biology 2 lecture material for exam 1 2/biology 2/exam 1... · biology 2 macroevolution &...

Biology 2 Macroevolution & Systematics 1

Biology 2

Lecture Material

For

Exam 1

Eukaryotes

Halophiles

Archaea Thermophiles

Methanogens

Univeral Ancestor

Proteobacteria

Chlamydia

Bacteria Spirochetes

Cyanobacteria

Gram + Bacteria


Microevolution:

Biological Species:

Ring Species

Allopatric Speciation:

Evidence of:

Favorable Conditions:

Sympatric Speciation:

Autopolyploidy:

Allopolyploidy:


Hybrid Zones:

Reinforcement:

Fusion:

Stability:

Adaptive Radiation:

The emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced into an environment, presenting a

diversity of new opportunities and problems


Macroevolution:

Gradualism:

Punctuated Equilibrium:

“Evo-devo”

Macroevolution through Major Changes in the Sequences

and Regulation of Developmental Genes

Effects of Developmental Genes – Changes in Rate and Timing

– Changes in Spatial Patterns

The Evolution of Development – Changes in Gene Sequence

– Changes in Gene Regulation

Effects of Developmental Genes:

Changes in Rate and Timing:

Heterochrony:

Paedeomorphosis:

Paedeogenesis:


Changes in Spatial Patterns:

Homeotic Genes: Hox Genes:

Homeobox: DNA, around 180 base pairs long,

found within genes that are involved in the

regulation of patterns of anatomical development.


The Evolution of Development

Changes in Gene Sequences

Changes in Gene Regulation

Evolutionary Trends:

Species Selection (Steven Stanley):

Size:

Toe Reduction:

Tooth shape/size:

Origin of Evolutionary Novelty

Exaptation (preadaptation):


SYSTEMATICS:

Comparing the genes or genomes of two species is the most direct measure of inheritance from shared

ancestors. Comparisons can be made by using three methods: DNA-DNA hybridization, restriction

maps, and DNA sequencing. Use the information to determine where species A through F belong in the

phylogenetic tree. The information below is comparing the number of differences between an amino acid

sequence from a blood protein found in rodents. (Assumption: The larger the number, the longer they

have been separated from their common ancestor)

A B C D E F

A 0 10 4 9 14 10

B 10 0 11 5 16 2

C 4 11 0 10 15 10

D 9 5 10 0 15 6

E 14 16 15 15 0 16

F 10 2 10 6 16 0

PHYLOGENETIC GROUPINGS:

Monophyletic:

Paraphyletic:

Polyphyletic:


Use the diagram below to identify whether the grouping is monophyletic, paraphyletic or polyphyletic.

A B C D E F G H 1. A and B ____________________

2. A, B and C ____________________

3. D, E, and F ____________________

4. E, F, G and H ____________________

5. F, G, and H ____________________

6. E, F, and G ____________________

SIMILARITIES

Homology:

Analogy:

Molecular Homeoplasy:

ONTOGENY RECAPITULATES PHYLOGENY (Ernst Haekel)


SYSTEMATICS:

Classical Evolutionary (Linnaean) Systematics:

Cladistics:

Assumptions:

Synapomorphies: Shared derived characters

Plesiomorphies: Shared ancestral (primitive) characters

Parsimony:


Cladistic taxonomy and classical evolutionary taxonomy are different methods of interpreting

phylogenetic data and classifying organisms. Read each statement below and check whether it relates to

the cladistic approach, the classical approach, or both. Cladistic Classical

1. Method of classifying organisms and reconstructing phylogeny ___ ___

2. Concerned only with the order of branching lineages ___ ___

3. Produces cladograms ___ ___

4. Concerned with branching and degree of divergence ___ ___

5. Differentiates between primitive and derived characters ___ ___

6. Puts lizards and crocodiles in one class, birds in another ___ ___

7. Becoming more popular with researchers ___ ___

8. Says birds are closer to crocodiles than to other reptiles ___ ___

9. Uses anatomy and molecular biology to determine relationship ___ ___

10. Places humans in the same family as some other apes ___ ___

11. Places humans in their own family, separate from apes ___ ___

12. The approach used 15 years ago ___ ___

13. Considered to be more objective approach ___ ___

14. Involves subjective judgements about divergence ___ ___


Cladogram

In cladistics, similar characteristics that come from a common ancestor are used to divide organisms into

groups. A cladogram will begin by grouping organisms based on a characteristic displayed by all the

members of the group. Subsequently, the larger group, or clade, will contain increasingly smaller groups

(clades) that share the traits of the clades before them, but also exhibit distinct changes as the organism

evolves. Draw a cladogram of the organisms below. (a 0 means the organism lacks that characteristic

and a 1 means the organism has that characteristic present)

Characteristics:

no (0), yes (1)

1 is eukaryotic

2 is multicellular

3 has segmented body

4 has jaws

5 has limbs

6 has hair

7 has placenta


BACTERIA LECTURE

Bacteria Characteristics:

Nucleoid Region:

No Membrane-bound Organelles:

Ribosomes:

Plasma Membrane:

Cell Wall:

Capsule:

Flagella:

Fimbriae:

Pili:

Asexual Reproduction:


Genetic Recombination:

Transformation:

Transduction:

Conjugation:

Classification:

Shape

Gram stain reaction

Oxygen requirements

Feeding strategies


Shapes:

Gram-Stain:

Gram Positive:

Gram Negative:

Oxygen Requirements:

Obligate aerobes:

Obligate anaerobes:

Facultative anaerobes:


Feeding Strategies:

Feeding

Strategy

Energy

Source

Carbon

Source

Photoautotrophs

Chemoautotrophs

Photoheterotrophs

Chemoheterotrophs

Nitrogen Metabolism:

Heterocysts:

Classification:

Bac

teri

a A

rchae

a


Classification:

Examples:

Characteristics:

Group:

Proteobacteria

Salmonella

E. Coli

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Group:

Chlamydias

Chlamydia Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Group:

Spirochetes

Treponema

pallidum

Borrelia

burgdorferi

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others


Group:

Cyanobacteria

Oscillatoria Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Group: Gram-

positive bacteria

Clostridium

Bacillus Anthracis

Streptococcus

Staphylococcus

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Shape:

Gram Stain:

Oxygen Requirement:

Others:

Domain: Archaea

Methanogens

Halophiles

Thermophiles


Pathogens:

Koch’s Postulates:

Bioremediation:

Virus Structure:

Viral Replication:


Virus Genome Structure:

Bacteriophages:

Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles:

HIV Complex:

Treatment:


Protista Lecture

Characteristics:

Protozoa:

Algae:

Fungi-like

Origin of Eukaryotes

Autogeneous:

Endosymbiotic:

Secondary Endosymbiosis:


Phylogeny of Eukarya:

LUCA:

MESS:

Classification:

Alveolata Stramenopila

Amoebozoans Opisthokonts

Rhizaria


Classification of “Protista”

Supergroup: Excavata

S. Characteristics:

Clade2 C2. Characteristics

Diplomonads

Ex.

Parabasalids

Ex.

Clade2 C2. Characteristics Clade3 C3. Characteristics

Euglenozoans

Euglenids

Ex.

Kinetoplastids

Ex.


Supergroup: SAR

S. Characteristics:

Clade1 C1. Characteristics Clade2 C2. Characteristics:

Alveolates Dinoflagellates

Ex.

Apicomplexans

Ex.

Ciliates

Ex.

Stramenopila Diatoms

(Bacillariophyta)

Ex.

Golden Algae

(Chrysophyta)

Ex.

Brown Algae

(Phaeophyta)

Ex.

Oomycetes

Ex.


Supergroup: SAR

S. Characteristics:

Rhizaria Clade2 C2. Characteristics:

Foraminiferans

Ex.

Radiolarians

Ex.

Supergroup: Archaeplastida S. Characteristics

Clade2 C2. Characteriscs:

Red Algae

(Rhodophyta)

Ex.

Chlorophytes

Ex.

Charophytes

Ex.


Supergroup: Unikonta

S. Characteristics:

Clade1 C1. Characteristics Clade2 C2. Characteristics:

Amoebozoans Slime Molds

Clade3 C3

Characteristics

Plasmo-

dial

Ex.

Cellular

Ex.

Gymnamoebas

Ex.

Entamoebas

Ex.

Opisthokonts Nucleariids

Ex.

Choanoflagellates

Ex.


FUNGI LECTURE

Evolution:

General Characteristics:

Animal-like Characteristics:


Fungal Reproduction:

Asexual:

Sexual:

Plasmogamy:

Karyogamy:

Syngamy:

Fungal Classification:

Division: Chytrids:


Division: Zygomycota:


Division: Glomeromycota

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

Division: Ascomycota


Division: Basidiomycota

Microsporidia

Lichens:

Ecological Impacts:

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