BiologyStage 6SyllabusAmended October 20022009558Original published version updated:August 2009 – Updated with minor amendments.June 2009 – Assessment and Reporting information updated (Job No. 2009338)May 2007 – Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 16 No 2 (BOS 24/07) (Job No. 2007260)December 2006 – Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 15 No 6 (BOS 52/06) (Job No. 2006588)June 2004 – Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 13 No 3 (BOS 34/04) (Job No. 2005035)© 2009 Copyright Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.This document contains Material prepared by the Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the State of New South Wales. TheMaterial is protected by Crown copyright.All rights reserved. No part of the Material may be reproduced in Australia or in any other country by any process, electronic orotherwise, in any material form or transmitted to any other person or stored electronically in any form without the prior writtenpermission of the Board of Studies NSW, except as permitted by the Copyright Act. School students in NSW and teachers in schoolsin NSW may copy reasonable portions of the Material for the purposes of bona fide research or study.When you access the Material you agree:• to use the Material for information purposes only• to reproduce a single copy for personal bona fide study use only and not to reproduce any major extract or the entire Materialwithout the prior permission of the Board of Studies NSW• to acknowledge that the Material is provided by the Board of Studies NSW• not to make any charge for providing the Material or any part of the Material to another person or in any way make commercialuse of the Material without the prior written consent of the Board of Studies NSW and payment of the appropriate copyright fee• to include this copyright notice in any copy made• not to modify the Material or any part of the Material without the express prior written permission of the Board of Studies NSW.The Material may contain third party copyright materials such as photos, diagrams, quotations, cartoons and artworks. These materialsare protected by Australian and international copyright laws and may not be reproduced or transmitted in any format without thecopyright owner’s specific permission. Unauthorised reproduction, transmission or commercial use of such copyright materials mayresult in prosecution.The Board of Studies has made all reasonable attempts to locate owners of third party copyright material and invites anyone fromwhom permission has not been sought to contact the Copyright Officer, ph (02) 9367 8289, fax (02) 9279 1482.Published by Board of Studies NSWGPO Box 5300Sydney NSW 2001AustraliaTel: (02) 9367 8111Fax: (02) 9367 8484Internet: www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

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Contents1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study........................................................... 52 Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 Curriculum ........................................................... 63 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 Students ................................................... 74 Aim ............................................................................................................................... 85 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 86 Course Structure ............................................................................................................. 96.1 Preliminary Course................................................................................................ 96.2 HSC Course......................................................................................................... 106.3 Overview ............................................................................................................. 116.4 Other Considerations........................................................................................... 157 Objectives and Outcomes ............................................................................................. 167.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes ..................................................................... 167.2 Key Competencies............................................................................................... 188 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course.............................................................. 198.1 Biology Skills ...................................................................................................... 198.2 A Local Ecosystem.............................................................................................. 228.3 Patterns in Nature ................................................................................................ 25

8.4 Life on Earth........................................................................................................ 298.5 Evolution of Australian Biota.............................................................................. 329 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course......................................................................... 369.1 Biology Skills ...................................................................................................... 369.2 Maintaining a Balance......................................................................................... 399.3 Blueprint of Life.................................................................................................. 439.4 The Search for Better Health............................................................................... 479.5 Option — Communication .................................................................................. 519.6 Option — Biotechnology .................................................................................... 559.7 Option — Genetics: The Code Broken?.............................................................. 599.8 Option — The Human Story ............................................................................... 639.9 Option — Biochemistry ...................................................................................... 6810 Course Requirements.................................................................................................... 7411 Post-school Opportunities............................................................................................. 7512 Assessment and Reporting............................................................................................ 7613 Appendix....................................................................................................................... 77

1Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

The Higher School Certificate Program of StudyThe purpose of the Higher School Certificate program of study is to:• provide a curriculum structure that encourages students to complete secondary education;

• foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particular developing their:– knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they choose– capacity to manage their own learning– desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school– capacity to work together with others– respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;• provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:– further education and training– employment– full and active participation as citizens;• provide formal assessment and certification of students’ achievements;• provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster students’ physical andspiritual development.5

2Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 CurriculumBiology in Stage 6 Science provides students with a contemporary and coherent understanding of theconcepts explaining the functioning, origins and evolution of living things.Biology Stage 6 explores the levels of organisation of life, from the molecular level through cellularto higher levels of organisational structure and function, which exhibit evolution as a common sourceof unity and diversity. It includes developing an understanding of the interactions within andbetween organisms and between organisms and their environment.The study of biology recognises that, while humans are part of nature, they continue to have a greaterinfluence on the environment than any other species. The history and philosophy of science, as itrelates to the development of the understanding, utilisation and manipulation of living systems by thehuman species, is an integral part of the study of contemporary biology and assists students torecognise their responsibility to conserve, protect, maintain and improve the quality of allenvironments for future generations.Biology in Stage 6 draws upon, and builds onto, the knowledge and understanding, skills and values

and attitudes developed in Science Stages 4–5. It further develops students’ understanding of scienceas a continually developing body of knowledge, the role of experimentation in deciding betweencompeting theories, the provisional nature of scientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature ofscience, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas and the impact of science on society.The study of biology involves students working individually and with others in practical, field andinteractive activities that are related to the theoretical concepts considered in the course. It isexpected that students studying biology will apply investigative and problem-solving skills,effectively communicate biological information and understanding and appreciate the contributionthat a study of biology makes to their understanding of the world.The Biology Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have a substantial achievement levelbased on the Science Stages 4–5 course performance descriptions. The subject matter of the Biologycourse recognises the different needs and interests of students by providing a structure that buildsupon the foundations laid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students entering Stage 6 have a wide rangeof abilities, circumstances and expectations.6Biology Stage 6 Syllabus7

3 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 StudentsStages 1–3Science and TechnologyStages 4–5ScienceStage 5Science Life SkillsFor students withspecial education needsStage 6Biology PreliminaryStage 6Science Life SkillsStage 6Biology HSCWorkplace University TAFE Other

Stage 6Vocational Educationand TrainingExperience in learning about the natural and made environment, exploring phenomena andpatterns of events, acquiring scientific skills and relating science to everyday lifeStage 6Senior ScienceHSCBiology Stage 6 Syllabus

4 AimBiology Stage 6 aims to provide learning experiences through which students will:• acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to living things andtheir environments, the historical development of these concepts and their application to personal,social, economic, technological and environmental situations• progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to the understanding of modelsand concepts and the explanation of generalised biology terms, from the collection andorganisation of information to problem-solving, and from the use of simple communication skillsto those which are more sophisticated• develop positive attitudes towards the study of living things, the environment and the opinionsheld by others, recognising the importance of evidence and the use of critical evaluation ofdifferent scientific opinions related to various aspects of biology.

5 ObjectivesStudents will develop knowledge and understanding of:1 the history of biology2 the nature and practice of biology3 applications and uses of biology4 the implications of biology for society and the environment5 current issues, research and developments in biology6 cell ultrastructure and processes7 biological diversity8 environmental interactions9 mechanisms of inheritance10 biological evolution.Students will develop further skills in:11 planning investigations

12 conducting investigations13 communicating information and understanding14 developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques15 working individually and in teams.Students will develop positive values about and attitudes towards:16 themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, biology and the environment.8

6Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

Course StructureThe Biology Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and an HSC course. The Preliminary andHSC courses are organised into a number of modules. The Preliminary modules consist of corecontent that would be covered in 120 indicative hours.The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules. The core contentcovers 90 indicative hours with ONE option covering 30 indicative hours. Students are required tocover ONE of the options.Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work during both the Preliminary and HSCcourses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practicalexperiences must include at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledgeoutcomes in both the Preliminary and HSC courses.Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities, including:• undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-basedtechnologies• fieldwork• research, using a wide range of sources, including print materials, the Internet and digitaltechnologies• using computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data• using and reorganising secondary data• extracting and reorganising information in the form of flow charts, tables, graphs, diagrams, proseand keys• using animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not available in other

forms.6.1 Preliminary Course120 indicative hoursThe Preliminary course incorporates the study of:• A Local Ecosystem (20 indicative hours)• Patterns in Nature (40 indicative hours)• Life on Earth (30 indicative hours)• Evolution of Australian Biota (30 indicative hours)9Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

6.2 HSC Course120 indicative hoursThe HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary course contains contentthat is considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course. The HSC course incorporates thestudy of:a) the core, which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes:• Maintaining a Balance (30 indicative hours)• Blueprint of Life (30 indicative hours)• The Search for Better Health (30 indicative hours)b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one of the following:• Communication• Biotechnology• Genetics: The Code Broken?• The Human Story• Biochemistry10Biology Stage 6 Syllabus11

6.3 OverviewThe following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements of the course.6.3 OverviewThe following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements ofthe course.An independent learnercreative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident,ready to take their place as a member of societyContent of each moduleContextsto increase motivation,conceptual meaning,literacy or confidencePrescribed Focus Areas Domainidentify emphases that contains knowledge andare applied to what is understanding, skills and valuesbeing learned and attitudes to be learned

set within a background of ongoing assessment aimed at assisting students to learnObjectivesdefine in broad terms the knowledge andunderstandings, skills and values and attitudesOutcomesdefine the intended results of teachingAimstates the overall purpose of the syllabus11Biology Stage 6 SyllabusBiology Stage 6 SyllabusContextContexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of the Prescribed Focus Areasand Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and therefore communicate meanings that are culturallyshaped or defined. Contexts draw on the framework of society in all aspects of everyday life. Thecontexts for each module encourage students to recognise and use their current understanding tofurther develop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.Prescribed Focus AreasThe Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposes designed to increasestudents’ understanding of biology as an ever-developing body of knowledge, the provisional natureof scientific explanations in biology, the complex relationship between evidence and ideas in biologyand the impact of biology on society.The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed across the modules of the syllabus.History of biologyKnowledge of the historical background of biology is important for an adequate understanding of theorigins, functioning and evolution of living organisms. Students should develop knowledge of:• the progressive accumulation of knowledge about living things and their environment• the part that an understanding of living things and their environment plays in shaping society• how our understanding of living things and their environment is influenced by society.Nature and practice of biologyA study of biology should enable students to participate in scientific activities and developknowledge of the practice of biology. Students should develop knowledge of the provisional nature

of biological explanations and the complex relationship between:• existing biological views and the evidence supporting these• the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas• the stimulation provided by technological advances in understanding biology• the constraints imposed on understanding biology by the limitations of current technology and thestimulation this provides for the development of the required technology and technologicaladvances.Applications and uses of biologySetting the study of biology into broader contexts allows students to deal with real problems andapplications. The study of biology should increase students’ knowledge of:• the relevance, usefulness and applicability of biological concepts and principles• how increases in our understanding in biology have led to the development of useful technologiesand systems• the contributions biology has made to society, with particular emphasis on Australianachievements.12Biology Stage 6 SyllabusImplications of biology for society and the environmentBiology has an impact on our society and the environment and students need to develop knowledgeof the importance of positive values and practices in relation to society and the environment. Thestudy of biology should enable students to develop:• understanding about the interrelatedness among people and their biophysical surroundings• skills in decision-making about issues concerning society and the environment• an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of a scientist• an awareness of areas of biology that relate to distinctively Australian environments.Current issues, research and developments in biologyBiological issues and developments are more readily known and more information is available tostudents than ever before about current issues, research and developments in biology. The syllabusshould develop students’ knowledge of:

• areas currently being researched in biology• career opportunities in biology and related fields• events reported in the media that require an understanding of some aspect of biology.DomainKnowledge and understandingAs a course that focuses on one of the major disciplines of science, Biology presents a particular wayof thinking about the world. It encourages students to use inference, deductive and inductivereasoning and creativity. It presumes that the interactions within organisms, between organisms, andbetween organisms and their environments occur in consistent patterns that can be understoodthrough careful, systematic study.The Biology course extends the study developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course, particularly inrelation to students’ knowledge and understanding of cell theory, evolution, classification oforganisms and the Watson-Crick model of DNA. The course builds on the fundamental knowledgeand understanding of the functioning of systems and structures in living organisms as well as theinterrelationships between living things. The Biology Stage 6 course assumes that students have anelementary knowledge and understanding of ecosystems, biosphere, biodiversity and human impacton the environment which are developed in the Science Stages 4–5 course.13Biology Stage 6 SyllabusSkillsThe Biology course involves the further development of the skills students have developed in theScience Stages 4–5 course through a range of practical experiences in both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. The skills developed in Science Stages 4–5 are fundamental to Biology Stage 6, where amore sophisticated level will be developed.Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSC courses. Studentswill complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work across both the Preliminary and HSCcourses with no less than 35 indicative hours of practical experiences in the HSC course. Practical

experiences have been designed to utilise and further develop students’ expertise in each of thefollowing skill areas:• planning investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in planning and organising activities, effectively usingtime and resources, selecting appropriate techniques, materials, specimens and equipment tocomplete activities, establishing priorities between tasks and identifying ways of reducing riskswhen using laboratory and field equipment.• conducting investigationsThis involves increasing students’ skills in locating and gathering information for a plannedinvestigation. It includes increasing students’ skills in performing first-hand investigations,gathering first-hand data and accessing and collecting information relevant to biology fromsecondary sources using a variety of technologies.• communicating information and understandingThis involves increasing students’ skills in processing and presenting information. It includesincreasing students’ skills in speaking, writing and using non-verbal communication, such asdiagrams, graphs and symbols, to convey biological information and understanding. Throughoutthe course, students become increasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technicalterminology and the form and style required for written and oral communication in biology.• developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniquesThis involves further increasing students’ skills in clarifying issues and problems relevant tobiology, framing a possible problem-solving process, developing creative solutions, anticipatingissues that may arise, devising appropriate strategies to deal with those issues and workingthrough the issues in a logical and coherent way.• working individually and in teamsThis involves further increasing students’ skills in identifying a collective goal, defining andallocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles in working as an effective member ofa team within the agreed time frame to achieve the goal. Throughout the course, students are

provided with further opportunities to improve their ability to communicate and relate effectivelyto each other in a team.14Biology Stage 6 SyllabusValues and attitudesBy reflecting on past, present and future involvement of biology within society, students areencouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes. These include a responsibleregard for both the living and non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour, a desirefor critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science and recognising theirresponsibility to conserve, protect and maintain the quality of all environments for futuregenerations.Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigations depend, such ascuriosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking, willingness to suspend judgement,tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance of the provisional status of scientific knowledge. Studentsneed to balance these with commitment, tenacity, a willingness to take risks and make informedjudgements and, at times, inflexibility. As well as knowing something of and/or about biology,students need to value and appreciate biology if they are to become scientifically literate persons.6.4 Other ConsiderationsSafety IssuesSchools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensure that they complywith the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 (NSW), the Occupational Health and SafetyRegulation 2001, the Dangerous Goods Act 1975 (NSW), the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978(NSW) and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system and schoolrequirements in relation to safety when implementing their programs.Schools should refer to the resource package Chemical Safety in Schools (DET, 1999) to assist themin meeting their legislative obligations.Animal Research ActSchools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practical activities

involving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW) as described in theAnimals in Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachers (2002), produced on behalf of theSchools Animal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) by the NSW Department of Education andTraining.15Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

7 Objectives and Outcomes7.1 Table of Objectives and OutcomesObjectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesPrescribed Focus AreaStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:A student: A student:1 the history of biology P1 outlines the historicaldevelopment of majorbiological principles,concepts and ideasH1 evaluates how majoradvances in scientificunderstanding and technologyhave changed the direction ornature of scientific thinking2 the nature and practiceof biologyP2 applies the processes that areused to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience, with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in biologyH2 analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inbiology have been tested andvalidated3 applications and usesof biologyP3 assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understanding inbiologyH3 assesses the impact ofparticular advances in biologyon the development oftechnologies4 implications of biologyfor society and theenvironmentP4 describes applications ofbiology which affect society

or the environmentH4 assesses the impacts ofapplications of biology onsociety and the environment5 current issues, researchand developments inbiologyP5 describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of biologicalresearchH5 identifies possible futuredirections of biologicalresearchDomain: Knowledge6 cell ultrastructure andprocessesP6 explains how cellultrastructure and thecoordinated activities of cells,tissues and organs contributeto macroscopic processes inorganismsH6 explains why the biochemicalprocesses that occur in cellsare related to macroscopicchanges in the organism7 biological diversity P7 describes the range oforganisms in terms ofspecialisation for a habitatH7 analyses the impact of naturaland human processes onbiodiversity8 environmentalinteractionsP8 analyses the interrelationshipsof organisms within theecosystemH8 evaluates the impact ofhuman activity on theinteractions of organisms andtheir environment9 mechanisms ofinheritanceP9 explains how processes ofreproduction ensurecontinuity of speciesH9 describes the mechanisms ofinheritance in molecularterms10 biological evolution P10 identifies and describes theevidence for evolutionH10 describes the mechanisms ofevolution and assesses theimpact of human activity on

evolution16Biology Stage 6 SyllabusObjectives Preliminary Course Outcomes HSC Course OutcomesStudents will developknowledge andunderstanding of:A student: A student:Domain: Skills11 planninginvestigationsP11 identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plansH11 justifies the appropriatenessof a particular investigationplan12 conductinginvestigationsP12 discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-hand investigationsand secondary sourcesH12 evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliabilitycould be improved ininvestigations13 communicatinginformation andunderstandingP13 identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding in biologyH13 uses terminology andreporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully to communicateinformation andunderstanding14 developing scientificthinking and problemsolvingtechniquesP14 draws valid conclusions fromgathered data and informationH14 assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information15 working individuallyand in teamsP15 implements strategies to workeffectively as an individual oras a team memberH15 explains why an

investigation is bestundertaken individually orby a teamDomain: Values &Attitudes16 themselves, others,learning as a lifelongprocess, biology andthe environmentP16 demonstrates positive valuesabout and attitudes towardsboth the living and nonlivingcomponents of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of scienceH16 justifies positive valuesabout and attitudes towardsboth the living and nonlivingcomponents of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science17Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

7.2 Key CompetenciesBiology Stage 6 provides a context within which to develop general competencies consideredessential for the acquisition of effective, higher-order thinking skills necessary for further education,work and everyday life.Key competencies are embedded in the Biology Stage 6 Syllabus to enhance student learning and areexplicit in the objectives and outcomes of the syllabus. The key competencies of collecting,analysing and organising information and communicating ideas and information reflect coreprocesses of scientific inquiry and the skills identified in the syllabus assist students to continue todevelop their expertise in these areas.Students work as individuals and as members of groups to conduct investigations and, through this,the key competencies, planning and organising activities and working with others and in teams,are developed. During investigations, students use appropriate information technologies and so

develop the key competency of using technology. The exploration of issues and investigations ofproblems contribute towards students’ development of the key competency solving problems.Finally, when students analyse statistical evidence, apply mathematical concepts to assist analysis ofdata and information and construct tables and graphs, they are developing the key competency usingmathematical ideas and techniques.18Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

8 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course8.1 Biology SkillsDuring the Preliminary course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content throughwhich skill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content toprovide students with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.Preliminary CourseOutcomesContentA student: Students:P11 identifies andimplementsimprovements toinvestigationplans11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect maybe researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and explain the qualitative orquantitative analysis that will be required for this data to be usefulc) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and uncertainty that maybe present in the measurement of datad) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection orgathering information that will assist efficient future analysis11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe

variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure thatthese variables are kept constant and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to becollectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why aprocedure, a sequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation andidentify strategies to address these issues if necessary11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination ofequipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and identifyingand addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigating and determining itssuitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure or investigationsd) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing ofmaterial and analysing the potentially different results of these two procedures19Biology Stage 6 SyllabusP12 discusses thevalidity andreliability of datagathered fromfirst-handinvestigationsand secondarysources12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications areneeded and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage ofresourcesc) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced during theinvestigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations12.2 gather first-hand information by:

a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate technologies,including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms,carrying out repeat trials as appropriate12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular scientificjournals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information insecondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as fromwritten and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which theyare currently working and information about their research12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relativeimportance of the data and information gatheredb) apply mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods,including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in relation tothe area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data by consideringinformation from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media by comparisonwith similar information presented in scientific journalsP13 identifies 13.1 present information by:appropriateterminology andreporting styles tocommunicateinformation andunderstanding inbiologya) selecting and using appropriate text types, or combinations thereof, for oral andwritten presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and information

c) selecting and using appropriate formats to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units forphysical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and presentinformation clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and relationshipsclearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to presentgraphical information20Biology Stage 6 SyllabusP14 draws valid 14.1 analyse information to:conclusions from a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data andgathered data and informationinformation b) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or aproposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or makepredictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used tosolve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particularproblemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identifiedproblem14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and includecorrect use of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the

results of investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationshipsP15 implements The Preliminary course further increases students’ skills in working individually andstrategies to work in teams. Refer to the content overview on page 14.effectively as anindividual or as amember of ateam21Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

8.2 A Local EcosystemContextual OutlineThe environment has an impact on all organisms in ways that a Biology student will learn torecognise and explain. Students are able to draw on existing knowledge of their own local area andexpand on their understanding of biological concepts that can be identified through careful analysisof the biotic and abiotic factors operating.While the study of the relationships of organisms with each other and with their physicalenvironment can be theoretically presented in a classroom setting or by using simulations of naturalpopulations, communities and even ecosystems, the study of ecology in the field is essential. Studyof this module must include field experience of a local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem to observe andmeasure some of the abiotic parameters to which the main plant and animal species are adapted andto study some of the trophic, competitive and symbiotic interactions between organisms in thatecosystem.Students should be encouraged to analyse and report on those aspects of the local environment thathave been affected by people and propose realistic solutions to the problems that exist. The reportshould include: a statement of purpose; a clear and detailed description of the area studied; anybackground material collected on the area; appropriate presentation of data collected; analysis ofdata; suggestions of the relationships that exist in the area; and an assessment of human impact onthe area.This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice and applications of biology.Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Years 7–10 Syllabus for the following:5.10a) distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment5.10b) describe the importance of cycles of materials in ecosystems5.10c) describe some impacts of human activities on ecosystems5.11.2a) relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances5.11.2c) discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in ecosystems withconserving, protecting and maintaining the quality and sustainability of the environment.22Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1. Thedistribution,diversity andnumbers ofplants andanimals foundin ecosystemsare determinedby biotic andabiotic factors compare the abiotic characteristics of process and analyse informationaquatic and terrestrial environments obtained from a variety of samplingstudies to justify the use of different identify the factors determining the sampling techniques to makedistribution and abundance of a species population estimates when total countsin each environment cannot be performed describe the roles of photosynthesis andrespiration in ecosystems identify uses of energy by organisms identify the general equation foraerobic cellular respiration and outlinethis as a summary of a chain ofbiochemical reactions23Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. Each localaquatic orterrestrialecosystemis unique examine trends in population estimatesfor some plant and animal specieswithin an ecosystem

outline factors that affect numbers inpredator and prey populations in thearea studied identify examples of allelopathy,parasitism, mutualism andcommensalism in an ecosystem andthe role of organisms in each type ofrelationship describe the role of decomposers inecosystems explain trophic interactions betweenorganisms in an ecosystem using foodchains, food webs and pyramids ofbiomass and energy define the term adaptation and discussthe problems associated with inferringcharacteristics of organisms asadaptations for living in a particularhabitat identify some adaptations of livingthings to factors in their environment identify and describe in detailadaptations of a plant and an animalfrom the local ecosystem describe and explain the short-termand long-term consequences on theecosystem of species competing forresources identify the impact of humans in theecosystem studied choose equipment or resources andundertake a field study of a localterrestrial or aquatic ecosystem toidentify data sources and:– measure abiotic variables in theecosystem being studied usingappropriate instruments and relatethis data to the distribution oforganisms– estimate the size of a plantpopulation and an animalpopulation in the ecosystem usingtransects and/or random quadrats– collect, analyse and present data todescribe the distribution of the plantand animal species whoseabundance has been estimated– describe two trophic interactionsfound between organisms in thearea studied

– identify data sources and gather,present and analyse data by:- tabulation of data collected inthe study- calculation of mean values withranges- graphing changes with time inthe measured abiotic data- evaluating variability inmeasurements made duringscientific investigations gather information from first-hand andsecondary sources to construct foodchains and food webs to illustrate therelationships between member speciesin an ecosystem process and analyse information andpresent a report of the investigation ofan ecosystem in which the purpose isintroduced, the methods described andthe results shown graphically and useavailable evidence to discuss theirrelevance24Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

8.3 Patterns in NatureContextual OutlineDetailed examination of one or two species of living things does not provide an overview of thegeneral features of living things. By looking across the range of commonly occurring livingorganisms, patterns in structure and function can be identified. These patterns reflect the fundamentalinputs and outputs of living things – the absorption of necessary chemicals and the release of wastes.At a microscopic level, there are patterns in the structure and function of cells. The fundamentalstructural similarities exist because the biochemical processes are similar. Some importantdifferences between plant and animal cells reflect the fundamental differences between plants andanimals – the process of photosynthesis in plants.Many living things have evolved complex and efficient systems with large surface areas to facilitatethe intake and removal of substances. Transport systems allow distribution and collection of nutrientsand wastes.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of biology.Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Years 7–10 Syllabus for the following:5.7.3c) construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemicalreactions5.8.1a) explain that systems in multicellular organisms serve the needs of cells5.8.1b) identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellularorganisms5.8.2c) identify that information is transferred as DNA on chromosomes when cells reproducethemselves5.8.2d) identify that genes are part of DNA.25Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1. Organisms aremade of cellsthat havesimilarstructuralcharacteristics2. Membranesaround cellsprovideseparationfrom and linkswith theexternalenvironment outline the historical development ofthe cell theory, in particular, thecontributions of Robert Hooke andRobert Brown describe evidence to support the celltheory discuss the significance oftechnological advances todevelopments in the cell theory identify cell organelles seen withcurrent light and electron microscopes describe the relationship between thestructure of cell organelles and theirfunction identify the major groups of

substances found in living cells andtheir uses in cell activities identify that there is movement ofmolecules into and out of cells describe the current model ofmembrane structure and explain howit accounts for the movement of somesubstances into and out of cells compare the processes of diffusionand osmosis explain how the surface area tovolume ratio affects the rate ofmovement of substances into and outof cells use available evidence to assess theimpact of technology, including thedevelopment of the microscope on thedevelopment of the cell theory perform a first-hand investigation togather first-hand information using alight microscope to observe cells inplants and animals and identifynucleus, cytoplasm, cell wall,chloroplast and vacuoles process information from secondarysources to analyse electronmicrographs of cells and identifymitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgibodies, lysosomes, endoplasmicreticulum, ribosomes, nucleus,nucleolus and cell membranes plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-hand investigationto gather information and useavailable evidence to identify thefollowing substances in tissues:– glucose– starch– lipids– proteins– chloride ions– lignin perform a first-hand investigation tomodel the selectively permeablenature of a cell membrane perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the difference betweenosmosis and diffusion perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the effect of surface area

to volume ratio on rate of diffusion26Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Plants andanimals havespecialisedstructures toobtainnutrients fromtheirenvironment identify some examples thatdemonstrate the structural andfunctional relationships between cells,tissues, organs and organ systems inmulticellular organisms distinguish between autotrophs andheterotrophs in terms of nutrientrequirements identify the materials required forphotosynthesis and its role inecosystems identify the general word equation forphotosynthesis and outline this as asummary of a chain of biochemicalreactions explain the relationship between theorganisation of the structures used toobtain water and minerals in a range ofplants and the need to increase thesurface area available for absorption explain the relationship between theshape of leaves, the distribution oftissues in them and their role describe the role of teeth in increasingthe surface area of complex foods forexposure to digestive chemicals explain the relationship between thelength and overall complexity ofdigestive systems of a vertebrateherbivore and a vertebrate carnivorewith respect to:– the chemical composition of theirdiet– the functions of the structuresinvolved plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform first-hand investigationsto gather information and use

available evidence to demonstrate theneed for chlorophyll and light inphotosynthesis perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the relationship betweensurface area and rate of reaction identify data sources, gather, process,analyse and present information fromsecondary sources and use availableevidence to compare the digestivesystems of mammals, including agrazing herbivore, carnivore and apredominantly nectar feeding animal27Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:4. Gaseousexchange andtransportsystemstransferchemicalsthrough theinternal andbetween theexternalenvironmentsof plants andanimals5. Maintenance oforganismsrequiresgrowth andrepair compare the roles of respiratory,circulatory and excretory systems identify and compare the gaseousexchange surfaces in an insect, a fish,a frog and a mammal explain the relationship between therequirements of cells and the need fortransport systems in multicellularorganisms outline the transport system in plants,including:−root hair cells−xylem−phloem−stomates and lenticels compare open and closed circulatory

systems using one vertebrate and oneinvertebrate as examples identify mitosis as a process ofnuclear division and explain its role identify the sites of mitosis in plants,insects and mammals explain the need for cytokinesis in celldivision identify that nuclei, mitochondria andchloroplasts contain DNA use available evidence to perform afirst-hand investigation and gatherfirst-hand data to identify anddescribe factors that affect the rate oftranspiration perform a first-hand investigation ofthe movement of materials in xylemor phloem use available evidence to discuss,using examples, the role oftechnologies, such as the use ofradioisotopes in tracing the path ofelements through living plants andanimals perform a first-hand investigationusing a microscope to gatherinformation from prepared slides todescribe the sequence of changes inthe nucleus of plant or animal cellsundergoing mitosis28Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

8.4 Life on EarthContextual OutlineLife has evolved over millions of years from the common elements found in the cosmos. Simpleterrestrial life has been found to exist in the most hostile of conditions on Earth and evidence fromAustralian scientists has shown that bacteria exist kilometres deep in the Earth’s crust and have doneso for millions of years.Organic molecules formed on Earth in an environment that is very different to that existing today.When these organic molecules were separated from their environment by a membrane, they began tocarry out the chemical reactions of life in such a way as to sustain their existence and allow

reproduction. The evolution of photosynthesis caused a change from an anoxic to an oxicenvironment that continues to support most of the living things on Earth today.Fossil evidence indicates changes in complexity and diversity of life forms. It is the diversity ofliving organisms that has led scientists to develop classification systems that group these organismsaccording to their structural or genetic similarity. Recent advances in molecular biology andbiochemistry have allowed scientists to better describe the origins, processes and evolution of life.This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Years 7–10 Syllabus for the following:5.8.3a) discuss evidence that present-day organisms have evolved from organisms in the distantpast5.9.4b) describe conditions under which fossils form5.9.4c) relate the fossil record to the age of Earth and the time over which life has been evolving.29Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1. Analysis of the oldestsedimentary rocksprovides evidence forthe origin of life2. The fossil recordprovides informationabout the subsequentevolution of livingthings identify the relationship between theconditions on early Earth and theorigin of organic molecules discuss the implications of theexistence of organic molecules in thecosmos for the origin of life on Earth describe two scientific theoriesrelating to the evolution of thechemicals of life and discuss theirsignificance in understanding theorigin of life discuss the significance of the Urey

and Miller experiments in the debateon the composition of the primitiveatmosphere identify changes in technology thathave assisted in the development ofan increased understanding of theorigin of life and evolution of livingthings identify the major stages in theevolution of living things, includingthe formation of:−organic molecules−membranes−procaryotic heterotrophic cells−procaryotic autotrophic cells−eucaryotic cells−colonial organisms−multicellular organisms describe some of thepalaeontological and geologicalevidence that suggests when lifeoriginated on Earth explain why the change from ananoxic to an oxic atmosphere wassignificant in the evolution of livingthings discuss the ways in whichdevelopments in scientificknowledge may conflict with theideas about the origins of lifedeveloped by different cultures gather information fromsecondary sources to describe theexperiments of Urey and Millerand use the available evidence toanalyse the:– reason for their experiments– result of their experiments– importance of theirexperiments in illustrating thenature and practice of science– contribution to hypothesesabout the origin of life process and analyse informationto construct a timeline of themain events that occurred duringthe evolution of life on Earth gather first-hand or secondaryinformation to make observationsof a range of plant and animal

fossils identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to evaluate the impact ofincreased understanding of thefossil record on the developmentof ideas about the history of lifeon Earth30Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Further developmentsin our knowledge ofpresent-day organismsand the discovery ofnew organisms allowsfor betterunderstanding of theorigins of life and theprocesses involved inthe evolution of livingthings4. The study of presentdayorganismsincreases ourunderstanding of pastorganisms andenvironments describe technological advances thathave increased knowledge ofprocaryotic organisms describe the main features of theenvironment of an organism fromone of the following groups andidentify its role in that environment:– Archaea– Bacteria explain the need for scientists toclassify organisms describe the selection criteria used indifferent classification systems anddiscuss the advantages anddisadvantages of each system explain how levels of organisation ina hierarchical system assistclassification discuss, using examples, the impactof changes in technology on thedevelopment and revision of

biological classification systems describe the main features of thebinomial system in namingorganisms and relate these to theconcepts of genus and species identify and discuss the difficultiesexperienced in classifying extinctorganisms explain how classification oforganisms can assist in developingan understanding of present and pastlife on Earth use the available evidence tooutline similarities in theenvironments past and present fora group of organisms within oneof the following:– Archaea– Bacteria analyse information fromsecondary sources to discuss thediverse environments that livingthings occupy today and useavailable evidence to describepossible alternative environmentsin which life may have originated perform a first-hand investigationand gather information toconstruct and use simpledichotomous keys and show howthey can be used to identify arange of plants and animals usinglive and preserved specimens,photographs or diagrams of plantsand animals31Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

8.5 Evolution of Australian BiotaContextual OutlineThe very large southern landmass, Gondwana, persisted for some time, giving rise to an array ofspecies that spread across it. When Gondwana broke up, it did so in stages but eventually theAustralian continent was isolated from Antarctica and South America.The available evidence suggests that, as Gondwana was breaking up, a number of global climaticchanges were also occurring. These changes in environmental conditions impacted on Australian

ecosystems and are reflected in the fossil record. As the biotic and abiotic features of ecosystemswere altered, those organisms best adapted to these changes survived and passed on their geneticinformation to their offspring.The contribution of paleontology and the study of past environments is important to ourunderstanding of how our present actions may affect our environment and the distribution of floraand fauna in the future.This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of biology, implicationsfor society and the environment and current issues, research and developments in biology.Assumed KnowledgeDomain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Years 7–10 Syllabus for the following:5.8.3a) discuss evidence that present-day organisms have evolved from organisms in the distantpast5.8.1b) identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in multicellularorganisms5.8.3b) relate natural selection to the theory of evolution5.9.2a) discuss evidence that suggests crustal plates move over time32Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1. Evidence for therearrangement ofcrustal plates andcontinental driftindicates thatAustralia was oncepart of an ancientsuper continent identify and describe evidencethat supports the assertion thatAustralia was once part of alandmass called Gondwana,including:−matching continental margins−position of mid-ocean ridges−spreading zones betweencontinental plates−fossils in common onGondwanan continents,including Glossopteris and

Gangamopteris flora, andmarsupials−similarities between presentdayorganisms on Gondwanancontinents discuss current research into theevolutionary relationshipsbetween extinct species,including megafauna and extantAustralian species solve problems to identify thepositions of mid-ocean ridges andspreading zones that infer a movingAustralian continent identify data sources, gather, processand analyse information fromsecondary sources and use availableevidence to illustrate the changingideas of scientists in the last 200years about individual species suchas the platypus as new informationand technologies became available33Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. The changes inAustralian flora andfauna over millions ofyears have happenedthrough evolution discuss examples of variationbetween members of a species identify the relationship betweenvariation within a species and thechances of survival of specieswhen environmental changeoccurs identify and describe evidence ofchanging environments inAustralia over millions of years identify areas within Australiathat experience significantvariations in temperature andwater availability identify changes in thedistribution of Australian species,as rainforests contracted andsclerophyll communities andgrasslands spread, as indicated byfossil evidence

discuss current theories thatprovide a model to account forthese changes discuss Darwin’s observations ofAustralian flora and fauna andrelate these to his theory ofevolution gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto develop a timeline that identifieskey events in the formation ofAustralia as an island continent fromits origins as part of Gondwana gather information from secondarysources to describe some Australianfossils, where these fossils werefound and use available evidence toexplain how they contribute to thedevelopment of understanding aboutthe evolution of species in Australia perform a first-hand investigation,gather information of namedAustralian fossil samples and useavailable evidence to identifysimilarities and differences betweencurrent and extinct Australian lifeforms present information from secondarysources to discuss the Huxley–Wilberforce debate on Darwin’stheory of evolution perform a first-hand investigation togather information of examples ofvariation in at least two species ofliving organism34Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Continuation ofspecies has resulted, inpart, from thereproductiveadaptations that haveevolved in Australianplants and animalsdistinguish between the processesof meiosis and mitosis in terms of

the daughter cells producedcompare and contrast externaland internal fertilisationdiscuss the relative success ofthese forms of fertilisation inrelation to the colonisation ofterrestrial and aquaticenvironmentsanalyse information from secondarysources to tabulate the differences thatdistinguish the processes of mitosis andmeiosisidentify data sources, gather, process andanalyse information from secondarysources and use available evidence todiscuss the relative success of internal andexternal fertilisation in relation to thecolonisation of terrestrial and aquaticenvironmentsdescribe some mechanisms foundin Australian flora for:– pollination– seed dispersal– asexual reproductionwith reference to local examplesdescribe some mechanisms foundin Australian fauna to ensure:−fertilisation−survival of the embryo and ofthe young after birth plan, choose equipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigation togather and present information aboutflowers of native species of angiospermsto identify features that may beadaptations for wind andinsect/bird/mammal pollination explain how the evolution ofthese reproductive adaptationshas increased the chances ofcontinuity of the species in theAustralian environment• describe the conditions underwhich asexual reproduction isadvantageous, with reference tospecific Australian examples

4. A study ofpalaeontology andpast environmentsincreases ourunderstanding of thepossible future rangeof plants and animalsexplain the importance of thestudy of past environments inpredicting the impact of humanactivity in present environmentsidentify the ways in whichpalaeontology assistsunderstanding of the factors thatmay determine distribution offlora and fauna in present andfuture environmentsgather, process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and use availableevidence to propose reasons for theevolution, survival and extinction ofspecies, with reference to specificAustralian examplesprocess information to discuss a currenteffort to monitor biodiversity explain the need to maintainbiodiversity35Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course9.1 Biology SkillsDuring the HSC course, it is expected that students will further develop skills in planning andconducting investigations, communicating information and understanding, scientific thinking andproblem-solving and working individually and in teams. Each module specifies content throughwhich skill outcomes can be achieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content toprovide students with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.HSC CourseOutcomesContentA student:

H11 justifies theappropriatenessof a particularinvestigationplanStudents will learn to:11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in which each aspect may beresearchedb) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and explain the qualitative orquantitative analysis that will be required for this data to be usefulc) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate and uncertainty that may bepresent in the measurement of datad) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for data collection orgathering information that will assist efficient future analysis11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘independent’ to describe variablesinvolved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop strategies to ensure that thesevariables are kept constant and demonstrate the use of a controlc) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data and information to be collectedd) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations and explain why a procedure, asequence of procedures or repetition of procedures is appropriatee) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of an investigation and identifystrategies to address these issues if necessary11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or combination ofequipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental procedures and identifying andaddressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations and determining itssuitability and effectiveness for its potential role in the procedure or investigationsd) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing of materialand analysing potentially different results of these two procedures36

Biology Stage 6 SyllabusH12 evaluates ways inwhich accuracyand reliabilitycould be improvedin investigations12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and when modifications areneeded and analysing the effect of these adjustmentsb) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimise hazards and wastage ofresourcesc) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials produced during theinvestigationd) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing appropriate technologies,including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and recognisable forms,carrying out repeat trials as appropriate12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including popular scientificjournals, digital technologies and the Internetb) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful information insecondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables as well as fromwritten and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which theyare currently working and information about their research12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and the relativeimportance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using appropriate methods,including computer-assisted analysisd) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information and data in relationto the area of investigatione) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information and data byconsidering information from various sources

f) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass media bycomparison with similar information presented in scientific journalsH13 uses terminologyand reportingstylesappropriatelyand successfullyto communicateinformation andunderstanding13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations thereof, for oral andwritten presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using appropriate units forphysical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships and presentinformation clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information and relationshipsclearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is appropriate to presentgraphical information37Biology Stage 6 SyllabusH14 assesses thevalidity ofconclusionsfrom gathereddata andinformation14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as contradictions in data andinformationb) justify inferences and conclusionsc) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis, a prediction or aproposed solution to a problemd) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to the observationse) make and justify generalisationsf) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain phenomena and/or make

predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or scientific principles14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which could be used to solvea problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible solutions to a particularproblemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving an identifiedproblem14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical progression and include correctuse of scientific principles and ideasc) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions, hypotheses and the resultsof investigationsd) formulate cause and effect relationshipsH15 explains whyan investigationis bestundertakenindividually orby a teamThe HSC course builds on the Preliminary course and further increases the students’skills in working individually and in teams. Refer to the content overview on page 14.38Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.2 Maintaining a BalanceContextual OutlineMulticellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for the uptake and transportof essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation or production of energy and the removalof waste products arising from cellular activities.The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. The physical andchemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells must remain within narrow limits forcells to survive. These narrow limits need to be maintained and any deviation from these limits must

be quickly corrected. A breakdown in the maintenance of this balance causes problems for theorganism.The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plants bring about thecoordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able to monitor and provide the feedbacknecessary to maintain a constant internal environment. Enzyme action is a prime example of the needfor this balance. Enzymes control all of the chemical reactions that constitute the body’s metabolism.As enzymes normally function only within a narrow temperature range, even a small rise in bodytemperature can result in the failure of many of the reactions of metabolism that are essential to life.This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of biology, implicationsfor society and the environment and current issues, research and developments in biology.39Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1.Most organisms areactive in a limitedtemperature range identify the role of enzymes inmetabolism, describe their chemicalcomposition and use a simple model todescribe their specificity on substrates identify the pH as a way of describingthe acidity of a substance explain why the maintenance of aconstant internal environment isimportant for optimal metabolicefficiency describe homeostasis as the process bywhich organisms maintain a relativelystable internal environment explain that homeostasis consists of twostages:– detecting changes from the stablestate– counteracting changes from thestable state outline the role of the nervous system indetecting and responding toenvironmental changes identify the broad range of temperatures

over which life is found compared withthe narrow limits for individual species compare responses of named Australianectothermic and endothermic organismsto changes in the ambient temperatureand explain how these responses assisttemperature regulation identify some responses of plants totemperature change identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigationto test the effect of:– increased temperature– change in pH– change in substrateconcentrations on the activity ofnamed enzyme(s) gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use available evidenceto develop a model of a feedbackmechanism analyse information fromsecondary sources to describeadaptations and responses that haveoccurred in Australian organisms toassist temperature regulation40Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. Plants and animalstransport dissolvednutrients and gasesin a fluid medium identify the form(s) in which each of thefollowing is carried in mammalianblood:– carbon dioxide– oxygen– water– salts– lipids– nitrogenous waste– other products of digestion explain the adaptive advantage ofhaemoglobin compare the structure of arteries,capillaries and veins in relation to theirfunction

describe the main changes in thechemical composition of the blood as itmoves around the body and identifytissues in which these changes occur outline the need for oxygen in livingcells and explain why removal of carbondioxide from cells is essential describe current theories aboutprocesses responsible for the movementof materials through plants in xylem andphloem tissue perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect ofdissolved carbon dioxide on the pHof water perform a first-hand investigationusing the light microscope andprepared slides to gatherinformation to estimate the size ofred and white blood cells and drawscaled diagrams of each analyse information fromsecondary sources to identifycurrent technologies that allowmeasurement of oxygen saturationand carbon dioxide concentrationsin blood and describe and explainthe conditions under which thesetechnologies are used analyse information fromsecondary sources to identify theproducts extracted from donatedblood and discuss the uses of theseproducts analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources to reporton progress in the production ofartificial blood and use availableevidence to propose reasons whysuch research is needed choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto gather first-hand data to drawtransverse and longitudinal sectionsof phloem and xylem tissue41Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Plants and animalsregulate the

concentration ofgases, water andwaste products ofmetabolism in cellsand in interstitialfluid explain why the concentration ofwater in cells should be maintainedwithin a narrow range for optimalfunction explain why the removal of wastes isessential for continued metabolicactivity identify the role of the kidney in theexcretory system of fish and mammals explain why the processes of diffusionand osmosis are inadequate inremoving dissolved nitrogenouswastes in some organisms distinguish between active and passivetransport and relate these to processesoccurring in the mammalian kidney explain how the processes of filtrationand reabsorption in the mammaliannephron regulate body fluidcomposition outline the role of the hormones,aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretichormone) in the regulation of waterand salt levels in blood define enantiostasis as themaintenance of metabolic andphysiological functions in response tovariations in the environment anddiscuss its importance to estuarineorganisms in maintaining appropriatesalt concentrations describe adaptations of a range ofterrestrial Australian plants that assistin minimising water loss perform a first-hand investigation ofthe structure of a mammalian kidneyby dissection, use of a model or visualresource and identify the regionsinvolved in the excretion of wasteproducts gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sources tocompare the process of renal dialysiswith the function of the kidney

present information to outline thegeneral use of hormone replacementtherapy in people who cannot secretealdosterone analyse information from secondarysources to compare and explain thedifferences in urine concentration ofterrestrial mammals, marine fish andfreshwater fish use available evidence to explain therelationship between the conservationof water and the production andexcretion of concentrated nitrogenouswastes in a range of Australian insectsand terrestrial mammals process and analyse information fromsecondary sources and use availableevidence to discuss processes used bydifferent plants for salt regulation insaline environments perform a first-hand investigation togather information about structures inplants that assist in the conservation ofwater42Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.3 Blueprint of LifeContextual OutlineBecause all living things have a finite life span, the survival of each species depends on the ability ofindividual organisms to reproduce. The continuity of life is assured when the chemical informationthat defines it is passed on from one generation to the next on the chromosomes.Modern molecular biology is providing opportunities to alter the information transferred from onegeneration to the next in technologies such as cloning and in the production of transgenic species.The segregation and independent assortment of the genetic information within a species provides thevariation necessary to produce some individuals with characteristics that better suit them to survivingand reproducing in their environment. Changes in the environment may act on these variations. Theidentification of mutations and their causes becomes important in preventing mutations and inidentifying and potentially nullifying the effects of mutations in living organisms.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology, theapplications and uses of biology, the implications of biology for society and the environment andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.Students learn to: Students:1. Evidence of outline the impact on the evolution of plan, choose equipment or resourcesevolution suggests plants and animals of: and perform a first-handthat the −changes in physical conditions in the investigation to model naturalmechanisms of environment selectioninheritance, −changes in chemical conditions inaccompanied by the environment analyse information from secondaryselection, allow −competition for resources sources to prepare a case study tochange over many show how an environmental changegenerations can lead to changes in a species describe, using specific examples, howthe theory of evolution is supported by perform a first-t−−−h e fcbhpfoooiaaorlvmlmalgeoepe swoboa nergianetrotngailpv ocahegor yeyen am,s sii dbnoercfyrl eusotddluo idangsygy : t froansssiiltsio tnhaalt saadgo niarautaaghlrnyrcegarsee mesi no(asfif/nonm dvrc moelcurdoatdeemtihlibnsoapr)gnna a t tdrpofee rh i oofnotomhbvtroese ee gsslsreirttvmiacrguepoba,chn tstsdi uo/a rnre y oo rf−comparative anatomy −biochemistry uussien agv aa inlaabmlee de veixdaemncpele t,o h aonwa lyse,advances in technology have ieosxfo pellavatoiinolu nht ioaocwnc obDuyan rntwsa tifunor/raW ld isavellelaercgcetei’nost n t haenodr y cehvaonlugteiodn sacriye nrteilfaicti othnisnhkipinsg aboutevolution and convergent evolution analyse information from secondarysources on the historicaldevelopment of theories of evolutionand use available evidence to assesssocial and political influences onthese developments43Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. Gregor Mendel’sexperiments helpedadvance ourknowledge of theinheritance ofcharacteristics outline the experiments carried out byGregor Mendel describe the aspects of the experimentaltechniques used by Mendel that led tohis success

describe outcomes of monohybridcrosses involving simple dominanceusing Mendel’s explanations distinguish between homozygous andheterozygous genotypes in monohybridcrosses distinguish between the terms allele andgene, using examples explain the relationship betweendominant and recessive alleles andphenotype using examples outline the reasons why the importanceof Mendel’s work was not recogniseduntil some time after it was published perform an investigation to constructpedigrees or family trees, trace theinheritance of selected characteristicsand discuss their current use solve problems involvingmonohybrid crosses using Punnettsquares or other appropriatetechniques process information from secondarysources to describe an example ofhybridisation within a species andexplain the purpose of thishybridisation44Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Chromosomalstructure providesthe key toinheritance outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri inidentifying the importance ofchromosomes describe the chemical nature ofchromosomes and genes identify that DNA is a double-strandedmolecule twisted into a helix with eachstrand comprised of a sugar-phosphatebackbone and attached bases – adenine(A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) andguanine (G) – connected to acomplementary strand by pairing thebases, A-T and G-C explain the relationship between thestructure and behaviour ofchromosomes during meiosis and the

inheritance of genes explain the role of gamete formationand sexual reproduction in variability ofoffspring describe the inheritance of sex-linkedgenes, and alleles that exhibitco-dominance and explain why these donot produce simple Mendelian ratios describe the work of Morgan that led tothe understanding of sex linkage explain the relationship betweenhomozygous and heterozygousgenotypes and the resulting phenotypesin examples of co-dominance outline ways in which the environmentmay affect the expression of a gene inan individual process information from secondarysources to construct a model thatdemonstrates meiosis and theprocesses of crossing over,segregation of chromosomes and theproduction of haploid gametes solve problems involving codominanceand sex linkage identify data sources and perform afirst-hand investigation todemonstrate the effect ofenvironment on phenotype45Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:4. The structure ofDNA can bechanged and suchchanges may bereflected in thephenotype of theaffected organism5. Currentreproductivetechnologies andgenetic engineeringhave the potentialto alter the path ofevolution describe the process of DNA replicationand explain its significance outline, using a simple model, theprocess by which DNA controls the

production of polypeptides explain the relationship betweenproteins and polypeptides explain how mutations in DNA maylead to the generation of new alleles discuss evidence for the mutagenicnature of radiation explain how an understanding of thesource of variation in organisms hasprovided support for Darwin’s theory ofevolution by natural selection describe the concept of punctuatedequilibrium in evolution and how itdiffers from the gradual processproposed by Darwin identify how the following currentreproductive techniques may alter thegenetic composition of a population:– artificial insemination– artificial pollination– cloning outline the processes used to producetransgenic species and include examplesof this process and reasons for its use discuss the potential impact of the useof reproduction technologies on thegenetic diversity of species using anamed plant and animal example thathave been genetically altered perform a first-hand investigationor process information fromsecondary sources to develop asimple model for polypeptidesynthesis analyse information fromsecondary sources to outline theevidence that led to Beadle andTatum’s ‘one gene – one protein’hypothesis and to explain why thiswas altered to the ‘one gene – onepolypeptide’ hypothesis process information to construct aflow chart that shows that changesin DNA sequences can result inchanges in cell activity process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to explaina modern example of ‘natural’selection process information from

secondary sources to describe andanalyse the relative importance ofthe work of:– James Watson– Francis Crick– Rosalind Franklin– Maurice Wilkinsin determining the structure ofDNA and the impact of the qualityof collaboration andcommunication on their scientificresearch process information fromsecondary sources to describe amethodology used in cloning analyse information fromsecondary sources to identifyexamples of the use of transgenicspecies and use availableevidence to debate the ethicalissues arising from thedevelopment and use oftransgenic species46Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.4 The Search for Better HealthContextual OutlineWhen physiological processes malfunction, the body tries to repair the damage. The process issimilar in all living things and it is only when the process fails to contain the damage that disease canbe recognised.Humans have long recognised the symptoms of disease both in themselves and the animals andplants around them. Since the beginnings of recorded history, they have noted the signs that revealthat the body is malfunctioning. Increasing understanding of the causes of disease together withaccompanying advances in technology have changed approaches to treatment and management ofdisease.The search for measures to treat and manage diseases of humans and other organisms continues andthis search is paralleled by continued refinements in technology.This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of biology, theapplications and uses of biology, and the implications of biology for society and the environment.

1. What is a healthyorganism?2. Over 3000 yearsago the Chineseand Hebrews wereadvocatingcleanliness in food,water and personalhygieneStudents learn to: discuss the difficulties of defining theterms ‘health’ and ‘disease’ outline how the function of genes,mitosis, cell differentiation andspecialisation assist in themaintenance of health distinguish between infectious andnon-infectious disease explain why cleanliness in food, waterand personal hygiene practices assistin control of disease identify the conditions under which anorganism is described as a pathogenStudents: use available evidence to analyse thelinks between gene expression andmaintenance and repair of body tissues identify data sources, plan and chooseequipment or resources to perform afirst-hand investigation to identifymicrobes in food or in water gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sources todescribe ways in which drinking watercan be treated and use availableevidence to explain how thesemethods reduce the risk of infectionfrom pathogens47Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. During the secondhalf of thenineteenth century,the work of Pasteur describe the contribution of Pasteur andKoch to our understanding of infectiousdiseases perform an investigation to modelPasteur’s experiment to identify the

role of microbes in decayand Koch andother scientistsstimulated thesearch for microbesas causes of disease distinguish between:−prions−viruses−bacteria−protozoans−fungi−macro-parasitesand name one example of a diseasecaused by each type of pathogengather and process information totrace the historical development ofour understanding of the cause andprevention of malariaidentify data sources, gather processand analyse information fromsecondary sources to describe one identify the role of antibiotics in themanagement of infectious diseasenamed infectious disease in terms ofits:– cause– transmission– host response– major symptoms– treatment– prevention– control process information from secondarysources to discuss problems relatingto antibiotic resistance4. Often we recognisean infection by thesymptoms it causes.The immune identify defence barriers to prevententry of pathogens in humans:– skin– mucous membranes gather, process and presentinformation from secondary sourcesto show how a named disease resultsfrom an imbalance of microflora in

response is not soobvious, until werecover– cilia– chemical barriers– other body secretionshumans identify antigens as molecules thattrigger the immune response explain why organ transplants shouldtrigger an immune response identify defence adaptations, including:– inflammation response– phagocytosis– lymph system– cell death to seal off pathogen48Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:5. MacFarlaneBurnet’s work inthe middle of thetwentieth centurycontributed to abetterunderstanding ofthe immuneresponse and theeffectiveness ofimmunisationprograms6. Epidemiologicalstudies involve thecollection andcareful statisticalanalysis of largequantities of data.Such studies assistthe causalidentification ofnon-infectiousdiseases identify the components of the immuneresponse:– antibodies– T cells– B cells describe and explain the immuneresponse in the human body in terms of:−interaction between B and T

lymphocytes−the mechanisms that allowinteraction between B and Tlymphocytes−the range of T lymphocyte types andthe difference in their roles outline the way in which vaccinationsprevent infection outline the reasons for the suppressionof the immune response in organtransplant patients identify and describe the main featuresof epidemiology using lung cancer as anexample identify causes of non-infectious diseaseusing an example from each of thefollowing categories:– inherited diseases– nutritional deficiencies– environmental diseases process, analyse and presentinformation from secondary sourcesto evaluate the effectiveness ofvaccination programs in preventingthe spread and occurrence of oncecommon diseases, includingsmallpox, diphtheria and polio gather, process and analyseinformation to identify the cause andeffect relationship of smoking andlung cancer identify data sources, plan andperform a first-hand investigation orgather information from secondarysources to analyse and presentinformation about the occurrence,symptoms, cause,treatment/management of a namednon-infectious disease49Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:7. Increasedunderstanding hasled to thedevelopment of awide range ofstrategies toprevent and controldisease

discuss the role of quarantine inpreventing the spread of disease andplants and animals into Australia oracross regions of Australia explain how one of the followingstrategies has controlled and/orprevented disease:– public health programs– pesticides– genetic engineering to producedisease-resistant plants and animals perform an investigation to examineplant shoots and leaves and gatherfirst-hand information of evidence ofpathogens and insect pests process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to evaluatethe effectiveness of quarantine inpreventing the spread of plant andanimal disease into Australia oracross regions of Australia gather and process information anduse available evidence to discuss thechanging methods of dealing withplant and animal diseases, includingthe shift in emphasis from treatmentand control to management orprevention of disease50Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.5 Option — CommunicationContextual OutlineHumans are social animals and, as such, are in constant communication with others. Many animalshave an extensive range of communication strategies that include both visual and vocal signals.Learning these signals relies heavily on the involvement of all the sensory organs as well as thebrain.While the full range of senses can be involved in communication, the relative importance of each ofthe senses differs from animal to animal. This module focuses on the two senses that are importantfor many vertebrate and invertebrate animals – sight and hearing.Human cultural development exploded with the development of speech and the concurrent increasingcomplexity of communication. For some people, however, communication signals are not identified

effectively because of faults in the sending, receiving or deciphering of some of the signals. Withincreasing advances in technology, assistance for people with difficulties in communicatingcontinues to improve.This module increases students’ understanding of the history, applications and uses of biology, theimplications of biology for society and the environment, and current issues, research anddevelopments in biology.Students learn to: Students:1. Humans, and identify the role of receptors in identify data sources, gather andother animals, detecting stimuli process information from secondaryare able to detect sources to identify the range of sensesa range of explain that the response to a stimulus involved in communicationstimuli from the involves:external −stimulusenvironment, −receptorsome of which −messengerare useful for −effectorcommunication −response2. Visualcommunicationinvolves the eyeregisteringchanges in theimmediateenvironment describe the anatomy and function ofthe human eye, including the:– conjunctiva– cornea– sclera– choroid– retina– iris– lens– aqueous and vitreous humor– ciliary body– optic nerve identify the limited range ofwavelengths of the electromagneticspectrum detected by humans andcompare this range with those of othervertebrates and invertebrates plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-hand investigation

of a mammalian eye to gather firsthanddata to relate structures tofunctions use available evidence to suggestreasons for the differences in range ofelectromagnetic radiation detected byhumans and other animals51Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. The clarityof the signaltransferredcan affectinterpretation ofthe intendedvisualcommunication4. The lightsignalreaching theretina istransformed intoan electricalimpulse identify the conditions under whichrefraction of light occurs identify the cornea, aqueous humor,lens and vitreous humor as refractivemedia identify accommodation as thefocusing on objects at differentdistances, describe its achievementthrough the change in curvature of thelens and explain its importance compare the change in the refractivepower of the lens from rest tomaximum accommodation distinguish between myopia andhyperopia and outline howtechnologies can be used to correctthese conditions. explain how the production of twodifferent images of a view can resultin depth perception identify photoreceptor cells as thosecontaining light sensitive pigmentsand explain that these cells convertlight images into electrochemicalsignals that the brain can interpret

describe the differences indistribution, structure and function ofthe photoreceptor cells in the humaneye outline the role of rhodopsin in rods identify that there are three types ofcones, each containing a separatepigment sensitive to either blue, red orgreen light explain that colour blindness inhumans results from the lack of one ormore of the colour-sensitive pigmentsin the cones plan, choose equipment or resourcesand perform a first-hand investigationto model the process ofaccommodation by passing rays oflight through convex lenses ofdifferent focal lengths analyse information from secondarysources to describe changes in theshape of the eye’s lens when focusingon near and far objects process and analyse information fromsecondary sources to describecataracts and the technology that canbe used to prevent blindness fromcataracts and discuss the implicationsof this technology for society process and analyse information fromsecondary sources to compare anddescribe the nature and functioning ofphotoreceptor cells in mammals,insects and in one other animal process and analyse information fromsecondary sources to describe andanalyse the use of colour forcommunication in animals and relatethis to the occurrence of colour visionin animals52Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:5. Sound is alsoa very importantcommunicationmedium forhumans andother animals6. Animals that

producevibrationsalso have organsto detectvibrations explain why sound is a useful andversatile form of communication explain that sound is produced byvibrating objects and that thefrequency of the sound is the same asthe frequency of the vibration of thesource of the sound outline the structure of the humanlarynx and the associated structuresthat assist the production of sound outline and compare the detection ofvibrations by insects, fish andmammals describe the anatomy and function ofthe human ear, including:– pinna– tympanic membrane– ear ossicles– oval window– round window– cochlea– organ of Corti– auditory nerve outline the role of the Eustachian tube outline the path of a sound wavethrough the external, middle and innerear and identify the energytransformations that occur describe the relationship between thedistribution of hair cells in the organof Corti and the detection of sounds ofdifferent frequencies outline the role of the sound shadowcast by the head in the location ofsound plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to gather data to identifythe relationship between wavelength,frequency and pitch of a sound gather and process information fromsecondary sources to outline andcompare some of the structures usedby animals other than humans toproduce sound gather, process and analyse

information from secondary sourceson the structure of a mammalian ear torelate structures to functions process information from secondarysources to outline the range offrequencies detected by humans assound and compare this range withtwo other mammals, discussingpossible reasons for the differencesidentified process information from secondarysources to evaluate a hearing aid and acochlear implant in terms of:– the position and type of energytransfer occurring– conditions under which thetechnology will assist hearing– limitations of each technology53Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:7. Signals fromthe eye andear aretransmitted aselectrochemicalchanges in themembranes ofthe optic andauditorynerves identify that a nerve is a bundle ofneuronal fibres identify neurones as nerve cells thatare the transmitters of signals byelectro-chemical changes in theirmembranes define the term ‘threshold’ and explainwhy not all stimuli generate an actionpotential identify those areas of the cerebruminvolved in the perception andinterpretation of light and sound explain, using specific examples, theimportance of correct interpretation ofsensory signals by the brain for thecoordination of animal behaviour perform a first-hand investigationusing stained prepared slides and/ orelectron micrographs to gather

information about the structure ofneurones and nerves perform a first-hand investigation toexamine an appropriate mammalianbrain or model of a human brain togather information to distinguish thecerebrum, cerebellum and medullaoblongata and locate the regionsinvolved in speech, sight and soundperception present information from secondarysources to graphically represent atypical action potential54Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.6 Option — BiotechnologyContextual OutlineBiotechnology has been an identifiable part of human culture for thousands of years; people learnedto use yeasts and other micro-organisms to produce bread, wine, yoghurt, cheeses and antibiotics.Biotechnology now refers to the practical application of modern laboratory techniques, such asrecombinant DNA technology, to support a wide range of human needs, including food andmedicines. Applications of biotechnology are currently being investigated in areas as diverse asmedicine, marine aquaculture and forensic science. Increased knowledge and understanding ofbiotechnological processes has promoted further applications of these processes in bioremediation,biosubstitution and the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). All of these can assistin the maintenance and protection of natural environments as well as assisting humans.This module increases students’ understanding of the nature and practice of biology and theapplications and uses of biology, implications of biology for society and the environment, andcurrent issues, research and developments in biology.1. The origins ofbiotechnology dateback at least 10 000years2. Biotechnology hascome to berecognised as theuse of living

organisms to makeor modify aproduct, to improveplants or animalsor to utilise microorganismsforspecific usesStudents learn to: describe the origins of biotechnologyin early societies who collected seedsof wild plants and domesticatedsome species of wild animals explain why the collection of seedsand breeding of animals with desiredcharacteristics, could be described asearly biotechnology describe the changes in one group ofanimals and one group of plants as aresult of artificial selection ofcharacteristics suitable foragricultural stock outline the key events that led to theuse of biotechnological practices,including:– yeast in the manufacture of bread– yeast and fermentation foralcohol production– the use of other micro-organismsfor the manufacture of yoghurtand cheesesStudents: use available evidence to describe thechanges in a species of grain or animalas a result of domestication andagricultural processes process information to outline anancient Australian Aboriginal use ofbiotechnology plan, choose equipment or resources,perform a first-hand investigation todemonstrate the use of fermentationprocesses in bread or alcoholproduction55Biology Stage 6 Syllabus3. Classicalbiotechnologyexploitedknowledge of cellbiochemistry to

produce industrialfermentationprocedures4. Cell chemistry isutilised inbiotechnologyStudents learn to: describe the expansion offermentation since the early 18th

century to include the production ofseveral organic compounds,including glycerol, lactic acid, citricacid and yeast biomass for baker’syeast describe strain isolation methodsdeveloped in the 1940s describe, using a specific example,the benefits of strain isolationmethods used in biotechnology inthe 20th century identify that developments in the1950s led to biotransformationtechnologies that could producerequired organic compounds such ascortisone and sex hormones outline, simply, the steps in thesynthesis of a protein in the cell,including:– the difference between DNA andRNA– the production of messengerRNA– the role of transfer RNA– the formation of the polypeptidechain(s)– the formation of the protein frompolypeptide chainsStudents: gather and process information fromsecondary sources to:– identify and describe a namedindustrial fermentation process– identify the micro-organism usedin the fermentation and theproducts of the fermentation– outline the use of the product of thefermentation process– use available evidence to assess theimpact of the use of thefermentation product on society at

the time of its introduction process and analyse information fromsecondary sources to demonstrate howchanges in technology and scientificknowledge have modified traditionaluses of biotechnology, such asfermentation plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to test the conditions thatinfluence the rate of enzyme activity56Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:5. Modernbiotechnologyincludesrecombinant DNAtechnology6. There are manyapplications andareas of research inbiotechnology describe the three essentials of genemanipulation as:– cutting and joining DNA– monitoring the cutting and joining– transforming hosts, such asbacteria, with the recombinantDNA describe the following recombinantDNA techniques used inbiotechnology, including:– gene splicing using restrictionenzymes and ligases to producerecombinant DNA– polymerase chain reaction toamplify or modify DNA sequences– use of DNA vectors andmicroinjection for carrying genesinto nuclear DNA in the productionof transgenic multicellularorganisms outline one way that forensic scientistscan use DNA analysis to help solvecases describe one example from thefollowing applications ofbiotechnology in medicine:– tissue engineering using skintransplantation as an example

– gene delivery by nasal sprays– production of a synthetic hormone,such as insulin describe one example from thefollowing applications of animal orplant biotechnology:– the production of monoclonalantibodies– recombinant vaccines to combatvirulent animal diseases describe one example from thefollowing applications of aquaculture:– the production of a pharmaceuticalfrom alga– the farming of a marine animal perform a first-hand investigation toextract and identify DNA from asuitable source process information to produce aflow chart on the sequence of eventsthat result in the formation ofrecombinant DNA gather and analyse information tooutline the purpose of a currentapplication of transgenic technology,naming the organism and genetransfer technique involved process and analyse secondaryinformation to identify thatcomplementary DNA is produced byreverse transcribing RNA or thepolymerase chain reaction identify data sources, gather, analyseand process information to presentone case study on the application ofbiotechnology in each of thefollowing:– medicine– animal biotechnology– aquaculturethese case studies should:– give details of the process used– identify the organism or tissueinvolved– describe the outcome of thebiotechnological process– evaluate the efficiency of theprocess and discuss advantagesand disadvantages associatedwith either the product or the

process57Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:7. Ethical issuesrelevant to the useof biotechnology areimportant and needto be considered explain why different groups in • use available evidence to identifysociety may have different views and discuss ethical and social issuesabout the use of DNA technology associated with the use ofbiotechnology identify and evaluate ethical issuesrelated to one of the following:– development of geneticallymodified organisms (GMOs)– animal cloning– gene cloning58Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.7 Option — Genetics: The Code Broken?Contextual OutlineScience has come a long way since Mendel’s important work on identifying the transmission ofinherited factors across generations. The code for transmitting this genetic information has beenidentified and models have been developed to explain gene functioning. Transcription of theinformation into functional proteins is now well understood and models are being developed to testhow genes direct the structure, function and development of an organism.Modern genetics is moving towards an increased understanding of the biochemical role of individualgenes. This is being enhanced by the Human Genome Project that has sequenced the entire humangenome to identify all the encoded genes.This module increases students’ understanding of the nature, practice, applications and uses ofbiology, the implications of biology for society and the environment, and current issues, research anddevelopments in biology.Students learn to:1. The structure of describe the processes involved in thea gene provides transfer of information from DNAthe code for a through RNA to the production of apolypeptide sequence of amino acids in a

polypeptide2. Multiple alleles give examples of characteristicsand polygenic determined by multiple alleles in aninheritance organism other than humansprovide furthervariability within compare the inheritance of the ABO anda trait Rhesus blood groups define what is meant by polygenicinheritance and describe one example ofpolygenic inheritance in humans oranother organism. outline the use of highly variable genesfor DNA fingerprinting of forensicsamples, for paternity testing and fordetermining the pedigree of animalsStudents: choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation toconstruct a model of DNA process information from secondarydata to outline the currentunderstanding of gene expression solve problems to predict theinheritance patterns of ABO bloodgroups and the Rhesus factor process information from secondarysources to identify and describe oneexample of polygenic inheritance59Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Studies ofoffspring reflectthe inheritance ofgenes on differentchromosomes andgenes on the samechromosomes4. The HumanGenome Project isattempting toidentify theposition of geneson chromosomesthrough wholegenomesequencing5. Gene therapy ispossible once thegenes responsible

for harmfulconditions areidentified use the terms ‘diploid’ and ‘haploid’ todescribe somatic and gametic cells describe outcomes of dihybrid crossesinvolving simple dominance usingMendel’s explanations predict the difference in inheritancepatterns if two genes are linked explain how cross-breeding experimentscan identify the relative position oflinked genes discuss the role of chromosomemapping in identifying relationshipsbetween species discuss the benefits of the HumanGenome Project describe and explain the limitations ofdata obtained from the Human GenomeProject outline the procedure to producerecombinant DNA explain how the use of recombinantDNA technology can identify theposition of a gene on a chromosome describe current use of gene therapy foran identified disease process information from secondarysources to analyse the outcome ofdihybrid crosses when both traits areinherited independently and whenthey are linked perform a first-hand investigation tomodel linkage process information from secondarysources to assess the reasons why theHuman Genome Project could not beachieved by studying linkage maps process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identify acurrent use of gene therapy tomanage a genetic disease, a namedform of cancer or AIDS60Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:6. Mechanisms ofgenetic change7. Selective breeding

is different to genecloning but bothprocesses maychange the geneticnature of species distinguish between mutations ofchromosomes, including−rearrangements−changes in chromosome number,including trisomy, and polyploidyand mutations of genes, including−base substitution−frameshift outline the ability of DNA to repairitself describe the way in which transposablegenetic elements operate and discusstheir impact on the genome distinguish between germ line andsomatic mutations in terms of theireffect on species explain, using an appropriate examplefrom agriculture, why selective breedinghas been practised describe what is meant by ‘genecloning’ and give examples of the usesof gene cloning distinguish between gene cloning andwhole organism cloning in terms of theprocesses and products discuss a use of cloning in animals orplants that has possible benefits tohumans process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describethe effect of one named anddescribed genetic mutation onhuman health analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources to trace thehistory of the selective breeding ofone species for agricultural purposesand use available evidence todescribe the series of changes thathave occurred in the species as aresult of this selective breeding identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describe

the processes used in the cloning ofan animal and analyse themethodology to identify ways inwhich scientists could verify that theanimal produced was a clone61Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:8. The timing ofgene expression isimportant in thedevelopmentalprocess identify the role of genes in embryonic identify data sources, gather, processdevelopment and analyse information fromsecondary sources and use available summarise the role of gene cascades evidence to assess the evidence thatdetermining limb formation in birds and analysis of genes provides formammals evolutionary relationships describe the evidence which indicatesthe presence of ancestral vertebrate genehomologues in lower animal classes discuss the evidence available fromcurrent research about the evolution ofgenes and their actions62Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.8 Option — The Human StoryContextual OutlineHumans are a species of primate and share the characteristics of this group of animals. Anexamination of the classification criteria used to separate groups of organisms with a particularemphasis on the distinguishing characteristics of humans, other mammals and primates, providessome evidence to support evolutionary relationships.Tracing the evolution of humans in detail allows increased investigation of the arbitrary nature ofclassification and the reasons why scientists may differ in their interpretation of evidence. The natureof science and role of technology in analysing these interpretations are further evaluated in the arenaof human evolution.Humans have taken a very different path in their recent evolution as the ongoing development ofculture has restricted and redirected the role of natural selection as a tool for guiding the evolution of

a species. The polymorphic nature of the human species is considered in light of our distribution onEarth and the different environments that we occupy.This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature, practice, applications and usesof biology, and current issues, research and developments in biology.63Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:1. Humans havecharacteristics thatcan be used toclassify them withother organisms outline the general classificationhierarchy from phylum to species define the term species and outlinecriteria used to identify a species outline features that classify humans as:– mammal– primate– hominid– hominin discuss the use of the terms hominin andhominid in terms of the arbitrary natureof classification systems describe primate characteristics,including:– hand/foot structure and function,including opposable thumb or toe– skull shape and function– brain size relative to body size– arrangement of the vertebral columnto the degree of upright stance– vision, including degree ofstereoscopic vision, colour vision– reproductive features, includingsingle live young and relatively longgestation– parenting and group bonding describe primate characteristics in:– prosimians– new and old world monkeys– apes– humans identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toillustrate the classification processby identifying features of humans

that classifies them as:– Animal– Chordate– Mammal– Primate– Hominid– Homo– Homo sapiens process information to summariseand analyse the similarities anddifferences between prosimians,monkeys, apes and humans analyse information and useavailable evidence to identifytechnological advances andresulting new information thathave changed scientists’ opinionsabout the classification ofprimates64Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. Fossil and otherbiological evidenceassists in theclarification of therelationshipsbetween humansand other primates outline the conditions under whichfossils may form relate the age of the Earth to the way inwhich geological time is described distinguish between and describe somerelative and absolute techniques usedfor dating fossils describe relative dating techniques usingfossil sequence in strata discuss the difficulty of interpreting thepast from the fossil record alone,including:– conflicting dates based on differenttechnologies– the paucity of the fossil record– different interpretations of the sameevidence compare living primates to hypothesiseabout relationships between groups ofprimates using evidence from:– karyotype analysis

– DNA–DNA hybridisation– comparison of haemoglobins– DNA sequencing– mitochondrial DNA as a molecularclock process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to modelkaryotype analysis process information fromsecondary sources to model DNA–DNA hybridisation in order todemonstrate its use in determiningrelationships between organisms identify data sources, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources about thematernal inheritance ofmitochondrial DNA and itsimportance in tracing humanevolution65Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Debate continueson the relationshipsbetween hominidspecies4. How humans haveadapted to theirenvironment examine at least two alternative viewsof human evolutionary relationshipsusing the same fossil evidence,including:– Ardipithecus ramidus(Australopithecus ramidus)– Australopithecus afarensis– Paranthropus robustus(Australopithecus robustus)– Paranthropus boisei(Australopithecus boisei)– Australopithecus africanus– Homo habilis– Homo ergaster– Homo erectus– Homo heidelbergensis– Homo neanderthalensis– Homo sapiens compare the above species, includingcomparisons of:

– body structure– cranial capacity– fossil ages and regional locations– inferred culture outline and examine the evidence forthe pattern of human migration andevolution based on:– the ‘Out of Africa’ model– the theory of regional continuity(multi-regional hypothesis) outline the mechanisms that led tohuman diversity explain the differences betweenpolymorphism and clinalgradation using at least oneappropriate example from humanphenotypes gather, process, present and analyseinformation to provide an overviewof the similarities and differences ofany two species used in tracinghuman evolutionary relationships process secondary information anduse available evidence to assess thecontribution of one of the followingto our increased understanding ofhuman evolution:– the Leakey family– Johanson– Broom– Tobias– Dart– Goodall gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to analyseand evaluate the evidence for twodifferent models of humanevolution gather and process information fromsecondary sources to describe twoexamples of polymorphism inhumans and analyse theevolutionary significance of thephenotypes displayed66Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:5. Culturaldevelopment hasbeen a significant

feature of humanevolution6. Current and futuretrends in biologicalevolution andculturaldevelopment describe the cultural changes thatoccurred as humans developed intoefficient hunters in organisedcooperative groups discuss possible impacts of thiscultural development analyse the possible effects on humanevolution of the following factors:– increased population mobility– modern medicine– genetic engineering process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to comparehumans with other primates in termsof:– care of young– length of juvenile stage– development of, and size of,social groups– the development and use of tools– communication systemsand assess the evolutionarysignificance of the similarities anddifferences identified gather, process, present and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto account for changes in humanpopulation numbers in the last 10000 years and to discuss thepotential impact of named examplesof modern technologies on futurehuman populations process information from secondarysources to outline the purpose of theHuman Genome Project and brieflydiscuss its implications67Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

9.9 Option — BiochemistryContextual OutlineExamining a dead organism tells biologists a little about its structure and very little about its

function. The great challenge to biologists has been to identify and describe not only the structureand function of living organisms but to describe how their metabolism works.It has been difficult for the biologist to fully understand cell function in particular, becausemicroanalysis of living tissue has never been easy. When biologists have technologies at theirdisposal to watch intact structures operating, the complete story will be told.The history of photosynthesis tells the story of the progression of knowledge that follows closely theimprovements in technology that allowed new strategies to be implemented for the study of livingmaterials.This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature, practice, applications and usesof biology.Students learn to: Students:1. Photosynthesis is discuss reasons for studying gather, process and summariseone of the most photosynthesis, including: information from secondary sourcesimportant – its production of food resources and to identify the products ofbiochemical the need to increase crop yields photosynthesis and describe thereactions that can be – understanding of photosynthesis function of these compounds in livingstudied may lead to better methods of organismsharvesting solar energy– photosynthesis can provide raw analyse information from secondarymaterials for a range of human sources to discuss and evaluate theneeds potential uses of photosynthesis in– the importance of the role of replacing at least three namedphotosynthesis in reducing carbon materials presently obtained fromdioxide levels in the atmosphere other non-renewable resources– the importance of generatingoxygen68Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:2. The notion thatplants obtainnourishment fromwater, light and airtook nearly twocenturies to evolve outline the progress that occurred inthe 17th and 18th centuries towards

understanding plant growth byidentifying:– the observation of van Helmontthat soil was not primarilyresponsible for a plants change inmass as it grew– Stephen Hales’ proposal that plantsextract some of their matter fromair– the work of Priestley in identifyingthat plants could ‘restore the air’used by a candle and hissubsequent discovery of oxygen– Ingen-Housz’s demonstration ofthe importance of sunlight foroxygen production by plants– Senebier’s demonstration of theuse of carbon dioxide duringphotosynthesis– Saussure’s conclusion that waterwas also necessary forphotosynthesis explain that, building on the evidencefrom earlier investigations, Mayerconcluded that plants convert lightenergy to chemical energy identify that Blackman and Mathgelhypothesised that photosynthesis wasa two-step process identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources to plan andperform a first-hand investigationthat could test the observations ofone of:– van Helmont– Hales– Priestley– Ingen-Housz– Senebier– Saussure gather and process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe one example of a moderntechnology other than microscopynot available to the above people thatwould have assisted them in theirinvestigations process information from secondarysources to identify observations andconclusions from the observations

that led to the hypothesis ofBlackman and Mathgel69Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:3. Chloroplasts wereproposed as the siteof photosynthesis inthe late 19thcentury explain that Sachs proved thatchlorophyll is located in special bodieswithin plant cells and relate his findingto the site where glucose is made describe homogenisation as a processthat breaks up cells and allows studyof cell fractions, suspensions andsolutions outline the role of centrifugation inremoving cell debris and sedimentingcell organelles, such as chloroplasts outline the discoveries of Englemannand explain why Englemann’s workled to the description of the actionspectrum of photosynthesis explain how the role of pigments,other than chlorophyll, inphotosynthesis was inferred identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation togather data to determine the effect oflight intensity and temperature ongas production in a suitable pondweed gather information from secondarysources to produce a time-lineindicating improvements inmicroscopy that would have assistedEnglemann in his work withSpirogyra process information from secondarysources to outline the importance ofTswett’s invention ofchromatography for the separation ofleaf pigments perform a first-hand investigation to:– extract the mixture of pigmentsfrom leaves– examine the absorption spectrum

of these pigments– separate the pigments usingchromatography70Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:4. By the middle of the20th century, adescription of thelight dependentreaction wasdeveloping5. The use of isotopesmade the tracing ofbiochemicalreactions mucheasier describe and discuss the importance ofVan Niel’s hypothesis that water wasthe source of oxygen given out inphotosynthesis outline the classic experiments ofEmerson and Arnold and theirinterpretation by Gaffron and Wahlthat led to the hypothesis of aphotosynthetic unit consisting ofchlorophyll and photoenzymemolecules identify the light dependent reaction asthat which traps light energy andcoverts it to chemical energy stored inATP identify the role of chlorophylls in thelight reactions explain the significance of thedifference in function of photosystemsI and II identify the role of the coenzymesADP and NADP in the light reactions explain why the tracking ofbiochemical reactions is difficult identify that isotopes of someelements may be unstable and emitradiation define what is meant by the half-life ofan isotope and explain how this wouldaffect its use in biochemistry outline the evidence provided by:– Hill and Scarisbruck– Ruben

to confirm that the oxygen released byphotosynthesis originated from water present information that describesthe repetitive flash technique firstused by Emerson and Wahl andaccount for its subsequentimportance in the study ofphotosynthesis gather and process information fromsecondary sources to trace the lightdependent reaction of photosynthesison a suitable biochemical pathwaysflow chart gather and process information fromsecondary sources to outline therange of isotopes that have beenuseful in studying photosynthesisand explain how radioactive tracerscan be incorporated into plants tofollow a biochemical pathway, suchas photosynthesis71Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:6. The discovery ofC14 in the mid-20thcentury allowed adetailed study of therole of carbondioxide inphotosynthesis7. ATP is the energysource of everyliving cell identify that Kamen and Rubendiscovered C14 and demonstrated thatradioactive carbon dioxide could beused to investigate the chemicaltransformations of carbon dioxideduring photosynthesis in 1940 describe the experiments, using paperchromatography, that Calvin carriedout to deduce the products ofphotosynthesis outline the main steps of the Calvincycle as:– the production ofphosphoglycerate from thecombining of carbon dioxide withan acceptor molecule

– the reduction of phosphoglycerateinto glyceraldehyde phosphate intwo reactions that use ATP andNADPH produced in the lightreactions– the regeneration of the initialcarbon dioxide acceptor explain why the Calvin cycle is nowcalled the light independent stage ofphotosynthesis identify that adenosine triphosphate isused as an energy source for nearly allcellular metabolic processes explain that the biologically importantpart of the molecule contains threephosphate groups linked by highenergy phosphodiester bonds outline the discovery of ATP synthesisin the mid 20th century in terms of:– the discovery ofphotophosphorylation inchloroplasts of plants– the discovery that ATP synthesisinvolves an electron transferreaction occurring across amembrane gather and process information touse a biochemical pathways chart totrace the steps in the Calvin cycle gather and process information froma diagram or model of the structureof the adenosine triphosphatemolecule to discuss the nature andorganisation of the phosphodiesterbonds between the phosphate groups72Biology Stage 6 SyllabusStudents learn to: Students:8. The development ofthe electronmicroscope inincreasinglysophisticated formshas increasedunderstanding ofchloroplaststructure describe the structure of a chloroplastas seen under a transmission electronmicroscope

identify the average size of achloroplast and describe the range ofsizes observed across species describe the thylakoids as flattened,hollow discs with chlorophylldissolved in the lipid layers of themembrane describe the stroma as matrix lyingwithin the inner membrane containingDNA, ribosomes, lipid droplets andstarch granules gather and present information fromsecondary sources, includingelectron micrographs to:– draw and label the structure of achloroplast– compare the size, shape anddistribution of chloroplasts in anamed alga, terrestrialangiosperm and aquaticangiosperm gather and process information fromsecondary sources to identify andexplain the location of the sites oflight absorption and the site of theCalvin cycle73Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

10 Course RequirementsFor the Preliminary course:• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course• the content in each module must be addressed over the course• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 8.1• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course time• at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes must beincluded in the course.For the HSC course:• the Preliminary course is a prerequisite• 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course• the content in each module of the core and one option must be addressed over the course• experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in Section 9.1• practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course time

• at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes must beincluded in the course.74Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

11 Post-school OpportunitiesThe study of Biology Stage 6 provides students with knowledge, understanding and skills that form avaluable foundation for a range of courses at university and other tertiary institutions.In addition, the study of Biology Stage 6 assists students to prepare for employment and full andactive participation as citizens. In particular, there are opportunities for students to gain recognitionin vocational education and training. Teachers and students should be aware of these opportunities.Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education and Training(VET)Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their study of HSC coursesshould be recognised by industry and training organisations. Recognition of student achievementmeans that students who have satisfactorily completed HSC courses will not be required to repeattheir learning in courses in TAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training and issuequalifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on the similarity of outcomesbetween HSC courses and industry training packages endorsed within the AQF. Training packagesare documents that link an industry’s competency standards to AQF qualifications. More informationabout industry training packages can be found on the National Training Information Service (NTIS)website (www.ntis.gov.au).Recognition by TAFE NSWTAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined each year in the TAFENSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognition available to students of Biology in

relevant courses conducted by TAFE is described in the HSC/TAFE Credit Transfer Guide. Thisguide is produced by the Board of Studies and TAFE NSW and is distributed annually to all schoolsand colleges. Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware of the recognition available to theirstudents through the study of Biology Stage 6. This information can be found on the HSC / TAFECredit Transfer website (www.det.nsw.edu.au/hsctafe).Recognition by other Registered Training OrganisationsStudents may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification with another RTO.Each student will need to provide the RTO with evidence of satisfactory achievement in BiologyStage 6 so that the degree of recognition available can be determined.75Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

12 Assessment and ReportingAdvice on appropriate assessment practice in relation to the Biology syllabus is contained inAssessment and Reporting in Biology Stage 6. That document provides general advice on assessmentin Stage 6 as well as the specific requirements for the Preliminary and HSC courses. The documentcontains:suggested components and weightings for the internal assessment of the Preliminary coursemandatory components and weightings for the internal assessment of the HSC coursethe HSC examination specifications, which describe the format of the external HSC examination.The document and other resources and advice related to assessment in Stage 6 Biology are availableon the Board’s website at www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc76Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

13 AppendixThe following information clarifies terminology used in the syllabus.Allelopathy The production of specific biomolecules by one plant that can be detrimentalto, or give benefit to, another plant. This concept suggests that biomolecules(allelochemicals) produced by a plant escape into the environment andsubsequently influence the growth and development of other neighbouringplants.

Archaea Archaea are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They have no membraneboundorganelles within their cells. They differ from both eukaryotes andbacteria in that their membrane lipids are ether-linked not ester-linked and inthat they are capable of methanogenesis. Although many books and articlesstill refer to them as ‘Archaebacteria’, that term has been abandoned becausethey aren't bacteria.Enantiostasis Maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions (as distinct from states),in response to variations in the environment.sound shadow Since the head will absorb high frequencies more easily than low ones, it willcreate a sound shadow for the ear farthest away from the sound source, andtherefore the phenomenon plays a role in sound localization.77