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Black-White Inequality "You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom." (Malcolm X) Candace Metcalf SOC 625 Advanced Social Research Methods November 20, 2011

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Page 1: Black-White Inequality1

Black-White Inequality

"You can't separate peace from freedom because no one can be at peace unless he has his freedom." (Malcolm X)

Candace Metcalf

SOC 625

Advanced Social Research Methods

November 20, 2011

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Introduction

1619 was the first year an African Slave set foot on the North American Continent to be

sold in the state of Virginia. (Brunner) For six hundred and forty-five years African Americans

had virtually no rights or liberties. During the six hundred and forty-five years before the civil

rights movement African Americans were categorized as subhuman. They were segregated from

the white population in America, they had limited social mobility, social regulations and policies

re-enforced social norms of beliefs about African Americans in the form of prejudice and racism

affecting all sectors in a person’s life. This including access to education and jobs. After the civil

rights movement we can see these social norms and policies correspond with notions of the past.

Now social norms and policies criminalize a person based on race. Depending on your race you

will or will not have wealth and access to wealth. Also depending on what race you will have a

better or lower quality of life. African Americans have inherited a life of disproportionate

poverty and social inequality.

In this research paper specific variables have been targeted that correspond with social

inequality between Blacks and Whites to demonstrate the nature or relationship between

Variables that indicate different aspects of a person’s life. By comparing Blacks to Whites we

can put a frame around the picture and be able to visualize the disparity between Blacks and

Whites in regards to different aspects of everyday life today. Today, it is only forty-seven years

after the civil right laws for African Americans have been established. This will help us see the

larger picture of how life today is for African Americans in comparison to White Americans.

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The variables looked at are Race, Education, Home-Ownership vs. Renting, Marriage

Status, and Poverty Rates. The research questions are comparing Blacks to Whites in Education,

Home-Ownership vs. Renting, Marriage status and Poverty Rate. By comparing Blacks to

Whites we can see the relationship between the two and if it demonstrates inequality.

This research will help us better understand the nature of inequality between blacks and

whites in today’s time. As the USA has had a legacy of inequality between Blacks and Whites it

will help us to see what it is like in today’s world, forty-seven years after the Civil Rights for

Blacks were established. By forming a better understanding of the social framework we can see

what progress has been made and what needs to be worked on. The research variables are

especially of importance in understanding the condition in which African Americans are in

today. The Variables chosen are at the core of everyday life; furthermore, they contribute to

quality of life. By comparing the core aspects of a person’s life we can further estimate the

conditions that surround them. A person with no education more than likely will live in poverty

than a person with an education. Therefore a person with an education will have greater access to

homeownership and/or are more likely to have been married. A person without an education is

more likely to not have access to homeownership and is more likely to not be married. This is

true for people no matter what their race may be. However, in this research we can see if it is

truer for African Americans than it is for Whites. This will help us see the nature of Social

Inequality between Blacks and Whites.

This topic is especially important to me because I am a minority. However I am not

African American, I have faced a lot of problems from my minority status that has inspired me to

learn more about social inequality, why it happens, what causes it, what it causes, and how I can

change it. In the end I hope that in understanding social inequality I can help others better

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understand it and help others to make decisions that will help improve conditions for people in

minorities groups that suffer from their minority status in the form of social inequality.

Literature Review

In all societies we see some form of social stratification usually a hierarchy based on

people roles in society, people often tend to be rewarded for their status roles in society, meaning

the compensation they receive in terms of wealth. Max Weber viewed social stratification in

terms of reward as being wealth, prestige, and power. (Marger) These three things would refer to

social resources that would be necessary to maintain a status or move to another status. Without

some of these components a poorer person would stay poor and if a person has access to all of

these components they would more likely be wealthy and able to move more freely in society.

It is necessary to keep social stratification in mind when evaluating inequality with the

presumption that not all people can maintain the same status in a society, nor have access to the

necessary rewards or resources it takes to achieve the maximum status in a society. However,

keeping this in mind we can also think of the values that represent America in the American

Constitution and Bill of Rights, which says that “ All men are created equal.” And also in time

where truth becomes self-evident, we have as a country evolved to expand liberties to people of

different classes and roles. With the principles set forth in the American Constitution we have set

a precedent for what we want to achieve in American Society. However, that belief has a variety

of lenses worn by different groups of people. We can say that ideally social stratification remains

along the lines according to your role in society. However, in the last few decades we have

opened our society up to allow some social mobility of people in roles to move up to higher

levels. With that said we can presume that not all people will have the same access to wealth,

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prestige, or power. We defiantly have social stratification that is a more traditional model,

people’s roles will dictate the rewards that help them maintain or achieve another status.

However, this leads to Social Inequality. In that Inequality we would like to see that

Labels that socially categories people are not disproportionately misrepresented in society in one

class. Many forms or categories of people live in America, many have been underclass status and

in time overcame and moved up in status. However, that is not seen with people who are African

American as much as other categories of people. We can say that the USA has a social inequality

problem based on race, more so than any other form of inequality that exists. African Americans

are disproportionately represented in the underclass and denied the necessary means or resources

that are needed to change ones status.

Here taking a look at several articles that demonstrated the concepts listed above. This

will help to put things in perspective. In doing so, these reviews evaluate the social mobility of

African Americans in many sectors of life and compare them at times to Whites. Whites

currently are the highest status race in America that has access to the necessary resources to

maintain or change status.

Strayhorn Assistant Professor of Higher Education at the University of Tennessee-

Knoxville is addressing how higher education is linked to greater economic success; however, he

addresses a divide between Whites with higher education’s economic success and African

Americans with higher education economic success. He argues that African Americans

disposition is still at a disadvantage when taking a look at many indicators of higher education

and economic status. (Strayhorn) He states, “…the Black unemployment rate is more than two

times that of White Americans, and Black families earn only 58% as much income as White

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families.” (Strayhorn) In support of his argument he looks at the household net worth of Whites

and African Americans. Black’s net worth was $19,000 vs. $121,000 for Whites in 2001.

(Strayhorn) In response he reviews different studies that evaluate the relationships between Race

and Socioeconomic Labor Force Outcomes. The research question addressed in this article is;

what is the relationship between Race, Higher Education, and Economic Outcomes?

Questions

The following questions were asked in the study.

“1. Do HBCU graduates and None-HBCU graduates differ on three measures of

labor market outcomes (e.g. Salary, Occupational Status, and Job Satisfaction?) ”

(Strayhorn)

“2. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the post baccalaureate earnings

of African American college Graduates?” (Strayhorn)

“3. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the Occupational Status of

African American college students?” (Strayhorn)

“4. What is the Net effect of attending HBCU on the Job Satisfaction level of

African American college students?” (Strayhorn)

“5. Are the effects of attending HBCU attendance conditional on the basis of

Gender? “ (Strayhorn)

Models

The research was designed on the Theoretical Model is the Theory of Human Capital

and Statistical Analysis, with specific variables, that targets more specific sample population

than previous studies have used to derive data by doing research on HBCU college students.

(Strayhorn)

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Theoretical model and empirical evidence support the connection between variables such

as higher education attainment with higher economic outcomes, including labor market success,

income, and job satisfaction. (Strayhorn) Evidence also supports there is connection between

different variables such as higher education attainment, higher economic outcomes, college

major, graduation rate, and race. (Strayhorn)

The Method used was Data Source, a Longitudinal sample was collected by the National

Center of Educational Statistics, the study titled Baccalaureate and Beyond in 1993 and 1997.

(Strayhorn) The sample in 1993 included 11, 192 cases in 1997 they had 9,274 respondents, 83%

retention. (Strayhorn) All of the respondents for the study were African Americans, 67%

females, 33% HBCU graduates. (Strayhorn) The Dependent variables in the study are: income,

occupational attainment, and job satisfaction. (Strayhorn) Independent variables in the study

are: race, gender, age, and mother’s educational attainment, and father’s educational attainment,

kind of high school attended, college entrance exam scores, and education ambitions. (Strayhorn)

Results

Data Analysis provided the study was a sufficient sample that showed t-test that showing

the difference between HBCU and None-HBCU College student’s incomes, the analysis revealed

that HBCU graduates make less than None-HBCU graduates. However, HBCU students had

higher socioeconomically status SEI; there was little difference between the two groups related

to job satisfaction. (Strayhorn)

Conclusion

The conclusions drawn from the study represent the idea that the relationship between

race, higher education, and the divide in higher economic attainment do exists. However, the

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suggestions presented in the article are that further research is needed. The results of the study

show that HBCU students have higher graduation rates, higher ambitions, yet lower income, but

they still have higher socioeconomic statuses than do None-HBCU students. The study was only

performed on African Americans and can only represent the differences between African

Americans on a national level, both HBCU graduates and None-HBCU graduates. The study

shows there is no real difference is job satisfaction. This data can be used to compare to White

graduate in similar studies.

This article is interesting from the Journal of Higher Education in so much that it seem to

be rallying support for African Americans to study at an African American University in many

ways. The evidence in the study is comparing the African American University to other

Universities, but only comparing Black students. In so much the study reveals, a higher

graduation rate from the African American University and those who obtain an education in an

African American University are not receiving the same incomes as those who graduate from

other Universities. However, the African American university has more graduates in higher

degree programs such as Law, Medicine, or Engineering. Blacks that attend African American

Universities also come from more economically stable foundations than those who attend other

Universities. There is no doubt in my mind that the whites are enjoying more benefits after

higher education than blacks. Even though this study measures Black graduates in a black

university to Blacks in other universities. This data can be compared with data of other studies.

Fairchild and Robinson article reviews letters written by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s

while he was in jail in Birmingham. They review his letters to find the correlation in his pursuits

of social justice for African Americans. Dr. King was a leader in the African American

community in the pre-civil rights area who sought the end to residential segregation, worker

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rights, work opportunities, fairness and equal treatment. Even today the remnants of the pre-civil

rights area have lingered in social institutions, legal policy, and social norms. In reviewing these

letters they have three goals.

Number one goal is to find the linkage in Dr. King’s view of segregation, economic

opportunity, the American view of democracy and capitalism. (Fairchild, et al) Number two,

recognizing that segregation still exists and impact different aspects of economic life of African

Americans. A, the impact segregation has on job search prospects, and B, employment

affirmative action programs where institutions seek to increase diversity. Number three goal is to

withdraw significance from Dr. King’s inspiration, in order, to garner solutions for the business

and educational community. This letter will provide the info for a data set used for analysis of

the effect of segregation or social isolation of labor force outcomes. (Fairchild, et al)

After reviewing Dr. Kings Letters from jail in Birmingham they review the Census data

that support Dr. King’s assertions of segregation in Memphis. They found in 1968, 39% of the

Memphis population was Black and in 2000 the Memphis population was 43.2% Black.

(Fairchild, et al) The average Black lived in a neighborhood of at least 69% Blacks in 1968 in

2000 the average was 75% Black. (Fairchild, et al) Blacks’ school in 1968 was 98% Black and in

2000 it was 82.7% Black. (Fairchild, et al) In 2000 the African American population was 12.9%

of the entire American population however the average African American lived in a

neighborhood consisted of 59.1% African Americans. (Fairchild, et al)The average African

American attends a school with 56.8% African Americans. (Fairchild, et al) 40% of African

Americans are living in hyper segregation. (Fairchild, et al) There is no doubt the data support

ideas Dr. King has about segregation. In addition to looking at Census information they used a

descriptive analysis study for different cities to compare African Americans time searching for a

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job, job offers received, and rate of pay. The study was named the Multi-City Study of Urban

Inequality year 2000. In Atlanta the average job offer was 10.1% of the time, people spent 85

days searching for a job and the average pay rate were $12.51. In Boston the average job offer

was 13% of the time, 194 days was the average time spent find a job and the average pay rate

$10.35. In Los Angeles 9.2 % people were offered a job, the average time spent looking for a

job was 217 days, and the average pay rate was $13.34. (Fairchild, et al) Again Census date for

these cities is as follows in 1990; 25% of Atlanta was Black, and Blacks lived in neighborhoods

that were 66% Black. Los Angeles was 11% African American, and the neighborhoods they

lived in were 69% Black. Boston was 6% African American, and the neighborhoods they lived in

were 54% Black. (Fairchild, et al) The hypothesis developed by the previous information is that

Segregation leads to exclude African American’s from job opportunities. (Fairchild, et al)

The study Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality was used to evaluate the dynamics of the

labor-market. (Fairchild, et al) It sampled 8,500 respondents in four US cities in large areas of

minorities. (Fairchild, et al) The Dependent Variables are as listed, Received a Job Offer, Time

researching for a Job, and Median Salary. (Fairchild, et al) The Independent Variables were

metro area, neighborhood, and job seeking relationships. (Fairchild, et al)

The results of the study show that there is a direct relationship between African American

segregation in demographic areas and the decreased likelihood of job offers. There is a

correlation between network assistance of Blacks helping Blacks that only decrease hourly

wages than if a none-black person had assisted in your job search. The segregation of Blacks in

conclusive along the lines in which Dr. King has insinuated and data supports it even today.

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In reviewing this article, I found it very insightful touching on many interesting facts that

will help and support my research. It has only been a few short decades since Dr. King lead a

revolution of ideals, post-civil rights of African Americans have been improving in some sectors

at least during good economic times. I think the article is very insightful I do wonder though to

see how the numbers in White neighborhoods pan out from the 1960’s to today to see if there is a

change in the percent of White Neighborhoods. I also like to see if White employment has

changed in the last 40 years as well as African Americans to see if anything is different.

However, I agree with the findings of much of this article.

Goldberg’s article outlines different concepts in history and social theory related to race,

ethnicity, and discrimination in the USA. The article is titled Field of Dreams, Cultures of

Scholarship and Public Policy on Race in the United States. As the title implies the American

dream is in a field of paradigms related to many aspects that affect its outcome. The hypothesis

of the article is that Racism is alive and well in the USA. When one thinks of America they

think of the American dream, even minorities, from different races or ethnicity within America,

thinks of the theme of success. Many believe this theme till today. However, when we look at

the history and theories that surround race, ethnicity, racism, social norms, and policies we can

see the reality for what it is. “Given the myth of the US as a land of equal opportunity for

migrants from all over the world, race and ethnic based paradigms are frequently conflated with

migration theories.” (Goldberg, et al) It is conclusive that this dream is false.

When reviewing the history we can see that race initially was used in terms of addressing

difference between people in the pre-civil rights era. It is even more astounding closer to the

enslavement of African Americans in American History. Later on, the term Ethnicity was

transitional in the way in which differences were defined. According to the article White

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America was no longer imposing policies just on race but on ethnicity. This was the result of

migrants from Europe that where flooding the country. We also see after the abolishment of

slavery and the enactment of civil rights for African Americans, the way in which, policies have

carried on the legacy of legitimized racism. Racism in which controlled the social worlds of

African Americas as well as minorities. Racial discrimination turns into and included ethnic

racism. (Goldberg, et al) The terms ethnicity and minority were coined in the early 20th

century,

both groups experienced racism, discrimination, social policy that restricted social mobility.

White European Minority groups also have shown to integrate later generations of ethnic

minorities into the larger social scene. White European Minority groups were also more wildly

distribution in a spatial context in society. White European's were absorbed and faced lower

levels of social policies that limited social mobility in later generations compared to African

Americans. According to the Article those minority groups such as African Americans inability

to integrate was theorized as being the lack of ability due to the African Americans or their

communities to integrate and become successful. (Goldberg, et al) In other words, blaming the

victim.

Policies on aspects of everyday life regarding things such as segregation and education

even foreign policy have and still have real consequence on minorities’ lives. Even with change

in policy in the last century, the idea of post slavery has only transformed the social structure of

slavery into servitude. Social policy has transpired the ability for society to reproduce classes of

people to fulfill that purpose. With the cohorts of policy regulating who and who cannot gain

access to resources and social stratifying race along spatial discourse, minorities will not gain the

social mobility to become successful in America. The Post-phenomenon is also a myth to the

idea of change in society in the Post –civil rights era. The article states, “Although the formal

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colonial barriers to social mobility have disappeared, Native Americans, Chicano's, African-

Americans and Puerto Ricans still encounter the old racial/colonial stereotypes as barriers to or

delimitation’s of equality and social mobility in ‘contact zones’ of ‘encounter’ such as global

cities like New York and Los Angeles.” (Goldberg, et al)

Conclusively we can look at social policy and see that not much has changed in the last

century. Considering today's recession, it's even more apparent. As the article concludes, that

racism and discrimination has changed shape or its mask many times in the last century. Racism

has always been a way to stratify social classes or groups of people in order to keep them in a

specific position. The means used are usually discriminatory either in policy or social norms. It

took form as slavery, and then transpired to ethnicity, including the migrant. Racism is also

policy and theory, imbedded in social norms, which regulated movement and limits accessibility

to resources. Racism also blamed the victim, used reverse physiology in the idea of prejudice

against whites making us think that reverse prejudice is a threat to whites. By limiting social

mobility racism has incriminated the minority. Racism continues to limiting accessibility to vote.

It’s also segregation. By limiting social, economic, and educational resources, racism keeps

people in their place. Employers enforce racism, by finding fault in Minorities productivity and

praising the superior class. Today in a recession it is all too obvious that racism against African

Americans is still alive and well in the USA.

The article addresses different aspects related to Employment Discrimination, the authors

look at different theories, methods of research, as well as descriptive statistics collected by the

EEOC to see the distribution and aspects of racism. The focus is the impact on employment

institutions and its consequences on management outcomes. They hypothesis is that further

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research should be done on employment discrimination and its relationship to management

research. (Goldman, et al)

In reviewing the EEOC statistics for 2005 the legal perspective includes the laws that

prohibit Discrimination in the USA. Including, Title VII, The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it

Illegal to discriminate against a person because of race, color, national origin, religion, age, sex,

or disability. With this people were able to use the justice system in the case they are

discriminated against to seek solutions. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 gave compensation if

someone was intentionally discriminated against termed desperate treatment. (Goldman, et al)

This also gave workers protection against retaliation in the case they complain or file a complaint

of discrimination. People who fall into the category are considered Protected Class. (Goldman, et

al) “There are four statutes that comprise anti-discrimination laws: Title VII, Americans with

Disability Act of 1963 (EPA), and the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), and Age Discrimination

Act (ADEA).” (Goldman, et al) Together complaints can be made to the EEOC and state

agency’s to report incidence of discrimination, most frequently called Perceived discrimination.

In 2005 there were 88,481 charges filed with the EEOC and in addition to that state

agencies reported 57,545 charges filed. (Goldman, et al)In 2005 Blacks filed 48% of all raced

based complaints, Whites filed 25%. (Goldman, et al) In 2005 20,987 Blacks filed charges for

Racial Discrimination, 78% of all Blacks complaints were related to Race. (Goldman, et al)

However in theory researchers and social scientist believe there is underlying racial tons in other

forms of treatment that is indirect discrimination based on race. Social psychologist defines

differential treatment based on group affiliation as discrimination. (Goldman, et al)” Prejudice is

defined as a negative or biased feelings toward particular social groups.” (Goldman, et al)

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Perceived discrimination or prejudice can cause many problems in the workplace, first

the victim has to cope with the trauma of being discriminated again. Not all people experience

coping problems or emotional problems but many do. Effects of perceived discrimination can

have an effect on a person’s performance, their attitude towards work, as well as, impact their

self-esteem. Minorities in a setting where they are outnumbered by people of another race they

are or an out-groups, if they see another person from their group in the In-groups they may see

that effort or being unfairly treated or more strict terms or harsh treatment can translate into poor

performance.( Goldman, et al)

In reviewing theories and research there is evidence that supports the idea of intentional

discrimination. Many studies done from a legal stand point have been done in order to protect

employers when they do discriminate. Many minorities lack resources to pursue legal means to

end an act of discrimination so many people do not file complaints. Of all complaints filed only

4% reported when they were discriminated in the application or hiring process. According to the

article race impacts the desirability of a candidate for employment. Employers rank higher on the

modern racism scale are found to discriminate for often when they are able validate not hiring a

minority with some business rationalization. (Goldman, et al)

The article concludes that maintaining and encouraging a workplace environment will

legitimize employers or institutions and will in some cases open sources for new revenues. On

the contrary they conclude that a work place that maintains an environment where discrimination

takes place is not beneficial as it contributes to the social and emotional wellbeing to their staff

and the staff has to cope in the case of discrimination which further impacts productivity.

(Goldman, et al) I think the author is right more research is needed from a management stand

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point as to why discrimination is destructive to an institution, the authors suggest research be

done in other countries to compare results.

My view is that with all the money spent by institutions on finding a loop hole for their

breaking the law or ways around it that money would be better spent in improving the

organizations diversity practices.

Since the 1940’s marriage in the USA has changed dramatically. In the past women who

have achieved higher levels of education were less likely to be wed. In time this shifted to

women with higher education as were more likely to be wed. During the Baby Boomer years,

1940-1960, marital status grew along with fertility rate. In 1960 and after there is a decline in

marital status and rise in cohabitation, divorce, single households, and none-martial child bearing

(Torr). The article looks at the relationship between marital status, economic status, and

education attainment for women between the years of 1940-1960. (Torr) The article also looks

at the census data collected in the same period to see the relationship between marital status and

educational attainment. (Torr)

The article outlines a few theories that have influenced how we view the relationship

between marriage and educational attainment. The first theory is called, Specialization and

Exchange, which entails marriage as a mutual means to some end. Most frequently, a spouse is

desirable for what economic benefit they can provide. Men, when economically stable are more

attractive to women who need economic stability. Women who have limited means can

reproduce and do housework. It is a mutually sufficing relationship. In the shift of women’s

economic status during the period from 1940-1960, women who are more educated were less

desirable for marriage. After the 1960s, the shift showed women with higher education as more

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desirable and more often married. (Torr) The second theory is the Relative Status Theory, which

states that the mutual exchange in marriage is beneficial to both parties. In the period were

women enter the work force in masses, men also see a decline in wages and economic wealth,

there for, both parties benefit in a marital exchange. (Torr)

Previous studies show a positive mark for men who marry no matter their socioeconomic

status was measured by education, income, and/or employment status. (Torr)Results have always

been more mixed when looking at women. The results of previous studies show that women with

higher educational attainment do get married later in life and often are mostly likely to get

married out of the different categories. (Torr) Many previous studies have shown a mixed bag of

results for women and higher education attainment. Some studies show women are more likely

to get divorced. While some show, women with a higher education are less likely to be divorced.

Previous studies however often only research first marriages and lifetime marriages. In this

article, we also look at divorce, widows, and remarriage. (Torr)

Recent studies show African Americans are less likely to get married than whites are

after 1940. After 1940, African Americans had higher marriage rates than whites. In 1960,

Whites had higher marriage rates than African Americans. All Marriage rates fell starting 1970,

however it was a greater fall for African American Women. (Torr) African American women

have previously been in the labor force more than White women have. Some suggest this is why

there is a large difference between races. (Torr)

In reviewing data for this article first, they do a multivariate analysis of the relationship

between marital status, for all types of marital status and education. Second, they review the

changes that take place to see if they coordinate with other variables, such as, education

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attainment and labor force participation. Third, the relationship is explored if there are changes

over time and the relationship to race. (Torr)

Data came from the, Integrated Public Use Micro data Series (IPUMS-USA), version 4.0,

of the USA decennial censuses. (Torr) This includes census data for years 1940-2000. The

sample includes women ages 18- 39 for all seven years, birth years range from 1901-1982. (Torr)

The IPUMS-USA is cross sectional rather than longitudinal analysis despite the setback it works

for individual level analysis. (Torr) There is no other source with such a wide time range with

longitudinal data collected, which makes this source more credible. (Torr) The method used to

analysis the data was descriptive analysis “multi-nominal logistic regression”. (Torr) This was

done with statistical analysis software (SAS). (Torr) Measures and Variables Include Marital

Status and Education. Marital status is the dependent variable in the analysis. Independent

variables include the following, “…never married, currently married, and previously married.”

(Torr) Education attainment is set up as dummy variables. Including, “…grade school only, some

high school, high school diploma, some college, and college degree or higher.” (Torr)

The study shows that “between 1940 and 2000 the percent of all women age eighteen to

thirty-nine that were currently married declined, from 62 percent in 1940 to 49 percent in 2000.”

(Torr) Women who were never married went from 30 percent to 39 percent. (Torr)In addition,

women who were previously married went from 8 percent to 12 percent. (Torr) In the 1940, a

Black woman was more likely to be always married. In the year 2000, Black women were only

27 percent currently married. (Torr)In contrast, White women at the same time were currently

married 52 percent of the time. It was not until the year 2000 that women for the majority had at

least attained a high school diploma. By 2000, 1 in 10 African American women and 1 in 4

White women have at least a college degree. (Torr) Women’s employment also increased, in

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1940, 32 percent of women were in the labor force, 16 percent were married. Moreover, 66

percent of women were in the labor force in year 2000, in which, 65 percent were married. (Torr)

In 1940, two-thirds of White Women or 6 in 10 White Women had a high school

diploma, some college education or less was reported as currently married. (Torr)From 1970 to

2000 there is a decline in marital status for white women other than those who have a degree or

higher. White women with only a little high school education went from 66 percent married in

1940 to 47 percent married in 2000. (Torr) White women with a high school diploma went from

59 percent in 1940 to 50 percent in 2000. (Torr) White women with a college education went

from 56 percent in 1940 to 52 percent in 2000. (Torr)

In contrast, in 1940, 60% of African American women with little education were married.

(Torr) “ Marriage rates for Black women at all education levels were 8-10 percentage points

lower in all education levels for being married as compared to White Women.” (Torr) In 1970,

40% of African American women with grade school education were married. (Torr) 48% of

Married African American Women had a high school diploma. (Torr) 46% of African American

Women with only some high school education was married. (Torr) 51% of African Americans

that were married had some college education. (Torr) 53% of African Americans who were

married were college graduates. (Torr)

Marriage is on the decline for both African American women and White women. In the

year 2000, only 33 % of married African American women were college graduates. (Torr) Only

20 % of married African American women had less than a high school diploma. (Torr) In

contrast, 47 % to 53% of White women were married in the year 2000. (Torr)

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Conclusively, there has been a shift from women with higher education being undesirable

to being desirable. However, in traditional models of marriage men typically went for a women

who was less educated, she also had little income, thus she married a man who could provide.

The shift that has occurred has left women with the least ability to provide for their self at a

disadvantage now that women with a higher education are more desirable. Women are now more

often marrying a man of equal means which disproportionally leaves those who traditionally was

served by the previous socioeconomic marriage model. Now Women are marrying men in the

same socioeconomic status so we are having a disproportionate take in the economic wealth.

Women in lower socioeconomic statuses with lower education are often vowing for co-habitation

rather or opting out of marriage. We also see the shift occur now that women have entered the

workforce in large masses. Women no longer have to go the traditional route of getting married.

Now they have access to the labor force. However, this study does not provide entail into why

there is a disproportionally negative difference for African Americans compared to White

American women. My conclusion is that African American women are at a disadvantage, the

social framework, has inhibited African American women from marriage by the regulations we

have on wealth distribution, segregation, and criminal justice policies. Further study is need to

see the relationship between African American Women, Marriage Status, Education and other

variables that can affect the outcome of African American Marital Status.

This article reviews how Brown vs. Education has failed in assuring that African

American males do not experience racial discrimination in Educational Institutions. It is

apparent that the establishment of Brown vs. Education has had a positive impact on African

Americans educational experience. African Americans are no longer second class citizens

according to the establishment of Brown vs. Education. This law gives African Americans their

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true constitutional rights in having equal access to education. The law also gives an individual a

right to pursue judicial means in the event intentional discrimination occurs. However, it does

not give a person the right to sue if they have experienced unintentional discrimination. This

clause has hindered progress of the African Americans Educational Experience. There is still

wide spread systematic discrimination that can be classified as unintentional. These effects have

real consequences as demonstrated below.

However, when looking at statistics we can question just how well that law has related to

African American Males educational experience. “For example, in the 2004 Maryland School

Assessment Program, 82% of White girls scored at the proficient and advanced levels in fifth

reading. 79% percent of White boys scored proficient, 56% of Black girls, and 49% of Black

boys. Black males are half as likely to be in gifted programs, and a third less likely to take

advanced math and science courses. Black boys are also less likely to graduate from high school

or college than White males.”(Green III) Furthermore, Black boys are likely to be in learning

disability classes. (Green III) Black boys accounted for 8.6% of school enrollment during the

2000/2001 school year. 20% were considered “mentally retarded.” Of the 8.6%, 21% were

considered “emotionally disturbed.” While only 12% were considered “learning disability.”

(Green III)

According to the article, African American males are more likely going to be suspended

or are more harshly punished than other children. A National Longitudinal Study in 1988, that

consisted of 25,000 eight graders, showed that Black boys are likely to be suspended more than

any other group of children. (Green III) “The Office for Civil Rights 1993 reported on a national

survey that although Black males constituted 8.23% of the total student population, they received

corporal punishment and were suspended at rates of over three times their percentage in the

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population.”(Green III) In 1992 the Office for Civil Rights did the Biennial Survey that conferred

that Black boys were more likely than White girls to be suspended by six times and were sixteen

times more likely to be punished. (Green III)

In 2000 a study by the Justice Policy Institute showed that there were 188,500 more

males in prison than there were in higher education. (Green III) The Center for Labor Market

Studies showed 1 in 4 African American males were unemployed in 2002. (Green III) The study

also showed 44% of Black men who were unemployed for at least a year didn’t have a GED or

High School diploma. (Green III) It is apparent with these statistics that the law has not entirely

eliminated the problem of systematic discrimination in the Educational system. It is apparent that

this needs to be changed in policy and/or through the justice system.

The consequence of this situation is we see that poor academic achieve translates into

poverty and crime. The legal system has barely touched on the systematic racism that has existed

for so long. It is apparent that we do need measures in educational institution that reward

administrative staff and teachers by the performance of their students. If students do not perform

well on standardized test then they should replace teachers with ones that will teach students.

More measures can be taken to insure students get an adequate education such as having a

diverse staff, tutoring programs, diversity training for staff members, and hiring people who are

dedicated to ethical standards such as equal education for all people. These are a few things that

can be done to help change the lives of students and to end systematic discrimination, either

intentional or unintentional.

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Methodology

Data collected for this research is from the (GSS) General Social Survey database called

the National Data Program for the Social Sciences a survey administered by the University of

Chicago with the assistance of (NORC) the National Opinion Research Center with the support

of the National Science Foundation. It has been in operation since the year of 1972. (GSS) All

the data collected is free through the GSS website that can be accessed by the general public as

well as researchers.

GSS does a study each year with a variety of questions that help in scientific research of

structure and change in American society. (GSS) This information helps to evaluate social

conditions, and attitudes about society, which in turn can be evaluated and turned into vital

information pertaining to social policy. (GSS) The data collected is represented in Univariate

Variables/Frequencies that can be used in comparison to other Univariate

Variables/Frequencies. GSS has the data organized into different Index’s that can be accessed,

for this study the Subject Index was used. GSS displays frequencies; variables can be evaluated

with Cross Tabulation and Correlations.

For the purpose of this study the GSS dataset variables were utilized in order to evaluate

theories, hypothesis, research questions that pertain to race, African Americans as well as White

people. The variables are Race, Education, Home owner vs. Renter, Marital Status, and Poverty.

The variables are used with frequency tables, cross tables, and measures of association.

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Data Analysis

Theory of social inequality will show inequality exists between African Americans and

Whites in the USA. Blacks will have lower levels of High school Graduations and lower college

graduation rates than Whites. Blacks with at least a Bachelor’s degree will rent more frequently

than own a home and Whites with at least a Bachelor’s degree are more likely to own a home

than to rent. Blacks will also have lower levels of marital rates than Whites do. Blacks will also

be disproportionally poor compared to Whites. My hypothesis is that today we still see

inequality between Blacks and Whites, inequality can be seen in Education, Home ownership,

Marital Status, as well as population distribution under the Poverty line.

Race of Respondent: Frequency Table

Values Categories N NW

1 White 41764 41759 81.8%

2 Black 7033 6759 13.2%

3 Other 2223 2502 4.9%

0 Not applicable 0 0

Respondents in the GSS survey were asked, “What race do you consider yourself?” In this

research Race is the Dependent variable in comparing African Americans to Whites. This table

shows that when Respondents are asked this question (81.8%) are White and (13.2%) are Black

leaving (4.9%) of the population in the other category. Enough Respondents answered the

question to pursue further comparison.

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Here it is asked, “If there is a relationship between Race and Education”, that

demonstrates social inequality between Blacks and Whites. “Are Blacks more likely than Whites

to have less than a high school diploma?”

Dependent Variable Race and Independent Variable RS Highest Degree: Cross Tabulation

RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total

RS HIGHEST DEGREE

Less than high school 21.2 33.5 27.9 23.2

High school 52.5 50.4 42.2 51.7

Associate/Junior College 5.0 5.5 6.7 5.1

Bachelor's 14.5 7.5 15.3 13.6

Graduate 6.9 3.0 7.9 6.4

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

N= 41,657 6,984 2,215 50,856

When Respondents Highest Degree is cross tabulated with Race of Respondent the results show

there is a significant relationship between Race and Education. Black’s rates with less than a

“high school diploma” are much higher than for Whites. Blacks have less than high school

degree represent (33.5%) of respondents as compared to (21.2%) for Whites. Whites have higher

rates of “high school graduation” than Blacks do. Whites graduate high school at a rate of

(52.5%) as compared to (50.4%) for Blacks. Whites are twice as likely to have a “bachelor’s

degree” as compared to Blacks. Whites graduate with at least a Bachelor’s degree with a rate of

(14.5%) for Whites compared to (7.5%) for Blacks. This is consistent with social inequality

theory.

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Next the SPSS GSS.sav file was used to compare Blacks to Whites in Homeownership

vs. Renting. What is evaluated next is the relationship between Race, Home Ownership vs.

Renting, and a third independent variable was added which is Education Level. The research

question asked is “Are Blacks with a Bachelor’s Degree more likely to rent compared to Whites

with at least a Bachelor’s degree?”

Dependent Variable is Race, Independent Variable is Home Ownership vs. Renting, third

Independent variable is Education: Cross Tabulation

(66.7%) of Blacks with at least a bachelor’s degree “rent” compared to (22.6%) of White who

have earned at least a bachelor’s degree. Whites with at least a bachelor’s degree “own homes” (75.9%) of the time as compared to (33.3%) of Blacks with at least a bachelor’s degree. The

cross tabulation in SPSS GSS.sav file indicates that Blacks with at least a Bachelor’s Degree

“rent” more often the Whites with at least a Bachelor’s degree. Whites do graduate with at least a

Bachelor’s degree twice as much as Blacks. And Whites do “own homes” more often than

Blacks. There is defiantly a relationship between Race and Homeownership. The relationships

between the variables are consistent with the theory of Social Inequality between Blacks and

Whites.

Junior

college

Homeowner or

Renter

owns

home

Count 37 5 2 44

% within Race of

Respondent 77.1% 50.0% 66.7% 72.1%

pays rent

Count 11 5 1 17

% within Race of

Respondent 22.9% 50.0% 33.3% 27.9%

Total

Count 48 10 3 61

% within Race of

Respondent 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Bachelor

Homeowner or

Renter

owns

home

Count 104 1 6 111

% within Race of

Respondent 75.9% 33.3% 40.0% 71.6%

pays rent

Count 31 2 7 40

% within Race of

Respondent 22.6% 66.7% 46.7% 25.8%

other

Count 2 0 2 4

% within Race of

Respondent 1.5% .0% 13.3% 2.6%

Total

Count 137 3 15 155

% within Race of

Respondent 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Homeowner or Renter * Race of Respondent Cross tabulation

R's Highest Degree Race of Respondent Total

white black other

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Another Variable taken into consideration is Marital Status. Data is collectedly by the

GSS database to compare African Americans to Whites. The research question asks, “Are Blacks

less likely than whites to be married?”

Dependent Variable is Race & Independent Variable is Marital Status: Cross Tabulation

RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total

MARITAL STATUS

Married 58.2 36.2 51.3 54.9

Widowed 9.9 11.2 4.2 9.9

Divorced 11.9 13.1 11.2 12.0

Separated 2.5 9.4 4.4 3.5

Never married 17.5 30.1 28.9 19.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

N= 41,756 7,029 2,221 51,006

When Marital Status is cross tabulated with Race the results show (58.2 %) of Whites are

“married” compared to (36.2%) of Blacks. The table also shows that (17.5%) of Whites have

“never been married” compared to (30.1%) of Blacks. These results are consistent with the

theory of social inequality as well as the hypothesis there will be a relationship between Race

and Marital Status.

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After looking into Marital Status the next variable to be measured is Poverty status. It is

the hypothesis that African Americans disproportionally are below the poverty, near or at it. The

research question asked here is, “Are Blacks more likely to be in poverty than Whites?”

Dependent Variable is Race & Independent Variable Poverty Line:

Cross Tabulation

According to the GSS database when Poverty Line is Cross Tabulated with Race the results

show that (25.5%) of Blacks are “poor” while only (7.8%) of Whites are “poor". The data is in

agreement with the hypothesis and theory of social inequality. There is a relationship that exists

in the population.

RACE OF RESPONDENT White Black Other Total

RS HH POVERTY STATUS

POOR 7.8 25.5 17.5 10.4

POOR -- IMPUTED 0.7 2.7 1.1 1.0

NOT POOR 80.4 57.0 69.4 77.1

NOT POOR -- IMPUTED 6.5 6.5 7.1 6.5

BORDERLINE 4.4 7.9 4.9 4.9

BORDERLINE -- IMPUTED 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.1

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

N= 24,587 3,923 618 29,128

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Conclusions

According to the data found in the GSS database there is a relationship between Race and

Education, Home ownership, Renting, Marital Status, and Poverty. This data supports the

different hypothesis outlined in this paper, which include the following. Blacks are likely to be

disproportionally represented in lower class statuses. Blacks are more likely to rent than to own a

home. Blacks are more likely to have lower levels of High school graduation and lower college

education rates. Blacks are more likely than whites to not be married. Blacks are more likely than

whites to be in poverty.

In comparing the data represented in the GSS database to the previous findings in the

literature review, findings show similar trends and statistics as those in previous studies. Blacks

are more likely to be unemployed than Whites. Blacks have less than a quarter net worth of

Whites. Blacks are more likely to live in Blacks areas than Whites. Blacks are more likely to

face racial discrimination than Whites. Blacks are more likely to spend more time looking for a

job than Whites and are more likely to make less money. Blacks are more likely than Whites to

have less than a High School Education and half as likely to graduate college with at least a

bachelor’s degree. Blacks are more likely to not be married, to be separated, divorced or

widowed than Whites.

Considering the gravity of disproportion in different socio-economic sectors of life it is

conclusive there is disparity between Blacks and Whites that can be called Inequality. This

inequality has many contributing factors as addressed early one of them is social stratification. In

the American history African Americans have been socially stratified to a specific role in

society. All societies are built in terms of hierarchy along your roles and status. The rewards also

were built in terms of roles and status. In history we have tried to redefine the status and roles of

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African Americans to include them by being more inclusive. It has not come without great

suffering or effort. It has been a positive incline towards greater prosperity for African

Americans. However, in social stratification we will not lose the quality of hierarchy and there

will still be a class of people in lower ranks. African Americans are dealing with a Racial Glass

ceiling as they are pushing forward to achieve greater prosperity. A lot of great progress has

already been made.

African Americans are disproportionally represented because they are starting from

bottom and working their way up. They have started from zero in socio-economic status. This

explains why they are still disproportionally in lower status. However, the glass ceiling for

African Americans has pushed back some distance there is still a ways to go. Many policies and

affirmative action programs created by the government has helped in changing the status of

African Americans. Such as the Civil Rights Law, the EEOC, the end to educational segregation,

and different policies that make it possible for African American to seek justice and have some

chances in participating in social and economic life. With just as much effort that has been made,

old norms and prejudice still exists extensively in the USA, and there have been just as many

policies pushing back against changes that improve the life’s of African Americans.

With this data and knowledge of the Inequality faced by African Americans it is both

inspiring to know where they have come from and where things are headed. It has been only

forty-seven years since the civil rights of African Americans were established. In that time, many

wonderful and positive changes have occurred. Dr. King’s dreams are being lived out today as

we press into the future. It might be difficult at times as social norms and older people are in

leadership roles in the USA, that often dictate policies more suited for the history books, they

will soon leave and give way to present ideals. More than ever people are engaging with people

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of different races. Interracial couples are at an all-time high in the USA. We are even three years

into having our first ever half black-half white president.

Social policies need to be developed so that help African Americans overcome the

challenges they face. For far too long, it has been extremely hard for African Americans to

pursue true justice in the justice system. The justice system has created policies that punish

people based on race and class status. Being a Black male is a negative Master Status today. If

you’re black you are a criminal, and/ if your Black your complaints are not taken seriously in

discrimination cases, and if you’re poor, well then you just can’t afford to pursue justice. Of

course the leaders in this segment of society are people with old social norms that blatantly add

to the problem of inequality. People who are leaders in the justice system are overwhelmingly

White. We could say justice isn’t blind its prejudice. Policies need to address this mentality and

make it a criminal act. In the case of prejudice and discrimination it should be taken more

seriously. Social policies should provide the means and resources to help people of minority

status to seek justice when they are wronged. And there should be more minorities that work in

the Justice system as Lawyers, Judges, and Policy makers in order to see this change.

Once we change the way in which we write policies and enforce them we will see more

positive outcomes. There is a Hugh loss in social capital due to the inequality African Americans

face in this country. I recommend further research be done on the glass ceiling African

Americans face in society, in all sectors, education, home ownership, poverty, marital status. I

highly recommend that more is studied about prejudice in the justice system and social

segregation of African Americans. Many would blame the African Americans for their social

condition and many African Americans blame whites for their conditions. The relationship is

dynamic and inter-related. We have a society that strategically stratifies people based on

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categorical labels, in the case of African Americans it is based on race. Both parties need to

realize that blaming the other is not efficient in solving problems. However, the blaming might

benefit each group in different ways, it only adds to the problem. Both parties need to be held

accountable for their actions. The dominate class or white people in the position to change things

should be dedicated to changing conditions that subjugate African Americans. If they are not

they should be held accountable. African Americans should be provided with resources that are

adequate to change the status they are in. For far too long the system has had a reward system in

place to motivate people to stay poor or in the underclass. This needs to be addressed in both

parts of society. African Americans should be required to participate in programs that change

their status for the better, not reward them for staying in poverty. What this means is that more

resources need to be given to African Americans to get a good education and equity to open

businesses. Far too little is being done in today’s world. And finally programs that help blacks

integrate into different multi-ethnic and multi-racial areas that are prosperous whereas to end

social segregation. If our government can spend billions upon trillions in imprisoning people for

non-violent crimes, they can spend it on rehabilitating the people they incriminate. If our

government can spend billions upon trillions in bailing out the rich they can also invest in

African Americans to facilitate their full potential. It’s time to put into policies that quality is not

for a few and it is not sometimes.

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References

Malcolm X, http://www.malcolm-x.org/quotes.htm, retrieved November 29, 2011

Brunner, Borgna, African American History Timeline, Retrieved November 29, 2001

http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmtimeline.html

Marger, Martin (2005) Social Inequality, Patterns and Processes, Third Edition, pg.14

Strayhorn, Terrell, L. (2008) Influence on Labor Market Outcomes of African American College

Graduates: A National Study. The Journal of Higher Education Vol. 79 No. 1 Pg. 28-57

Fairchild, Gregory, B. & Robinson, Jeffery, A. (2008) Unlearned Lessons From, Letter from

Birmingham Jail, the Work Began, the Progress Made, & the Task Ahead. Business & Society

Vol. 47 No. 4 Pg.484-522

Goldberg, David, Theo, & et al. (2008) Field of Dreams, Cultures of Scholarship and Public

Policy on Race in the United States. International Journal of Comparative Sociology Vol. 47 Pg.

259-280

Goldman, Barry, M. & et al. (2006) Employment Discrimination in Organizations: Antecedents

and Consequences, Journal of Management Vol. 32 No. 6 (pg. 786-831)

Torr, Berna, M. (2011) the Changing Relationship between Education and Marriage in the

United States, 1940 – 2000. Journal of Family History Vol. 32 No. 4 (Pg. 483-503)

Green III, Preston, C. (2008) The Impact of Law on African American Males. American

Behavioral Scientists Vol. 51 No.7 (Pg. 872-885)

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