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© Copyright Template Berri DwiPutra 2012


UNIT 3Movement in and out of cells

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3.1DIFFUSION

Diffusion is net movement of molecules from high concentration gradient to lower concentration gradient

Concentration gradient is the difference between the concentration of molecules in two places

Factors that affect diffusion :• Distance• Concentration gradient• Surface area• Temperature• Size of molecules

A Solution is made up of two parts, the solute and the solvent

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3.2OSMOSIS

Osmosis is diffusion of water from a dilute solution into a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.

A Partially permeable membrane allows small molecules such as water to pass through but not large solute molecules.

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3.3Osmosis in plant and animal cells

TurgidityTurgidity is the process where the condition of water potential insurrounding of cell is bigger than inside of cell so water move into the celland the cell become turgid or hypotonic

Plasmolysis is the process where the condition of water potential inside ofthe cell is bigger than in surrounding of cell so water move out of the celland the cell become flaccid or hypertonic

Plasmolysis

Osmosis in animal cells : Hysotonic

Isotonic

Hypertonic

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3.4Active transport

Active transport is the movement of ions or molecules across thecell membrane, against a concentration gradient, using energyfrom respiration

Active transport need energy to change the shape of carrier protein as the way of ions to move in or out of cell

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UNIT 4

ENZYMES

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4.1Structure and action of enzymes

Enzyme is a biological catalyst that speed up a chemical reaction and all enzymes are proteins

How enzymes work :1. Anabolisme, Breaking large molecules into small ones2. Katabolism, Building up large molecules from small ones3. Converting one small molecules into another

Two Theory about Enzymes Lock and key theory Induced fit

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4.2Factors affecting enzyme action

Effect of temperature on enzymes

Increasing the temperature of an enzymes- controlled reaction increase the rate of reaction up to a maximum, which occurs at the optimum temperature. At higher temperatures the rate of reaction decreases quickly until it stop acting and denaturate.

Enzymes and pH

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4.3Enzymes in industries

Biological washing powders : Proteases – break down protein stains, e.g. blood, grass and egg. Lipases – break down fats in grease stains, e.g. butter, lipstick mayonnaise.Amylases – break down starch, e.g. food stains containing starch.Cellulases – break down cellulose fibres.

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UNIT 5

NUTRITION

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5.1Nutrients

Nutrition is the obtaining of food to provide energy and substances needed for growth and repair.

Seven different nutrients needed for a balanced diet for human are :1. Carbohydrate2. Protein3. Fats4. Vitamins5. Minerals6. Fibre7. Water

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5.2Chemical test for nutrients

Testing for starch – iodine solutionTesting for sugars – Benedict’s solutionTesting for protein – biuret solutionTesting for fats – ethanol

5.3Sources of nutrients

Carbohydrates : rice, potatoes, bread, yams, sugar and honey.Protein : meat, fish, milk and nuts.Fats : butter, cheese, fat in meats and fish, nuts.Water : H2OVitamins and minerals : oranges, lemons, milk, butter, liver, egg, green vegetables, etc.Fibre : cabbage, sweetcorn, and celery

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UNIT 6

Plant nutrition

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6.1Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make glucose from raw materials using energy from light.

Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials for photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy that is used in photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O light and chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 602

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6.2What is needed for photosynthesis?

The requirement for photosynthesis:• Light, which provides energy for the process• Chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorb the energy from light .•Carbon dioxide, which diffuses into the leaves from the air.• Water, which is absorbed by the plant’s root from the soil.

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6.3Product of photosynthesis

• glucose is used for respiration.• some glucose is changed into starch• some glucose is used to make cellulose• glucose is converted to sucrose• glucose and nitrate are used to form amino acid• sugars are convert to oils

Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis

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6.4Rate of photosynthesis

A limiting factor is something in such short supply that itrestrict life processes.

Limiting factors of photosynthesis are : •light intensity •Temperature•carbon dioxide concentration.

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6.5Glasshouse production

Condition inside a glasshouse allow plants to :• grow earlier in the year• grow in places where they would not normally grow well

The following condition inside glasshouses are controlled. Temperature Light Carbon dioxideWater

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6.6Leaves

Leaves have : a large surface area – to absorb light rays a thin shape – so gases can diffuse in and out easilymany chloroplasts – to absorb light for reaction that take places in photosynthesis veins – to support the leaf surface and to carry water and ions to the leaf cells, and to take sucrose and amino acid away from the leaf to all other parts of tbe plants.

Stomata usually open during the day and close at night

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6.7Mineral requirements

Plant nutrients I. Nitrate ions to make amino acid which are used to

make proteins.II. Magnesium ions are absorbed by plant and used

to make chlorophyll.III. Phosphate for making compounds such as DNA

and for respiration.

FertilisersI. Nitrogen for growth of leaves and

stems.II. Phosphorus for healthy roots.III. Potassium for healthy leaves and

flowers.

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UNIT 7

Animal Nutrition

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7.1A balanced diet

A balanced diet provides an adequate intake of the nutrients and energy needed to sustain the body and ensure good health and growth.

A nutrients is a substance in food that provides benefit to the body.

Three basics function of nutrients :o To provide Diet depends on age, sex and activity energyo To allow growth and repairo To regulate the body’s metabolism

Diet depends on age, sex and activity

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7.2Balancing energy needs

Energy intake is the energy from the food in a day in carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Energy output is the energy that is used by body in a day.

OBESITYCAUSED BY :• high intake of fatty food• too little exercise• social and emotional stress

How could someone lose weight?They could :• Eat less high-energy foods• Take more exercise

A sensible approach to slimming should combine :• a balanced diet with a lower intake of energy• a gradual increase in exercise• having an ideal, but achievable

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7.3Digestion

Digestion is the breakdown of large , insoluble food molecules into small, water-soluble food molecules so that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Mechanical digestion isthe breakdown of largepieces of food into smallerpiece of food withoutchanging the foodmolecules.

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of the large food molecules into smaller molecules by the action of enzymes.

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7.4Teeth

• incisors are chisel-shaped for biting and cutting.• canines are pointed for piercing and tearing.• premolars have aneven ‘cusps’ for grinding and chewing.• molars are like premolars and for chewing up the food.

Adult humans have 32 teeth : 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 premolars.

Tooth decay is caused by bacteria in plaque, which changes sugar to acid that attacks the enamel and dentine of the tooth.

Tooth decay can be avoided by regular brushing with a good toothbrush, avoiding sugary food and visiting the dentist regularly.

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7.5The stomach and small intestine

Peristalsis involves a wave of muscular contraction that squeeze the food bolus, carrying it down the oesophagus to the stomach.

The stomach is a muscular bag that usually holds about 1 liter of food but can stretch to accommodate more.In the stomach, food is churned up and mixed with gastric juice and hydrochloric acid. This start the digestion of protein.

In the small intestine, there is pancreatic juice that contain :• amylase – breaks down starch to maltose.• trypsin – a protease that breaks down protein and polypeptides to peptides.• lipase – breaks down fats to fatty acid and gliycerol.

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7.6Absorption and assimilation

Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood or the lymph.

Assimilation means that the food molecules that have been absorbed now become part of the cells or are used by the cells.• Stores glucose by removing it from the blood and storing it as glycogen.• Uses amino acid to make protein.• breaks down excess amino acid.• converts fatty acid and glycerol into fats.• produces cholesterols from fats.

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