent Copel18. Delia Cuffy19. Petra Cuffy20. Leafrose Darroux21. John Davis22. George de Berdt Romilly23. Julien Defoe24. Melvyn Didier25. Eisenhower Douglas26. Anthony Drigo27. Annie Edwards28. Marie-José Edwards29. Rebecca Edwards30. Reginald Eli31. Doreen Ettiene32. Jean Ettiene33. Franklyn Fabien34. Carla Fontaine35. Kaywana Fontaine36. Lujah Fontaine37. Doreen Francis38. Paulette Francis39. Kongit Gabriel40. Albert Gallion41. Lyn Giraud42. Kelly Graneau43. Oliver Grell44. Harold Guiste45. Errol Harris46. Jones Harry47. Audrey Henik

48. James Henry49. Gerard Hill50. Lennox Honychurch51. Arlington James52. Janie Jean Jacques53. Luke Jno. Baptiste54. Cyrille John55. Mark John56. Anne Marie Joseph57. Regina Joseph58. Doreen Joseph59. Elivian Jules60. Emile B. Lancelot61. Elias Lander62. David Lang63. G. Langlais64. Eden Larocque65. Ivon Larocque66. Gerard Langlais67. Lisa Laurent68. Miguel Lawrence69. Rawle Leslie70. Felix Lester71. Cynthia Lewis72. Dave Lloyd73. Ann-Marie Mason74. Cheryl Mason75. Phillip Matthew76. John C. McIntyre77. John Moise78. Julie Morancie79. Clarance Olivance80. Henie E. F. Parillon81. Allan E. Paul82. Cedric Peter83. Gilbatsen Peter84. Algernon Philbert85. Melbour Phillip86. Charles Pierre87. Julie Pierre88. Lilian Polydore89. Luanna Prevost90. Chaminda Rajapakse91. Isaiah Richards92. Anthony Roccditts93. Lucia Sandy94. Peter Sanford

95. Eud Scotland96. Kerr B. Serrant97. Esther Shillingford98. Henry Shillingford99. McPherson St. Luce100. Marcus Thomas101. Derrick Theophille102. Alleyne Thomas103. Anaclete Thomas104. Joseph Thomas105. Patsy Thomas106. Kim Thurlow107. Damien Valmond108. Alexis Valmond109. Olice Valmond110. Rammanuel Victorine111. Maximea Vigilant112. Charles Williams113. David Williams114. Jean Williams

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ACRONYMS ORGANISATIONS

CARDI Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute

CREP Caribbean Regional Environmental Program

CARICOM Caribbean CommunityCARIFORUMCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCBO Community Based OrganizationsCITES Convention on the International

Trade in Endangered Species of Flora & Fauna

COMPACT Community Management of Protected Area Conservation Project

CTO Caribbean Tourism OrganisationDEXIA Dominica Export Import AgencyDOMLEC Dominica Electricity CompanyDOWASCO Dominica Water and Sewerage

CompanyDREP Dominica Rural Enterprise ProjectEC Eastern CaribbeanECU Environmental Coordinating UnitECCB East Caribbean Central BankEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentESPWA Environmental Services Project

WaitikubuliEUCREP European Union CREP (as above)FAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFDD Fisheries Development DivisionGDP Gross Domestic ProductGIS Global Information SystemGIS Government Information ServiceIICA Inter-American Institute for Co-

operation on AgricultureIDP Integrated Development ProjectIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate ChangeISO International Standard OrganisationIUCN International Union for the

Conservation of NatureLAMA Local Area Management AuthorityLMO Living Modified OrganismsMCA Movement for Cultural AwarenessMOA Ministry of Agriculture

NANGO National Association of Non-Governmental AuthorityNBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy &

Action PlanNDC National Development

CorporationNDFD National Development Foundation

of DominicaNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationOECS Organization of American StatesPAHO Pan American Health OrganisationSSMR Soufriere / Scotts Head Marine

ReserveSPAT Small Projects Assistance TeamUNDP United Nation Development

ProgramUNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific

and Cultural OrganisationYESCORPS Youth Environment Service Corps

ANNEX 3


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ANNEX 4REFERENCE 1

Trade and Tourism Sector Plan, December 1990 Percival Marie

Environmental Laws of the Commonwealth Caribbean, Caribbean Law Institute, 1991

Dominica Investment Information Checklist, NDC, 1999

Dominica Environmental Profile, CCA, Govt. of Dominica, USAID, 1991

Central Statistical Office Travel Report, 1999

Earth Summit "92-The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development-Rio de Janeiro,1992

Ecotourism Development Programme- Project Appraisal, CHL Consulting Group, April 1999.

Dominica Import Export Agency, DEXIA

Dominica Association of Industry & Commerce, DAIC

Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Finance.

REFERENCE 2

CCA, 1991. Dominica Country Environmental Profile. U.S. Agency for International Development,Bridgetown, Barbados.

Evans, P.G.H., 1986. Dominica Multiple Land Use Project. Ambio Vol. 15 No. 2, pp 82-89.

GOCD, 1994. Dominica National Environmental Action Plan. Government of the Commonwealth ofDominica.

ICPGR, 1995. International Conference and Program for Plant Genetic Resources. Dominica CountryReport. Ed Charles James.

James, A. and Gallion, A., 1990. The Utilization of Non-Wood Forest Products in Dominica. CaribbeanJournal of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Vol. 1, No. 2, pp 4-12.

FAO, 1998. Forestry Policies in the Caribbean. Volume 2: Reports of 28 selected countries and territories.FAO Forestry Paper 137/2.

Beard, J. S., 1949. The Natural Vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Clarendon Press, Oxford,UK.

Clarke, P., 1994. Conservation Status of the Flora and Fauna of Dominica. Island Resources Foundation(IRF).

James, A., 1990. Freshwater Swamps and Mangrove Species (Revised Edition), Forestry and WildlifeDivision, Ministry of Agriculture. Dominica.

OAS/OECS, 1998. Institutional Analysis in the area of Natural Resource Management. The Case ofDominica.

Pollard, Duke E.E. et al., 1991. Environmental Laws of the Commonwealth Caribbean – Analysis and NeedsAssessment. Commercial Law Monograph Series No. 1 Caribbean Law Institute, University of theWest Indies, (UWI) Barbados.

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Chace, F. and Hobbs, H., 1969. The Freshwater and terrestrial decapod crustaceans of the West Indieswith special reference to Dominica. Smithsonian Inst. Bull. 292,Washington, DC.

Hodge,W., 1954. Flora of Dominica. Lloydia 17 (1, 2 and 3).

Johnson,T., 1988. Biodiversity and Conservation in the Caribbean: profiles of selected islands InternationalCouncil for Bird Preservation (ICBP), Monograph No. 1, Cambridge, UK.

Nicolson, D.H., 1991. Flora of Dominica Part 2: Dicotylyledonae. Smithsonian Institution Press,WashingtonD.C. U.S.A.

Varty, N. et al., 1992. Proposed Morne Diablotin National Park – Draft Management and DevelopmentPlan (1993-2003) International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP).

Schwartz, A. and Henderson, R.W., 1991. Amphibians and Reptiles of the West Indies: Descriptions,Distributions and Natural History. University of Florida, Press, Gainesville, USA.

Maholtra, A. and Thorpe, R. S., 2000. Reptiles and Amphibians of the Eastern Caribbean.MacMillanEducation Ltd. London, Oxford, UK.

Zamore, M. P., 2000. The Wildlife of Dominica (Revised Edition), Forestry and Wildlife Ministry ofAgriculture, Division, Roseau, Dominica.

Swank,W. and Julien C., 1975. Distribution and Status of Wildlife on Dominica. Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Rome.

James, A., 1995. Flora and Fauna of the Cabrits Peninsula. Forestry and Wildlife Division, Ministry ofAgriculture, Roseau, Dominica.

Evans, P.G.H., 1991. Birds of the Eastern Caribbean MacMillan Caribbean, London and Basingstoke, UK.

Evans, P.G.H. and James, A., 1997. Wildlife Checklists: Dominica Nature Island of the Caribbean, FaygatePrinting, Sussex, UK.

GOCD, 2000. Forestry,Wildlife and Parks Division, Corporate Plan 2001-2002, Ministry of Agriculture andthe Environment, Roseau, Dominica.

Faaborg, J. and Arendt,W., 1995. Wildlife Assesments in the Caribbean, USDA Forest Service, Rio Piedras,Puerto Rico.

Prins, P., 1987. Forestry Policy and Administration 1987-1997 Natural Resources and Rural DevelopmentProject. Commonwealth of Dominica. Dept. Reg. Dev., OAS,Washington, DC.

DeMilde, R., 1987. Inventory of the Exploitable Forests of Dominica. FAO, Rome.

Lausche, B., 1986. Dominica National Legislation related to Natural Resource Management. Country LegalReport No. 1. OECS-NRMU, Castries, St. Lucia.

Rainy,W., et al., 1987. Dominica (West Indies) Banana Industry Rehabilitation: A Pesticide Assessment IslandResources Foundation (IRF), St.Thomas,VI.


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NOTES

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