biology coursework edexcel

An investigation into the impact of trampling on the length of ribwort plantain at Broomhill Burrows, Pembrokeshire.

Hypotheses

H1 There will be a statistically significant correlation between the length of Ribwort Plantain leaves and distance from a path at Broomhill Burrow.

H0 There will be no statistically significant correlation between the length of ribwort plantain leaves and distance from a path at Broomhill Burrows.

Abstract

The effect of trampling on the flora of fixed sand dunes was investigated through the use of continuous belt transects and 1m2 squared open quadrats on one particular site at Broomhill Burrows, Pembrokeshire. The aim of the experiment was to quantify the effect that trampling had on the growth of one of the hardiest ground flora in the area, Plantago lanceolota (common name ribwort plantain,). Due to its adaptations to combat trampling, Plantago lanceolota would act as an indicator species for the effect of trampling on ground flora in general on a fixed dune. The research found that trampling did have a significant effect on growth. It was also discovered that whilst there was a strong negative correlation between growth of ribwort plantain and distance from path due to increased competition, the impact of trampling on growth was greater than the impact of competition.

Rationale

Broomhill burrows is a sandy beach on the Pembrokeshire coast, and was designate an SSI (site of specific interest) in 1954 due to its mobile dune, dune grassland and dune slack vegetation, rare sand dune plants, chough and its cliff structures. Broomhill burrows has also been a part of the set for scenes of several major films, including ‘Robin Hood’ and ‘Harry Potter and the deathly hallows part 2’. The tourism generated by these cameo appearances has naturally resulted in increased degree of trampling on the fixed and semi fixed dunes towards the rear of the popular surfing beach, as people cross them to get access to the beach from the many car parks around the Burrows.

Sites such as Broomhill burrows and the sand dunes they house are exceedingly important in the study of conservation and ecology, as they have very clear topographic and ecological zones. This is particularly valuable when studying primary succession, as this occurs over a number of decades, as Psammoseres can ‘show a complete record of the stages of succession’. 2 Psammoseres are an intermediary in ecological succession in coastal areas, and are commonly sand dunes, as is the case here.

Plantago lanceolota is a perennial plant whose palatable leaves and seeds provide valuable nutritious food for grazing stock such as rabbits and wildlife. The leaf of the ribwort plantain is extremely rich in minerals including magnesium, and the plant itself contains a variety of biologically active compounds in high quantities. Some of these biological compounds

4 Edexcel As Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.2185 Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. Wiesman6 Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan Updates. pp. 3807 http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm8 Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.html

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http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htm

(particularly verbascoside) give the plantain an anti-microbial effect, which can inhibit rumen fermentation-easing bloating amongst grazing animals and improving their health. This is especially important in Broomhill Burrows, as ‘all the main dune grassland area should be grazed, to keep the growth of coarse grasses, scrubs and bracken in check’3-. As Plantago Lanceolota is the only plant in the area with verbascoside in it, it is essential to the sand dune community. The role that Plantago Lanceolota plays in the community, its niche, forms part of the reason for its selection for this investigation. As it is such an influential plant, it makes sense to check whether increased human activity is harming it and thus harming the sand dunes. Essentially, the plant can be called a keystone species, in other words, a species that is ‘usually noticed when they are removed or they disappear from an ecosystem, resulting in dramatic changes to the rest of the community’. 8

‘Trampling directly disturbs plants when pieces of leaves break off or stems split when a plant is kicked or squashed. Trampling also indirectly affects plant populations’ 5

Trampling indirectly impacts plant growth and populations by causing changes in the soil that in turn affect plant growth. These include changes in porosity, microorganism activity, air content, accelerated erosion, less earthworm activity (the ground is more compact, so the earthworms cant burrow through) and eventually the loss of organic matter from soil. Such changes can prove hugely debilitating for a plant population and its growth, even in hardier plants such as ribwort plantain and could eventually slow their propagation and dispersal in the whole sand dune ecosystem. This is called a plagioclimax, where humans have, through various arresting factors, prevented part of an ecosystem from reaching its climatic climax. 6

In response to the trampling that it receives, over the years ribwort plantain has developed several adaptations to try and minimize the damage done by trampling. The ribwort plantain leaf is tough and thick, making it less likely to be broken. The leaf also has a parallel vein pattern in order to give the leaf added strength. The plantain itself is in a rosette shape, which allows the plant to lie close to the ground, protecting it from trampling. The stem is the only aspect of the plant, which looks vulnerable to trampling, but it is surprisingly tough and is springy, allowing it to bounce back up when it is trodden on, keeping the seeds in the correct position for dispersal.


Plantago Lanceolota. Figure 11.

Parallel vein pattern

Rosette shape

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The plants hardiness is the second reason for its selection for this investigation, as almost all other plants in the ecosystem will be affected to a greater extent than the ribwort plantain due to the many adaptations it has developed. Ergo, the ribwort plantain can be used as an indicator species, as if it is being affected by trampling, most of the other plants in the ecosystem will be affected as well.

Therefore, gathering scientific data on the effect of trampling on ribwort plantain can be used to form predictions on the long-term effects of tourism on the Plantago Lanceolota population in the ecosystem, and thus help to inform conservation and sand dune management efforts in the future.

The aim of this investigation was primarily to assess and measure the effect of trampling on the growth via length of leaf of ribwort plantain, but additionally if the increased length of the other species of grasses and herbaceous plants as distance from path increased affected the growth of the ribwort plantain. The data collected would then be applied to the hypothesis put forward by the field studies council in their article on trampling, that it is the boundary between the two extremes of trampled and non-trampled where the flora will thrive the most. 8This

Taking this into consideration, the method I chose mirrored that of experiment conducted on the ‘Impact of trampling on sandy beach flora’ headed by M.D Moffett, where four transects were placed perpendicular to the study area, with each transect having 14 sampling stations placed at 2m intervals. For my initial method, I also used 4 transects but placed parallel to the footpath. The interval at which they were placed was initially shortened to get a better representation of the area around the footpath and the length of the transects were also shortened to ensure they were appropriate to my investigation. A spearman’s rank correlation coefficient test would be performed on the data collected, to determine whether there is a correlation between distance from path (thus level of trampling) and length of ribwort plantain leaves.


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Method of 1 st pilot study

Stratified sampling is used to determine a location on a fixed sand dune (a dune that is no longer growing) affected by a visibly significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath present. This sampling is described as stratified as the fixed sand dune was chosen due to prior knowledge of high levels of traffic around this particular dune.

A ten metre stretch of path was then selected and two tape measures were unravelled, one parallel to the path at the very edge and the other perpendicular to the parallel tape measure at 10m. Both of these tape measures were kept taught at all times to increase accuracy. The area of path selected was of roughly the same width, to avoid a scenario where a section of the transect was more trampled than another.

The leaves of the plant closest to the perpendicular tape measure were measured using a ruler, at 1m intervals.

These results were then recorded in a table.

Results of Pilot Study

A table showing the results of the pilot study can be seen below:

Distance from path Length of leaves of nearest plant to vertical tape measure (mm)

0m 60,63,62,65,60,67,64,66,621m 112,118,110,115,1132m 228,223,225,220,228,2253m 178,182,180,176,183,1744m 180,183,184,187,183,1855m 187,184,189,190,185,1836m 165,168,163,169,1557m 156,156,169,155,150,1528m 135,138,132,1309m 129,120,125,123,121,12010m 114,117,120,119,110

Amendments to Method

Following the pilot study, it was decided that, due to time constraints, the length of ribwort plantain should be measured every 2 meters instead of every meter. This had the added benefit of preventing the situation whereby one ribwort plantain was in both transects. This amendment would allow a more accurate investigation within the time period available.


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Method of 2 nd pilot study

Stratified sampling (sampling based on previous knowledge of Broomhill burrows) is used to determine a location on a fixed sand dune, a dune that is no longer growing, affected by a visibly significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath present. (The site chosen was the same as pilot 1)


A 1m-squared open quadrat was used to perform continuous sampling along the 10m stretch of path. An open 1m-squared quadrat was used to identify which area to sample, as the size was appropriate for the size of the ribwort plantain and a strung quadrat would sit on top of the grass in taller areas, making it harder to identify if flora was located inside it. Measurements of length of the longest and shortest leaf of every ribwort plantain in the quadrat were taken using a ruler across the 10m transects. This was repeated every 2 metres up the perpendicular tape measure up until 10m.

These results were then recorded in a table for each transect.


Figure 2- Diagram to show the arrangement of quadrats and tape measure respective to the path, where the line at 0m is the path.

Key:Quadrat belt:

Tape measure:

10mm

0m

2m

4m

6m

8m

10mm

5


Distance from path (m)

Shortest leaf (mm) Longest leaf (mm)

0 60, 60, 60, 60,61,60,60,60,60,60,60,60 66,67,68,63,69,68,68,67,69,68,67,722 220,220,218,219,220,222,218,220,215,219,223,218 228,228,226,227,230,235,227,234,228,229,2294 180,180,182,180,182,182,181,183,182,181,180,183,18

1187,185,187,186,187,188,187,190,189,189,188,189,186,188

6 155,160,163,160,160,163,162,161,160,160,162,161,160

169,166,168,167,166,169,168,169,172,167,170,169,167

8 130,128,133,132,135,130,134,134,130,130,130,133 138,139,139,138,137,140,138,137,139,140,136,142,13710 110,113,111,115,109,110,90,110,110,111,111,112,111 120,121,120,118,117,119,118,119,120,119,118,120,119,118Results of Second Pilot Study

A table showing the results of the second pilot study can be seen below:

Amendments to Method Following the second pilot study, it was decided that every leaf of each ribwort plantain found within each quadrat would be measured, in order to obtain a large enough sample size to yield results representative of the population of ribwort plantain in Broomhill Burrows. This decision was further reinforced by the large variation between the length of the shortest leaves and the length of the largest leaves (from 60 mm to 72 mm at 0m), thus solely measuring either of them would not accurately measure the extent to which the plant had grown.

Planned Method

Stratified sampling (sampling based on previous knowledge of Broomhill burrows) is used to determine a location on a fixed sand dune, a dune that is no longer growing, affected by a visibly significant level of trampling and where there is a clear footpath present.


A 1m-squared open quadrat was used to perform continuous sampling along the 10m stretch of path. An open 1m-squared quadrat was used to identify which area to sample, as the size was appropriate for the size of the ribwort plantain and a strung quadrat would sit on top of the grass in taller areas, making it harder to identify if flora was located inside it. Measurements of length of each leaf of every ribwort plantain in the quadrat were taken using a ruler across the 10m transects. This was repeated every 2 metres up the perpendicular tape measure up until 10m.


Figure 1-Diagram of Ribwort plantain, black line indicates where length of leaf was measured

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These results were then recorded in a table for each transect, and the running mean was calculated. A running mean was used as it gives an indication of when the sample size is large enough to be considered as representative of a population.

A spearman’s rank correlation co-efficient test would be performed to determine if any statistically significant correlation is present between distance from path and length of ribwort plantain.

Abiotic factors would also be taken (using a penetrometer to measure how compact the soil was and thus the general level of trampling and a lux meter, to measure light intensity,) at 3m intervals along the vertical tape measure. This would allow comparisons between abiotic factors across the area studied, and therefore help determine whether or not trampling and competition is the only causation for the differences in length of ribwort plantain. The light intensity was taken at the level of the leaves of the ribwort plantain, to ensure that it accurately reflected the light the plant was getting.

Soil samples were taken at 2m intervals along the perpendicular tape measure, in order to determine soil moisture and organic content in the area studied.

Variables

Dependent: The dependent variable for this investigation will be the average length of leaf of ribwort plantain. This information will be gathered using an open 1m-squared quadrat, where only ribwort plantain inside the quadrat will be recorded. In the event of a plant being half in the quadrat and half out, only the leaves inside the quadrat will be measured. The data will be recorded in the form of a table.


Figure 3 shows the difference between the use of a strung and open quadrat. The strung quadrat sits on top of the grass, making it less effective.

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Independent: The independent variable for this investigation will be the distance from the edge of the path at which the measurements are taken. This will be measured with a tape measure, where the zero mark is touching the bottom left hand corner of the quadrat at the location at the edge of the path where the first tally for each transect is taken. A stone will be placed at this zero mark for subsequent measurements to ensure that the tape measure stays stationary and doesn’t compromise the experiment.

Controlled: As with any scientific investigation, the controlled variables must be kept constant in order to preserve the integrity and validity of the results that have been obtained, and any conclusions drawn from them.

The time of year will be kept constant, as all of the data was collected on the same day in August 2013. Secondly, as all of the data collected comes from the same 10m by 10 m area, the geology, age of dune, organic content, pH and animal grazing should remain the same, as will exposure. Thirdly, in order to ensure the ratio of number of people walking to area of path is kept the same, all of the data measured will be next to a footpath of near constant width (1.8m-2.2m).

Confounding: The confounding variables for this investigation will be light intensity, soil density and temperature. As with all confounding variables, there is no way one can control them, but they may impact the results of this investigation and thus must be considered when making conclusions.

Ethical Considerations It must be remembered that the area investigated is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and therefore must be treated with the utmost care during the investigation. All plants should be treated gently, and no leaves should be damaged or pulled off when they are being measured. Grazing animals, insects and bird life should not be disturbed or removed from their natural habitat. All disposal items brought to the site must be taken away and disposed of. Care should be taken to avoid further trampling.


Risk Assessment

X

X

X

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Results of Full Study

Distance from path (m) Average length of ribwort plantain leaves (mm)

0 63.312 223.944 183.946 163.988 134.6110 116.12 These results show that as distance from path increases initially (from 0 to 2m, there is a large increase in size), but then as distance from path increases further then average length of ribwort plantain decreases. Results from the abiotic factor measurements are shown below.

Distance from path (m)Abiotic factors 0 2 4 6 8 10Light Intensity (Lux)

862 863 681 546 528 503

Soil Resistance (kgcm-3)

4.5 3 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75

Soil moisture(% Of dry weight)

7 17 15 12 10 9

Soil organic content(% Of dry weight)

5 9 9 8 7 7


N.B Data on risk without controls obtained from official Orielton risk assessment (9)

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Number Risk Rating Controls1 9 Wear appropriate footwear and be aware when walking2 9 Be aware when walking3 12 Don’t eat any of the wildlife4 5 Be aware when walking5 6 Wear sunglasses6 6 Look out for and stay away from snakes7 5 Wear warm and windproof clothing8 5 Look both ways before crossing9 8 Wear appropriate footwear


The differences in light intensity (863 Lux at 2m compared to 546 at 6m) are due to the increasing height of grass as the transect moves away from the trampled area, as without the inhibitions placed on growing conditions by trampling, more plants can thrive and thus there is more shading as grass grows taller to compete for light. The initial increase in lux is not large enough to be significant. The differences in soil resistance are due to compression of soil by footfall. This was anticipated in the rationale section, as the area between the two extremes (high trampling shown by high soil resistance, and high competition shown by low light intensity levels) is where the plantain had the longest leaves and thus thrived the most. The soil moisture and organic content paint a similar picture, with the highest percentages for both being found at the border between high trampling and lots of competition.

Graphs

Figure 4:Figure 5:


Error bars shown represent the ±2.5% error margin of the running mean of my data, shown in full in the appendix. 10


Statistical Tests

For this investigation, a Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient Test was used to test the hypotheses:

Number of Pairs

Distance from path

(m)Rank

Average length of ribwort plantain

(mm)

Rank Difference Difference2

1 2 1 233.94 5 4 16


0 2 4 6 8 100

50

100

150

200

250

Graph to show how average length of ribwort plantain leaves changes with distance from path.

Average length of ribwort plantain leaves (mm)

Average Length of ribwort plantain leaves (mm)2

Distance from path (m)

Ave

rage

len

gth

of r

ibw

ort

pla

nta

in le

aves

at

each

dis

tan

ce fr

om p

ath

(m

m)

Average length of RIbwort plantain (mm)

0 2 4 6 8 10 120

50

100

150

200

250

Scatter graph to show how average length of ribwort plantain leaves changes with distance from path

Average length of ribwort plantain (mm)

Distacnce from path (m)

Ave

rage

len

gth

of r

ibw

ort

pla

nta

in (

mm

)

11


2 4 2 183.94 4 2 43 6 3 163.98 3 0 04 8 4 134.61 2 -2 45 10 5 116.12 1 -4 16

∑Difference2 = 40

Using the formula for Spearman’s Rank shown on the right, where N = Number of Pairs:Rs =(1-(6*40))/120= -1

For biological ecology work, the significance level is 95%. From the number of pairs of values available (5) we can find the critical value from the table as ±0.9. The value of Rs is greater than the critical value; therefore reject Ho at the 95 percent significance level. The Rs value of -1 shows a perfect negative correlation; therefore we can say that there is a strong negative correlation between growth of ribwort plantain and distance from path. In other words, as distance from path increases, length of ribwort plantain decreases.

Analysis of results

There was an evident decrease in length of ribwort plantain leaves with increasing distance from the path-shown by the downward trend line from 2-10m on figure 3. It is also worth noting that all ribwort plantain plants that weren’t on the path were significantly taller than the ribwort plantain on the path. This is shown by both figures 3 and 4, where the average length at 0m from the path is 63.31, compared to 116.12, which is the lowest of all of the lengths excluding at 0m. This is a difference of almost double.Furthermore, there is a noteworthy anomaly at 10m (highlighted in the table entitled ‘Table to show Running mean at 10m). The length of 90mm is significantly lower than any other value measured, and could be attributed to insects such as aphids eating away at the leaf and thus stunting its growth, as there is less of the leaf surface area that can carry out photosynthesis. This is shown by figure 5.

Conclusions

The results of this investigation hold true to the hypotheses by FSC Orielton7 that it is the boundary between the two extremes of trampled and non-trampled where the flora will thrive the most. In this case, the boundary was located at 2m from the path. This is because the ribwort plantain at 2m didn’t have to withstand the constant trampling symptomatic of the plantain at 0m, but due to the presence of a slight degree of trampling, possibly due to


Figure 6-Holes in the leaf on the 90mm plant.

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people and animals straying from the path, it also didn’t have much competition from other species as the soil was still very compact (4.5 kgcm-3). Thus other taller plants such as Marram grass can’t put down their roots and cant survive, as their roots need to penetrate quite deep into the soil. This is not the case with Plantago Lanceolota as it has fibrous roots, which grow horizontally fairly close to the surface of the ground and therefore do not require much penetration. This lack of competition is very important in the growth of ribwort plantain, especially in terms of competition for light. Light is required for the light-dependent stages of photosynthesis, which have two main functions. One is to produce ATP, which supplies the energy needed for the synthesis of carbohydrates. The other is to split water molecules in a photochemical reaction, providing hydrogen ions to reduce carbon dioxide and produce carbohydrates. Both of these functions are essential for photosynthesis to occur, as the light independent stages of photosynthesis use the reduced NADP and ATP produced by the light dependent stage to convert glycerate 3 phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, which is then converted into glucose. Therefore with less interspecific competition, there is more light for the ribwort plantain and more energy for photosynthesis; resulting in more glucose produced for growth.Also, the ribwort plantain at 2m had the most moisture and nutrients in its soil because the soil hadn’t been negatively affected by trampling and hadn’t had its moisture and nutrients drained by other more abundant plants. Similarly to light, moisture plays an important role in photosynthesis as it provides vital H+ ions for the synthesis of glucose. Soil nutrients are also very important in photosynthesis; for example, magnesium is an important plant of chlorophyll that plays a fundamental role in the light dependent stage of photosynthesis by absorbing light. This absorbed light excites electrons within the chlorphyll, beginning the electron transport chain, which provides energy to phosphorylate ADP to form ATP.The results of this experiment also show that trampling has a significant effect on the length of ribwort plantain leaves, as the plantain leaves measured at 0m were the shortest leaves by far. This is because trampling encourages hostile conditions in which plants can’t grow to their full potential, shown by figure 7.


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The reduced length of the ribwort plantain 0m from the path can also be attributed to the mechanical damage caused by trampling, as plants have to expend energy on cell repair instead of growth, as Liddle explains ‘direct mechanical damage to plants is shown most clearly by the persistent reduction in height that occurs in trampled areas’. 10 To conclude, trampling has a significant affect on the growth of ribwort plantain, and thus on the majority of plant species in Broomhill Burrows (if ribwort plantain is accepted as an indicator species). It can also be concluded that the effect of trampling is much greater than the effect of competition, as the length of ribwort plantain under extreme trampling was significantly shorter than the length of ribwort plantain under extreme competition.


Figure 7-the effects of trampling

Change in species composition

Reduced Vegetation cover

Changes in soil Biota

Reduced plant production

Reduced plant vigor

Reduction in litter cover

Abrasion of organic matter

Abrasion of vegetation

Increased run off and erosion

Reduction in air and water quality

SoilCompaction

Trampling

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Limitations and Improvements

Despite two pilot studies, and subsequent amendments to the method, a number of systematic errors remain. Ideally, a continuous belt transect using 0.25m2 quadrats would have been the method used to measure length of ribwort plantain leaves moving away from the path, at 1m intervals. This would have provided a better representation of how ribwort plantain is affected by trampling and competition. However, time limitations meant that if this method had been chosen, insufficient data would have been collected for reliable conclusions to be drawn. Also, despite the fact that the flattest area of the path was chosen, there was still a gradient difference between the start and the end of the transect. This could have caused run off from rain to effect the distribution of minerals at various points on the transect. This could have a significant affect on the length grown by the leaves of the ribwort plantain, and represents a variable that was not adequately controlled in this investigation. To improve this investigation, inorganic as well as organic content of the soil should have been measured at different points on the transect, to determine the extent to which runoff impacts soil composition, ergo whether or not the differences in mineral availability are as or more significant than the extent of trampling in their effect on growth of ribwort plantain.Finally, the investigation (again due to time constraints) was carried out on only one dune at one time of year, and thus may not be fully representative of the effect of trampling on the length of ribwort plantain across Broomhill Burrows at all times of year. To rectify this, I would repeat this experiment seasonally on additional fixed dunes at Broomhill Burrows.

Word count-4326

10Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255

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Bibliography1 - http://www.ccgc.gov.uk/landscape--wildlife/protecting-our-landscape/special-landscapes--sites/protected-landscapes-and-sites/sssis/sssi-sites/broomhill-burrows.aspxThis is a government owned website, meaning that before any of the content was published it would almost certainly have been reviewed and double-checked by ecological experts. Therefore, it is unlikely to contain any bias and is fairly credible.

2 - Fullick A. (2009) Edexcel A2 Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.21This textbook has been created for the purpose of informing students, not persuading them. Therefore it is safe to say that this sources is highly unlikely to be biased, and is reliable. The exam board also checks the textbook, to ensure all its facts are correct.

3 - Countryside council for wales SSSI documentThis document was written and published by the countryside council for Wales (CCW), a government sponsored body. The CCW is a recognized authority on conservation, and therefore it is safe to say that any documents it produces will have been peer-reviewed within the council extensively and probably discussed at one of their monthly meetings. Therefore this source is unlikely to contain any factual inaccuracies or bias, and is credible.

4 - Fullick A. (2009) Edexcel A2 Biology, Essex, Pearson Education Limited pp.218This textbook has been created for the purpose of informing students, not persuading them. Therefore it is safe to say that this sources is highly unlikely to be biased, and is reliable. The exam board also checks the textbook, to ensure all its facts are correct.

5 - Trampling takes it toll by Katherine C. WiesmanThis article doesn’t have any acknowledgements or references, which compromises its reliability as it is impossible to tell where the information is from. Also, Mrs. Wiesman is the only cited author, thus factual inaccuracies could potentially be a problem. However, the author has written books on similar topics and is a department head at her respective school, so the source should be attributed with a degree of credibility. Also, the conclusion made on the impact of trampling on plant populations is mirrored by Liddle’s book on the ecological effects of human trampling on Natural ecosystems, as they both agree that trampling will have a negative impact on affected flora. This adds to the credibility of this source.

6 - Palmer A; Yates N. (2005) Advanced Geography. Philip Allan Updates. pp. 380Reputable publishers have published this book, so the information in it is likely to have been reviewed multiple times before it was published. Additionally, as it is the product of two geographers working as a team, it is more likely to be factually correct and reliable.

7-http://www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/grassland/trampling.htmMembers of the field studies council compiled this document and because the field studies council is an independent, non-profit organization whose primary aim is to inform, I doubt there would be significant bias. The FSC have been awarded the Quality Badge by The


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Council for Learning Outside the Classroom, meaning that they ‘consistently deliver high quality teaching and learning experiences and manage risk effectively’. As this source is specifically about managing risk, it is credible.

8 - Http://www.washington.edu/research/pathbreakers/1969g.htmlThis webpage is one of the many that make up the university of Washington’s research site. As the university is a very well respected institute of higher education, the source will have been checked and reviewed, and will contain little to no bias as it is there purely to educate. This would suggest the source is extremely credible.

9 - http://www.field-studies-council.org/centres/orielton/outdoorclassroom/risk-assessments.aspxMembers of the field studies council compiled this document and because the field studies council is an independent, non-profit organization whose primary aim is to inform, I doubt there would be significant bias. The FSC have been awarded the Quality Badge by The Council for Learning Outside the Classroom, meaning that they ‘consistently deliver high quality teaching and learning experiences and manage risk effectively’. As this source is specifically about managing risk, it is credible.

10 - Liddle 1975 A Selective Review of the Ecological Effects of Human Trampling on Natural Ecosystems Biological Conservation 8 pp 251-255 This article was published in the Biological conservation journal, one of the most well respect journals on conservation in Britain. Therefore it would have been thoroughly checked before it was published, and is likely to be factually sound. The article also has 294 citations, indicating its widespread use in the scientific community. When taking all of this into consideration, this source can confidently be called credible.


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