bloomberg, chelsea beethoven's piano sonatas

8/13/2019 Bloomberg, Chelsea Beethoven's Piano Sonatas

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Beethoven s Piano Sonatas:An Analysis o Compositional Trends from 1795-1822

Chelsea BloombergSpring 2007

Dr. Gerald Berthiaume, AdvisorSchool o Music

College o Liberal Arts

Honors Thesis*************************PASS WITH DISTINCTION


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TO THE UNIVERSITY HONORS COLLEGE

s thesis advisor for ~ s e t b EJOOMb2CC\

I have read this paper and find it satisfactory

Thesis Advisor;1 / t -;; .. / 0 7

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TO THE UNIVERSITY HONORS COLLEGE

As thesis advisor for O\Q. k tb- E j O O r \ ~ r t \

I have read this paper and find it satisfactory.

Thesis Advisor

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recis

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) is widely recognized as one of the most

important composers in music history and his thirty-two piano sonatas are arguably themost significant pieces in their genre. There is an audible distinction between the first andlast sonatas, and curiosity about the cause of this disparity, and a love for the music itself,inspired the conception of this study.

Research for this project was focused on analysis of the written music, looking atsix specific sonatas chosen from each of the three periods into which Beethoven's musicis commonly divided. This is a standard method of finding out what events motivate amusical work. However, even using a typical approach, the results reached by an analystmay differ significantly from those of other researchers, due to the subjectivity inherentin music. n music, chords three or more notes sounding simultaneously) frequentlygovern the forward motion of the piece and the order of chords affects this motion; thiswas the first aspect examined. Treatment of melody is another important part of musicwhich was studied in detai1. The order in which specific themes appear, referred to asform, also figures promjnently in music and was another emphasis of the study.

Harmonic analysis proved difficult in some sections of works where there are fewexplicit chord progressions. In these instances, the main motivator was determined to bethe relationship between individual, concurrent melodic lines.

Upon completion of research, it was determined that there are several differencesbetween the works of each period, as well as specific techniques that remain constantthroughout all of his sonatas. Initially, the harmonies employed are largely traditional butover time they become more adventurous. Beethoven's treatment of melody also changes


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over Lime In the first sonatas, the melodies tend to be lengthy, but by the last sonata themelodic ideas are reduced to only a few notes. From the early sonatas o the later sonatastherc is a noticeable shift n volume and thickness of sound. When Beethoven beganwriting, the piano was a delicate instrument, not nearly as powerful as the modern pianoand his first sonatas reflect this. As he continued writing, however, he demanded morevolume than the instruments could provide, inspiring changes in the instrument thateventually resulted in today s piano. Throughout all Lhirty-two sonatas, however,

Beethoven retains a highly logical ordering of themes.Every composer after Beethoven was somehow affected by his works. Some, like

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) considered Beethoven the greatest master and sought tocontinue in a similar style. Others, such as Frederic Chopin ] 810-1849) and Franz Liszt1811-1886), felt that the classicism expressed in the music of Beethoven had reached its

ultimate conclusion and thus broke from this style, creating a radical new ideal in theirown music. Without Beethoven s adjustments to harmony, melody, and texture, neitherof these responses could have occurred and the music of today would be markedlydifferent. The potential methods for expanding this study are numerous. Ideas includeperforming a full analysis of all of the piano sonatas, analyzing other works of Beethoventhe symphonies, Lhe quartets, etc.), and studying the works of earlier and later composers

to acquire an understanding of precisely how composers approached writing before andafter Beethoven.


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Table of ContentsList of figures

IlllroductionMethodologyAnalytical ConsiderationsThe Early Period (1795-1802)Op. 2, No 2Op. 13 Grande Sonate PatheriqueThe Middle Period (1802-1812)Op. 53 WaldsteinOp. 57 AppassionataThe Late Period (1812-1827)Op. 106 FiirdasHammerklavierOp. 110ConclusionGlossaryBibliography

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789

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232930373941

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List of FiguresFigure 1. Op. 2 No.2 III: m. 1-3 13Figure 2. Op. 13 I m. 6 15Figure 3. Op. 13 1: m. J31-J33 6Figure 4. Op. 13 1: m. 59-61; III: m. 1-2 17Figure 5. Op.53 I: m. 1-4 9Figu re 6. Op. 57 I: m. 1 23Figure 7. Op. 57 I: m. 10 23Figure 8. Op. 57 III: m. 1-7 28Figure 9. Op. 57 III: m. 20-22 28Figure 10. Op. 106 : m. 1-2 30Figure 11. Op. 106 : m. 385-387 31Figure J2. Op. 106 l: m. 4-8 32Figure 13. Op. 106 IV: m.17-21 35

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Introduction.Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) completed thirty-two piano sonatas between

1795 and 1822. When he published the first opus, a set of three (Op. 2), few could haveimagined the extent to which his writing would evolve by the time he published the lastsonata, Op. Il l twenty-seven years later in 1822.

When Beethoven started out as a fresh, young talent from Bonn, Gennany, theworld was enamored of classicism, the foci of which are clean lines, clear textures, and,above all, balance. The art, music, and literature of the time looked back to thearchitecture and sculpture of ancient Greece to find inspiration. Musical classicismreached its pinnacle in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756- I791). Beethovenadored the genius' music, and found in his works inspiration and a model to emulate aswell as a shadow from which he must escape. n October of 1790, the young composercopied out a musical excerpt in his sketchbook, writing, "This entire passage has beenstolen from the Mozart Symphony in C, where the Andante in six-eight from the . . .[writing breaks off].'" Further down the page, he rewrote the passage, signing it"Beethoven himself.,,2 This desire to break from the earlier master's style was never fullyeffected in practice, however, and the influence of Mozart shows even in Beethoven'slatest sonatas.

Despite remaining evidence of Mozartean ideals of balance, by the end ofBeethoven's life, he had strayed from the classical ideal fulfilled in Mozart's music. Eventhe most casual listener can easily discern the difference between Op. 2 No.1 (1795) andOp. I II (1822). However, hearing the difference is a matter far removed from knowing

Lewis Lockwood. Bee hoven: The Music nd he Life (New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton & Company,2005) 57.2 Lockwood. 57.

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what precise changes occurred over time to create two works of such disparate characterand construction. The purpose of this research is to discover and describe the changes in

composition style and technique made throughout the twenty-seven years during whichBeethoven composed the thirty-two piano sonatas.Methodology.

n order to answer the research question, chose six of the thirty-two pianosonatas to analyze. These sonatas represent the three standardized divisions ofBeethoven's compositions, including two works from each period. The early periodconsists of music written between 1792 and 1802, and includes sonatas Op. 2 throughOp. 49. The middle period lasted from 1802 to 1812 and includes sonatas Op. 53 throughOp. 90. The late period lasted from 1812 to Beethoven's death in 1827 and includes thelast fi ve sonatas, Op. 1 1 through Op. Ill The sonatas chosen for this study are asfollows:Early period:

Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 2, No.2 (1795)Piano Sonata in C Minor, Op. 13 "Pathetique,,3 (1798/99)

Middle period:Piano Sonata in C Major, Op. 53 Waldstein (1803/04)Piano Sonata in F Minor, Op. 57 Appassionata (1805/05)

Late Period:Piano Sonata in B-flat Major, Op. 106 Fur das Hammerklavier" (1817/18)Piano Sonata in A-flat Major, Op. 110 (1821)

} The tilles of Beethoven's sonatas were generally added by the publisher, not by the composer. Anexception is Sonata Op. 81 a Das Lehewohl ( The Farewell"), which the publisher altered by translating itinto French ( Les Adieux").

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Analysis of these six sonatas included a study of harmonic structure formal structuremotivic and melodic elements, phrase style texture and relationships between

movements. While studying these pieces 1 compared findings with the analyses ofDonald Francis Tovey and Charles Rosen both of whom are weJl-respected for theirstudies of Beethoven.

n addition to the study of these works specifically also compiled generalizedinformation on all thirty-two sonatas; this information includes key relationships betweenmovements particular points of interest general formal structures number ofmovements and use of repeats.Analytical Considerations

There are several things to consider when approaching the works of Beethovenfrom an historical and analytical perspective. First we must be careful not to rashly labela once-used technique as a rule that must be found in subsequent works; Beethovensometimes experimented with an idea for one work and never used it again. For exampleafter an analysis of Op. 106 it would be an error to declare that all late works ofBeethoven are constructed using third relationships as the basis for harmony and melody.Second we must take care not to throw out early ideas as possibilities for his later works;something that was laid aside for several years could suddenly be resurrected to achieve adesired effect; Lhis principle applies to the clean textures of Op. I 10 When examiningBeethoven s works in terms of three main periods it is vital to remember that the realityof any man s work is that it is a continuous flow. Charles Rosen warns against using theperiod di visions as a hard rule saying that there is no distinct break beLween the first two

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periods and that the second and third periods contain many similar elements. He does notdiscard the idea entirely, however:

"Whl:n the division into three periotls is retained, it should be clear that it is a fiction for the purposes ofanalysis, a l:onvenience for understanding, and nO a biographical reality. The steady developmenttliscernibJc in Beelhoven s career is as important as its discontinuities even if these are easier to describe.

is only in comparing works several years apart that the discontinuities assume a demonstrable and.persuasive sense.

This caution should be kept in mind whenever considering the progression of

composition technique in Beethoven s works.The Early Period 1795-1802).

Even though the early works of Beethoven are somewhat imitative of Mozart, hewas already disinclined to follow on the heels of convention. Beginning with the first setof sonatas, published in 1795 as Op. 2, he shocked his audiences-and would continue todo so until his death thirty-two years later. Prior to these works, a group of sonataspublished together would begin in a major key; the first of the three sonatas from Op. 2 isin F Minor. Also, the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn generally have three movements.Each of the opus 2 sonatas has four movements. Of course, Beethoven did not add anextra movement for no reason; rather he drew from symphonic literature, the works ofwhich tended to have four movements in the following pattern:

I Fast, probably in sonata form.II. Slow, often in simple ternary, but could be in any form.III. Stylized dance, usual ly a minuet form.s

Charles Rosen, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart. nd Beethoven. (New York: W.W. Norton &Company, 972) 1R9.5 n Beethoven s works, the label of this movement is often scherzo. However, these scherzi are usually inthe same three-phrase form as the minuel.

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IV. Fast, often a rondo or sonata form.Each of the three opus 2 sonatas follows this format, showing Beethoven's earlyinclination to expand the scope of piano literature.Opt 2 No.2.

In the first movement of Op. 2, No.2, the second thematic group (beginningmeasure 58) wanders into surprising tonalities that would not have been seen in Mozart,and the sound of which our twenty-first century ears simply cannot understand asrevolutionary in the way that Beethoven's contemporary audience would have. The chordchanges, beginning in E minor and tonicizing G major, B-flat major, D major, and F-sharp minor,6 are dictated by a rising bass line that is used to increase intensity; theascending bass used in this fashion is an innovation that began with Beethoven and thathe used extensively through all three periods. 7 At the time, it was the norm to maintain a

fairly simple harmonic structure in the exposition of a sonata form movement and thisprogression so near the beginning of the exposition confounded the expectations ofBeethoven's audience. In the larger harmonic and formal framework, however, the workis fairly conventional; it modulates to the major dominant by the end of the exposition,spends time in closely related keys during the development section, and returns to thematerial of the exposition without any thematic changes while maintaining the tonic-keyframework. 8

6 The chord actually progresses to an F-sharp diminished triad in root position, which is diatonic to the kcyor E minor, ralher than resolving on a chromatically altered chord.7 Exampks include the first movement or Op. HIa (m. 21-28) and the first movt:rnent of Op. 57 (m.1 09123).8 It stays in tonic with the exception of the necessary visitation of the tonic minor (a minor) that paralldsthe dominant minor section in the exposition. This modulation to the dominant minor hefore, or instead of,the dominant major is common in Beethoven's expositions. Reference Op. 10 No.3, second movement (m.17-29), Op. 27, No.2, third movement (21-64), and Op. 31 No.2, tirst movement (m. 41-74).


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The whole of the first movement is mainly constructed from ideas found in thefirst twenty measures of the work. Though this main idea is long, the treatment of it in the

development is more motivic in nature, predicting how Beethoven would treat thematicmateriaJ in future works. The development of smaller motives derived from the firstgroup is paI1icularly noticeable in measures 8 and foJlowing, where the two elementsfrom measures 8 and 9 are laid out in Slretto. For the most part, however, Beethovenquotes larger sections of thematic material, as in measures J22-157.

The texture of the first movement is thin, not often using more than three verticalpitches9 on a given beat, and more frequentJy using only two. The marked articulationsgeneraJly indicate lightness; much of the work is marked staccato or is simply unmarked,implying a detached sound. Where slurs are marked, they are lIsually written near asection with a detached sound, which suggests that they are there to enhance dramaticcontrast. For example, the first thematic group (m. I-57) contains much staccato, whereasthe second thematic group (beginning m. 58) contains no staccato at all; the melody lineis instead heaviJy slurred.

In the second movement, Largo appassionato we again see the transference ofsymphonic tradition to the piano. The bass part of the main theme is marked staccatosempre and in performance sounds much like pizzicato on a ceJlo or bass; it accompaniesa stateJy, hymn-Jike meJody. As in the first movement, there are few unexpectedharmonies, though the sudden explosion of the theme in 0 minor (parallel to 0 major, themain key of the movement) is made by dynamics, marked fortissimo.

Contrasting the grandeur of the sJow movement, the third movement is a bright

9 Verlical pitchcs refers 10 pitches that sound simultaneously.

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scherzo and trio. lo The brief movement is essentially classicist, with a light, clear touchand the two-note slurs typical of the works of Mozart and Haydn.

Its form is the standard three-phrase minuet that was so often used by the earliermasters. The first section is in A major, and the second starts in the dominant key (Emajor). Aside from a brief interruption in this second section, outlining a new melody inthe mediant key of G-sharp minor utterly remote from the tonic, A major), the harmonyis unremarkable.

The fourth movement is labeled Rondo Grazioso Like the third movement, thisdelicate rondo employs the classical two-note slur extensively, as in measures 2, 8, and10; these are only a few examples from the 187-measure movement. Another decidedlyclassicist element is the nearly constant presence of Alberti bass, 12 which was widelyused by Beethoven s precursors and contemporaries:

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espreJl

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Fig. I Op. 2, No.2, IV: m. I l.It runs through most of the rondo theme m. 1-16) and through the entire first episodem. 26-40) and the subsequent repetitions of these sections. The only feature that may

have caused serious L:Oncern on the part of the contemporary audience is the bombastic

1 These are landed Scherzo and Minore in Ihe score.II II may arguably be in sonala-ronuo form, though in analysis it is important 10 remember thai the formcame after Ihe work; allempting to fit a musical work into a specific box can lead 10 useless and oftencounlerproduciive argumcnlS.12 Alberli bass is a style of accompanimelll cnaraeleri7.ed ny a nroken chord with ilS members in Ihe pallern1-5-3-5.

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middle section, in A minor (parallel of the original key). t initially bursts forth in fulchords in the left hand played against highly chromatic right hand triplets. The patterns

formed by the chromatic right hand are, despite the shocking contrast against the elegantouter sections, fairly simple, strictly organized figurations.Op 13 Grande Sonate Pathetique.

Three years after Op. 2, Beethoven published Sonata Op. 3 in C minor. It beginswith an entirely different character than his previous works, which included the threeopus 2 sonatas and six other sonatas. 3 According to Donald Francis Tovey, the publisherbestowed the title Patherique, declaring that the tone of the work "utterly eclipsed,,14 thekeyboard style of al earlier masters, including Mozart. However, Tovey points out that,despite its external grandeur, its actual core ideas are not as profound as those ofMozart's works in the same key. IS

The first movement begins with an introduction, marked Grave, in the tempo of aFrench overture l6 and much of its material is expressed in the French style'scharacteristic dotted rhythms. The harmony in this section is somewhat unstable, thoughit primarily uses tonic and dominant in C minor. Several measures briefly tonicize themediant (E-flat major), the subtonic (B-flat major), and the dominant (G major) by use ofsecondary dominants. However, these borrowed dominant chords do not always resolve,instead progressing to the next chord in stepwise motion and with shared tones:

3 These eighl works include lwo thaI were published laler in his career, Op. 49, Nos. I and 2.4 Donald Francis Tovcy, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas (Complete Analyses) (New

York: AMS Press, 1931) 68.Tovey, 68.6 This is a style that began in the 1650s with Jean Baptiste Lully (J 632-1687), the distinguishing featuresof which include a slow tempo, dolled rhythms, and suspensions.

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~

Fig.2. Op. 13, I: m 6.

A major motivator of this introduction is the contrast betweenj me and piano. The firstchord is marked jjJ indicating that the notes following the j nte chord should be muchsofter; this indication also occurs on the downbeats of measures 3 and 9. Other measures

in the introduction have crescendos followed by piano, implying suhito piano.The exposition is marked Allegro di molto e con brio and begins softly. The

opening phrase is a standard eight-bar phrase with a symmetrical rising and fallingcontour four bars ascending, four bars descending). To modulate to the second thematicgroup, Beethoven uses a secondary dominant of the subtonic in the home key of C minoran A diminished chord resolving to a B-flat major chord, beginning in m. 42). In turn,

the subtonic becomes the dominant of the new key, E-flat minor m. 51). As in many ofhis sonata expositions, Beethoven here tonicizcs the parallel of the final exposition keyarea, the relative major 17 E-flat major), in the first section of the second group, savingthe strength of the destination key for greater effect at the end of the exposition.

Rosen calls the beginning of the development novel IR in that it brings back asegment of the Grave introduction, this time in G minor, coming from E-flat major byway of a 0 dominant seventh chord; at the first ending of the exposition this chordprogressed to V7NI in E-flat major a G dominant seventh chord), leading back to the

17 The final key area of the exposition eould also be the dominanl in either major or minor key works.8 Charles Rosen, Beethoven s Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion (New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 2002) 142.

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f I r ~ (J- =

original key. At the second ending, instead of proceeding elsewhere, it simply repeats anoctave lower to prepare for the restatement of the introduction:

l11 " 4 . f l ~ m p ~ :0 G1 :\ ~ r. ' \

0 ~Fig. 3 Op. 13,1: rn 131-133.

Later in the development, there are passages that lack thematic development, usingarpeggios, broken octaves, and tremolos to heighten tension and drive toward the nextsegment of thematic development (e.g., m 160-171). The recapitulation is orthodox,moving briefly to the subdominant (F minor) in the second group before reaching thehome tonic. Unlike the first movement of Op. 2, No.2, this sonata-form movement has asmall coda (m. 295-310) that begins with a brief restatement of the introduction, a devicethat Rosen suggests was borrowed from Mozart's viola quintet in D major. 19

The second movement, a slow rondo in A-flat major, provides a contrast to theminor-key drama of the first movement. The form is simple, consisting of the rondotheme three times with two episodes and a coda. As is often the case in this form, the lastoccurrence of the rondo theme is varied, in this instance changing the steady sixteenthaccompaniment in the middle voice to sixteenth-note triplets. The keys to which themovement modulates include the relative minor (F minor) in the first episode (m. 16/1728) and the parallel minor in the second episode (m. 36/37-50); neither key would beconsidered unusual by Beethoven's contemporaries. The movement ends with an eight-bar coda (m. 66-73).

1\1 Rosen, ompanion 143

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The third movement rondo theme is based on a direct quote from the beginning ofthe second thematic group in the first movement:

First movement m 59-61. TIurd movement, m. 2 ~~ ~ . zrt s p'0 lI .

Fig. 4. Op. 13, [ and III.

Though set n the melancholy key of C minor, this movement tends toward a lighter andsometimes even humorous or sprightly tone. This is due to the quantity of materialwritten in the major mode. The first episode m. 25-50) is n E-f1at major III), the secondepisode m. 78-120) is in A-flat major VI), and the return of thc first episode (m 134170) is in C major I, parallel to the original tonic). The coda m. 182-210) of this rondois nearly twice as long as the rondo theme. Unlike the codas in the previous twomovements, instead of simply confimling the tonic by repeating dominant and tonic orjust tonic) this section uses the Neapolitan harmony m. 198) and tonicizes VI A-flatmajor) in measures 199-207 in a major-mode rendition of the head of the rondo theme;these instances of major mode so close to the end prevent the work from being whollyserious, despite the fiery C minor ending m. 206/207-210).

Even more than the relatively simple harmony and form of the movements, theuse of articulation and phrasing allies the opus 13 sonata with the earlier sonatas. Apartfrom the dramatic introduction, the prevailing texture in the first movement is light, filledwith staccato and two-note slurs. Additionally, in the second theme group, Beethovenused Baroque-style ornamentation on the first notc of each two-note slur m. 57, 77, 8 1-

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88). [n the third movement rondo theme, the phrasing is decidedly classical, contrastingslurs with staccato in the melody. The first episode contains a portato-touch chorale

theme (m. 43/44-51). All of these connect the sonata to the early period.The iddle Period (1802-1812).

The works of the middle period are, in part, a fulfillment of the promises sown inthe first sonatas. Many of the elements that Beethoven introduced in the first period arenow brought to a greater fullness in the six sonatas of 1802-1810. Significantly,Beethoven wrote a total of twenty sonatas n the precedi ng period. It is possible that thereduced number of sonatas during the middle period s due to Beethoven focusing onother genres, including chamber music and symphonies (six of the nine symphonies werecomposed in this period). Additionally, the sonatas of the early nineteenth century are, ingeneral, much larger than most of the early works. Performance length is not significantlyincreased, but in the middle period less material is encased n repeat signs. Also, theoverall scope greatly increased after 1802, as will be discussed in analyses of the works.Opt 53 HWaldstein.

This work is what most analysts consider the first sonata in the middle period.The opening is drastically different from the openings of previous sonatas. Oneinteresting detail is that the right hand starts lower than in any of the previous sonatas bya major third,2o beginning on C3 and E3?1 More important, however, is the course of thefirst 3 measures. Texturally, it is unlike the light, clean sound of the opus sonatas,despite the presence of many scalar motions. The left hand is rhythmically locked withthe right hand in steady, quick eighths, giving it a rhythmic drive never seen before, even

20 The second lowest slarling point was the opening of Op. 27, No.2, the so-called "Moonlighl" sonata.2 Reckoning A440 as A4

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in Beethoven s more adventurous early works. This left hand bass descendschromatically by half-step,22 moving to the root position dominant seventh chord in

measure 9. The first phrase (m. 1-4) is composed of three motives, the third of which isclosely related to the second:

(a)\ 1 I . r r ~ I < O l I r l o J: I

1 1

Fig. 5. Op. 53, I: m. 1-4.These four bars contain much of the material from which the 302-measurc movementdevelops, a feat which Beethoven had not previously accomplished, though this motivicconstruction was foreshadowed in early works. 3 The ways in which Beethoven modifiesthese motives to transform the complete theme, and to create new themes, show howmuch his composition skiJJs grew in the few years between Op. l3 4 and Op. 53. Thc fullfirst statement of the theme (m. 1-13) is based almost completely on the (c) motive. In thecounterstatement of the theme (beginning m. 14), Beethoven again imitates the orchestraby creating an orchestral tremolo using the same pitches as in the first phrase; thistremolo is used in later passages as connective material between major divisions (m. 68).The transitional passage in measures 20-30 is an extension of the (c) motive which recursin other sections throughout the movement. As in the first episode of the third movementof Op. 13, Op. 53 uses a chorale-style melody in the second theme group (m. 35-87). InOp. 13, the chorale melody (m. 153/154-170) is separated from the surrounding material22 Roscn points out that this is much smoother voice leading than in previous works. (Rosen, ompanionIRO.)23 Reference the /irst movement of Op. 2. No.2 (m. 181-203).24 In Op. 13, the motivie tlevelopmcnt was significantly more limited, mostly existing as a cyclic element.Reference the second theme of the first movement (rn. 51) and the rondo theme of the final movement (m.I .

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(a)

Fig. 5. Op. 53 I: ITI. 1-4.

(c).\lIrlfrolroo .rlo J: 118 -.,t

in Beethoven's more adventurous early works. This left hand bass descendschromatically by half-step,22 moving to the root position dominant seventh chord in

measure 9. The first phrase (m. 1-4) is composed of three motives, the third of which isclosely related to the second:

These four bars contain much of the material from which the 302-measure movementdevelops, a feat which Beethoven had not previously accomplished, though this motivicconstruction was foreshadowed in early works. 3 The ways in which Beethoven modifiesthese motives to transform the complete theme, and to create new themes, show howmuch his composition skills grew in the few years between Op. 13 4 and Op. 53. The fullfirst statement of the theme (m. 1-13) is based almost completely on the (c) motive. In thecounterstatement of the theme (beginning m. 14), Beethoven again imitates the orchestraby creating an orchestral tremolo using the same pitches as in the first phrase; thistremolo is used in later passages as connective material between major divisions (m. 68).The transitional passage in measures 20-30 is an extension of the (c) motive which recursin other sections throughout the movement. As in the first episode of the third movementof Op. 13, Op. 53 uses a chorale-style melody in the second theme group (m. 35-87). InOp. 13, the chorale melody (m. 153/154-170) is separated from the surrounding material22 Rosen points out thaI lhis is much smoolher voice leading than in previous works. (Rosen, ompanionIRO.)23 Reference the firsl movement of Op. 2, No.2 (m. 181-2m).2,1 In Op. 13 the motivic devdopmcnt was significantly more limited, moslly existing as a cyclic clement.Relerence the second theme of the first movement (m. 51) and the rondo theme of the final movement (m.I .

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by pauses on either end. n Op. 53, Beethoven creates greater unity within the work byoverlapping materials. Beginning in bar 42, the chorale melody repeats one octave higher

and with new accompaniment in triplets. When a new melody enters in bar 50, thisaccompaniment figure is retained, easing the transition. This technique of overlappingideas is also used in the coda m. 261-266), where the original theme occurs in the basswhile the right hand performs a new melody in descending, syncopated octaves.The development makes economic use of materials from the exposition. Bars 93-111

develop b) and c), the last bar of which adds triplet accompaniment before moving to adevelopment of the second thematic group in bar I 12. This sparing use of materialscontinues to be refined in Beethoven s later works.

Harmonically, Op. 53 is also the most tightly constructed of the first 2 sonatas.Most of the progressions involve an exchange between a triad and a dominant seventhand most involve stepwise motion; the first several chords in the exposition are C major,o dominant seventh in third inversion, G major in first inversion, B-flat major, Ddominant seventh in third inversion, F major in first inversion, and G dominant seventh.None of these chords are approached by leap and this stepwise motion is foundthroughout the extensive first movement.

The brief second movement is as classically balanced and structured as any ofBeethoven s early works. The form is simple ternary which Rosen further defines as anarioso with an orchestral prelude and postlude?5 However, within this simple framework,the harmonies and phrases are quite free. The norm for classical phrases is an evennumber of measures in each phrase, usually four or eight; the first phrase of thelntroduzione Adagio malta is nine bars long. As in the first movement, the harmony25 Rosen Companion_ISS

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progresses linearly, descending by half-step from tonic F) to dominant C) beforemaking any leaps.26 As the bass steps down, Beethoven harmonizes it with surprising

chords; in the second measure, he moves to an E major chord27 by using an Italianaugmented-sixth chord borrowed from A major; the augmented-sixth chord has an F inthe bass and is therefore effective for making a smooth transition to a chord with an E inthe bass. In the following measure, the key changes to the parallel of E major (E minor),from which Beethoven creates a leading-tone chor d that tonicizes B major in firstinversion (D-sharp in the bass). The unrelated chords continue, ruled by the bass line,until it comes full circle to the augmented-sixth chord native to F major, leading back tothe horne dominant for four bars of cadence that end the prelude section. It is important tonotice that though the harmony is decidedly non-classical, Beethoven does not fail toproperly resolve each foreign dominant-functioning chord, showing that he was notsimply rejecting tonal harmony, but drawing it out to its fullest potential. Following thisphrase, the rioso begins, starting with the motive from measure 1. It is highly chromatic,but the downbeat of every bar is either tonic or dominant. t ends with the same cadencefound in measure 8 and on the downbeat of measure 9. The postlude is nearly identical tothe prelude, but with added broken-chord figurations where there are rests or longer notevalues in the first rendition. Beginning in measure 22, the postlude breaks down intorepetitions of the main motive with a chromatically descending bass line, which stopswhen it reaches G m. 25). Above the G is the original tonic, F. Together, these pitches

26 There is, however, a leap between the first two pitch classes - low F octave to the next-higher E octave,which was the lowest possible E on his piano. Presumably Beethoven preferred the deeper sound of thelowest F s on the 19 century piano, but there were not enough keys to make the full descent [ dominant atthat level.27 NOle thaI E rnajor is as dislanl a key from F major as possible. The only chord beginning on an E ineither F major or minor is a diminished lriad. However, it filS the descending chromatic bass and istherefore necessary.

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frame the dominant seventh chord of the next movement. However, this chord is notretained for the entirety of the last four measures of the second movement. n bar 26,

Beethoven chromatically raises the bass to form the fully-diminished leading-toneseventh chord of A minor, which is the mediant of F major home tonic), and thsubmediant of the new key. This resolves as expected and progresses to 0 minorsubdominant of A minor, submediant of F major, and supertonic of C major, to which

key it modulates). The final chord is G major, with a fermata marked over the last eighthnote, G5.

The second movement ends with the indication Attacca subito ii Rondo Thematerial used in the third movement is simpler than that found in the first movement andis Jess serious in nature, as is the tendency in most rondos. Yet, it is the largest of thethree movements and the most elaborate. 28 The form of the piece is simpler than the Op.2, No.2 rondo discussed earlier: A-B-A-C-A'-B'-Coda (A ). A cursory glance throughthe pages shows that this rondo has a completely differenl character from the earlierwork, revealed through its articulation. While there are staccato passages, there are nolonger phrases with a mix of staccato and legato, nor is there a high volume of two-noteslurs as in the first period sonatas already discussed. Technical difficulties not seen beforealso figure prominently in this movement, including octave glissandi, long trills nearlyforty measures), double trills, and trills below melody notes in one hand. 29 The powerdemonstrated in both this movement and the first movement is continued and increased inlater sonatas of the period.

M Rosen Companion 18729 Rosen Cumpanion 188

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Op. 57 Appassionala.Sonata Op. 57 in F minor was written approximately a year after Op. 53 and

continues the previous sonata's motivic construction, intensity, and power. This is thesecond of only two piano sonatas that end tragically. As Tovey says, "All his otherpathetic finales show either an epilogue in some legendary or later world far away fromthe tragic scene (the quartets in F minor and A minor) or a temper, fighting, humorous, orresigned, that does not carry with it a sense of tragic doom.,,3o Though the middlemovement is peaceful and bright, Tovey caUs it a dream that must be shattered.,,31

The first movement is based on two motives; one motive (a) is a descending triad,in a long-short-Iong rhythm:

(a) Fig. 6. Or. 57, I: m. IThe second is what is commonly referred to as the fate theme (b),32 a pattern of threenotes of equal rhythmic value followed by a note of longer value:

"fate" Fig. 7. Op. 57, I: m 10.As in the Waldstein, much of the sonata is built from these simple motives. The first pageof Op. 57 also visually contrasts earlier works. The hands are in rhythmic unison-like

31 Tovey, 177.11 Tovey, 177.32 The most well-known use of this motive is in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in C Minor, completed in1807.

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Op. 53-and are two octaves apart for the first two measures?3 Frequently, there are longrests at the ends of phrases, a feature not often seen in the early period.34 The dynamic

landscape in this sonata is more explosive than that of the Waldstein, with suddenchanges from pianissimo to fortissimo and back. The details are also more painstakingthan in earlier works. For example, the first phrase ends on the downbeat of measure 4with a quarter note followed by an eighth rest; the time signature is 12/8, so it would bemore expedient to write a dolled quarter note. Instead, Beethoven took the time and effortto indicate this rhythm at each recurrence, proving his interest in creating a precise effect.

The first phrase (m. 1-4) outlines the tonic triad (F minor) using motive (a),descending and ascending; it leads to a cadence on the dominant. This is followed by along rest and a restatement in the Neapolitan (m. 4/5-8) key of G-f1at major, this timewith a cadence on D-f1at major. After a rest, the cadence is repeated in C major, with therests filled in with the fate theme repeating on D-flat and C The cadence recurs,leading to a dialogue between the D-f1at and C fate motive in the left hand and anotherversion of "fate" in the right hand that outlines the leading-tone triad, marked pocoritardando and ppp. This erupts in forte descending arpeggiation of the leading-tonetriad which moves deceptively to D-flat major in first inversion before the dominant infirst inversion. After a fermata on the dominant, the counterstatement of the themebegins, again in F minor. Instead of giving the complete pianissimo theme, Beethovenwrites only the first two notes of the original statement before suddenly bursting intofortissimo ascending treble chords against low, static bass chords on F minor. Thisoccurs on tonic again and twice on the dominant, with the last measure (m. 23) executing: 3 These measures reeur throughout the first movement in different keys .14 Though it is not seen as oflen in early Beethoven. rests interrupting the melodic line are frequent in themusic of Haydn.

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a common-tone modulation to the parallel of the relative key A-flat minor). Measures24-34 are dominant preparation for the second thematic group in A-flat majur. Notice thatthe length of connecti ve material in the middle period is greater than n the early period.In a way similar to connective passages n the Waldstein, this segment overlaps a newemphasis on the dominant of A-flat major (or minor) with the a) motive from theopening, leading smoothly into the second thematic group, in A-flat major; the theme isbased on motive a), both in rhythm and in triadic contuur. This second theme moves to a

non-thematic transition roughly based n A-flat minor and descending n groups of threeeighth notes toward the next theme, in A-flat minor. This new theme is tied to the fatemotive in that its melody notes are in a pattern of 10ng-short-shOit-short-long. The eardoes not cunsciously perceive this relationship, but there is a sense of unity between thethree themes of the exposition that the ear comprehends. The exposition ends witharpeggiation on an A-flat minor triad in the high treble while the bass slowly traces thetriad downward to the lowest A-flat.

The development begins with the opening motive on the enharmonic respelling ofA-flat minor as G-sharp minor. This chord is then altered for a common-tone modulationto E major enharmonic to VI of A-flat minor).The first theme is developed until measure78 before modulating to E minor distant from F minor), from which the a) motivecontinues to develop, passing through C minor (dominant minor) and A-flat majorrelative major) spread across five octaves. The section ends with arpeggiated alternation

between the leading-tone seventh of the supertonic in A-flat A diminished seventh) andthe dominant ninth of the subdominant A-flat dominant seventh), though these changesare simply heard as chromatic steps in the bass rather than as functional chords. After two

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measures of chromatic alternations, the bass lands on A-nat as the dominant seventh ofD-flat major. The dominant preparation segment from the exposition is developed,occurring almost exactly as in the exposition, but with a melodic tail that centers on thedominant pedal n the left hand, leading to the second thematic group in D-flat major.This theme proceeds as in the exposition until the beginning of its fourth measure (m.I 13), where it modulates to F major (V7 moving to Ill), a chromatic mediant of the localkey; the modulation occurs to accommodate the chromatically rising bass line. This bass

line continues rising until measure 123, moving through B-flat minor, G-f1at major, andmajor n the process. The final step from m. 122 to m.123 is from C to D-flat, bringingthe harmony to a diminished seventh chord with its root on E the leading tone of theoriginal key. This harmony is arpeggiated for seven bars, ascending and descending, toreach a D-flat in the bass, whereupon the fate motive occurs both under and over arumbling leading-tone triad in first inversion. After two bars, the fate motive introducesC as its final pitch, reintroducing the dominant for the entry of the recapitulation.

Surprisingly, there is no root position tonic harmony at the beginning of therecapitulation (m. 134). Rather, the repeated dominant pedal beneath the tonic harmonycreates a brooding tension, unsettl ing the listener by forbidding the relaxation brought bya solid return to tonic. This pedal continues throughout the whole of the first group,shifting to D-flat for the Neapolitan repetition of the theme. The theme is varied further inthe counterstatement (m. 151-163) by changing the tonic minor to the tonic major, givingthe impression that perhaps the tragic tone of the work will change. The theme is repeatedtwice n the dominant and twice on the leading tone (once as a triad, once as a seventh

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chord), dispelling the momentary triumph of F major. From here, the recapitulationproceeds as expected, with the second theme in F major and the third theme n F minor.

The coda unfolds from an extension of the closing material; the ending arpeggioscontinue, forming the first theme from the tonic triad, the dominant seventh of thesubmediant D-flat major), and the submediant. The second theme appears n thesubmediant key of D-flat major, again with a chromatically climbing bass moving towardG-fIat major. Seventeen measures of arpeggios bring the harmony back to the originalkey with the dominant ninth chord. The fate motive returns m. 235) on the dominantninth harmony, ending adagio and piano with a fermata. The Piu llegro m. 239) beginssubito fortissimo on the first theme. The final section of the piece is essentiallyconfirmation of the tonic on basic chords of the key i, iio and V). The last measuresdiminish from piano to pianissimo on the tonic triad.

The second movement, a set of slow variations n the submediant key CD-flatmajor), is an extreme contrast to the first movement. This is one of the simplest slowmovements ever written by Beethoven. The theme is in two repeated eight-bar phrases, itdoes not have any secondary tonalities except at the transition to the finale), and thevariations do not alter the form of the theme. The primary feature of the variations is anincrease in rhythmic activity. The first variation changes the steady quarter rhythm toeighths with an offset bass. The second uses sixteenths as the accompaniment materialand the third uses thirty-seconds. The fourth variation returns to the rhythm of theoriginal theme, with octave displacements. Instead of the tonic cadence found at measuresixteen, however, it moves to the leading-tone seventh chord of the mediant, F minor,

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pianissimo and with a fermata. The diminished-seventh chord is repeated an octavehigher,fortissimo, again with a fermata and the indication altacca [ Allegro.

The finale, Allegro ma non troppo, begins with the leading-tone seventh chord asdominant preparation and as part of a nineteen-bar introductory statement. The openingmotive traces the leading-tone triad in stepwise motion:

L . Ja

Fig. 8. Op. 57 III: 1 7It twice repeats itself an octave lower and then dissolves into a sequence moving towardtonic. The first theme is based on two motives, one of which is part of the opening run:

Ob c)n ~ _ ( ; lFig. 9. Op. 57 III: rn 20-22.

As in the first movement the original statement is in tonic and the foHowing statement isin the Neapolitan key. Throughout the movement there is continued emphasis on theNeapolitan. Also, like the first movement the majority of the movement is related tomaterial found in the first thematic group; there is no development of the second themegroup at all. The most interesting formal feature of the movement is the repeat of thedevelopment along with the recapitulation just before the coda. This had been donebefore, but only when the exposition also had a marked repeat. Tovey theorizes that this

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is because it delays the introduction of a new, completely unrelated theme in the coda,building up the tension to greatest effect; he refers to bars 168-211 of the development as

a "crisis" that the audience would find uncomfortable to listen to twice.35

The repeatgives it something of the nature of a rondo, with a theme that returns frequently. This isdoubtless why Tovey refers to the new theme in the development (m. 142-157) as anepisode. The harmony of the final movement is no more adventurous than that of thefirst, but with greater emphasis on subdominant harmony36 and its Neapolitan (a tri tenefrom F minor) in the development section. The new theme introduced in the coda ismarked presto, beginning with a phrase in tonic and ending with the same phrase in therelative major. This phrase transitions back to the main theme which continues,jorle,confirnling the final, tragic F minor tonic.The Late Period (1812-1827).

Beethoven wrote all of the late sonatas after he was fully deaf and could not hearhimself play the piano. t is in this time of deafness that Beethoven s works are mostexperimental. However, this may simply be a coincidence; Beethoven had struggled withdeafness beginning in the early 1800s and had never shown difficulty in imagining thesounds of his own compositions. There are only five late sonatas,37 Opp. 101, 106, 109,110, and I l l All except Op. 109 8 have a movement that is either a fugue or thatcontains a fugate section.

J) Tovey, IR6.36 Traditionally, the subdominant harmony is more relaxed in nature.37 Rosen considers Op. 90 as part of the late period, giving us six late sonatas (Rosen, Companion 208).Jti II is arguable whether the fifth variation in the final movement of Op. 109 01. 113-152) is a fugato. Aswith most definitions in musical form fugato is an unclear designation. Regardless, this variation is a fourvoice contrapuntal work clearly tied 1 fugal traditions.

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Op. 106 Fiir das Hammerklavier.This is one of the most experimental of all Beethoven s works, for keyboard or

for other instruments. It is in four movements-the first four-movement sonata since Op.31, NO.3-and takes over forty minutes to perform. Beethoven alters the previoussymphonic-movement format by reversing the dance movement and the slow movementfor dramatic purposes. The two sonata-form movements I and III) and the dancemovement 11) are all fairly conventional in form; the forms serve to contain Beethoven snontraditional treatment of material.

The first movement is a standard sonata form in B-flat major with the expositionrepeated. As in the middle period sonatas, the bulk of the sonata is built from a few smallideas:

b .1( ;\... - _ -

- I 41 - . : . I : . ; \ , *Fig. 10. Op. 106 I: I l l . 1-2

The whole of the movement is based obsessively on descending third modulations andprogressions often inverted as ascending sixths), rather than on the time-tested circle offifths. These relationships exist both on the large scale and within the main sections.Another major motivator of the work is the tension between the tonic, B-flat, and Bnatural; at its most extreme this B-natural is part of the key of B minor, as unrelated to Bflat major as is possible. The harmonic framework for the entire movement is as follows:

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Exposition: First group in B Oar major, moving to G major for the second group.Development: E-Ilat major for the first part, moving to B major enharmonic to C-tlat) for the end.Recapitulation: First group in B-Oat major and G-llat major. The transition is in B minor which returnsto B-flat major.

The climax of a sonata form movement would typically be just before the recapitulation.However, the tension caused by the modulation to B minor overshadows the drama of thedevelopment, displacing the sonata s climax. This half-step tension is exploited in thecoda as accompaniment to the opening theme, rolling between G-flat and F:

Fig. 11. Op. 106 I: m. 385-387.The use of thirds is ever-present in small scale, within individual phrases or measures.The c) motive of the opening statement m. 2) is a descending third. The d) motive fromthe second theme of the first group m. 4/5) spans a third. Many of the melodic leaps inmeasures 16-26 are thirds. The fugato opening of the development makes extensive useof harmonic thirds, culminating in a four part texture with harmonic thirds in contrarymotion between the hands.

n addition to the extraordinary and constant presence of thirds, there are otherelements that set this sonata apart from earlier works and even from later works). Thebass line, though often conforming to a classical, homophonic style, frequently wanders,as in measures 5-16:

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Fig. J2 Op. J06 I m 4-8These rambling accompaniments in the opening contain accidentals that hint atmodulations to come; the f-sharps in measures 6, 10, and 15, for example, point toward Gmajor. This is also foreshadowed in the melody of measures 21-26. Additionally, thesprawling accompaniments contain unusual leaps of tritones, augmented thirds, ordiminished thirds. The movement also features an expansion of Beethoven s idea of thefunction of trills begun in the Waldstein sonata. Here, the triJJ is no longer simply adecoration, but has become a device for increasing excitement at the end of therecapitulation m. 338-343) and in the coda m. 365-372), where the trilJ is doubled in the

inner voices with each hand playing an additional outer voice.This work is more technically demanding and more powerful than previous

works, testing the limits of the instrument and the performer. The texture is thick, ofteninvolving chords of five notes in both hands, spread across the keyboard for a full sound.Beethoven never considered the comfort of his performers, and there are many reaches oftenths, as in measures 75-84 and 159-161, which is a large stretch even on the narrowerkeys of the nineteenth century piano.

The second movement scherzo is more conventional than most of Beethoven searlier dance movements, lacking any interruptions of the basic structure. The repeats arewritten out, with the repeat of the first phrase and the paired second and third phrases anoctave higher. The only formally unsettling aspect of the scherzo is its opening phrase,

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which is a nontraditional seven bars long. Thematically, the main rhythm mimics that ofthe first movement s opening statement and its fixation on the contrast of B-f1at and B

natural. The scherzo s in B-flat major, moving to B-flat minor in the trio. The trio is builton a contrasting rhythm of running triplet accompaniment, with a melody n quarternotes; as in the scherzo, the repeats are written out. After this point, the movement is nolonger traditional; at the end of the trio there is a second trio 01. 81- 11) marked prestoand in 2/4 meter the previous sections were in 3/4 meter). It is in standard three-phraseform, the first phrase of which is composed of unharmonized eighth notes separated byeighth rests. It is also in B-f1at minor and the last phrase cadences on the dominant, Fmajor. This leads to a transitional passage-not traditional in this form--that includes along cadenza-like, unmeasured scale ascent in F major. After a pause, there is a return to3/4 with a pedaled tremolo on the dominant ninth. After three quarter rests, the scherzoreturns, now marked dolce but with few other changes. The coda 01. 153-175) createsmore tension between B-f1at and B-natural, initially using the main motive of themovement, but in measure 159 it changes to double octaves that alternate between B-fJatin a higher register and B-natural an octave lower. After a repetition of B-natural, Asharp follows (enharmonic to the previous B-flats), suggesting B-minor; the main motivetraces this harmony and there are five pi nissimo iterations of the B-natural octave, whichlead to a sudden, violent explosion of the same octave played fifteen times six in ahigher octave), abruptly cut off by a shift to B-f1at. The opening motive played threetimes finishes the movement in B-flat major.

The third movement begins a half-step lower than the second ended. This firstmeasure was added to the movement after the initial sketch, perhaps to create this half

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step relationship that js so important to the precedjng movements. The opening measurealso adds to the ambiguity of the piece, not firmly establishing the tonal center (F-sharp

minor) until the second measure. In this movement, the third motion is continued,especially in the development section. As a whole, the movement is highly decorativeand chromatic, sounding almost Chopinesque in style, particularly at the recapitulation(beginning in m. 88). Beethoven further demonstrates his ability to transform and varyreturning themes at the return of the transition between the first and second groups (m.113). The first time, the progression is from a dominant-functioning chord to the tonic(m. 27). Upon the return, however, Beethoven took the opportunity to move from thedominant to the submediant in a deceptive progression, creating a new dramatic effectwhile at the same time achieving a modulation to 0 major.

The fourth movement is the most radical, despite employing only traditionaldevices of Baroque fugal counterpoint. Like the previous transition between movements,the final chord of the third movement (F-sharp major) moves down a half step to F; eachF on the keyboard sounds in ascending order beginning on FI as though testing thekeyboard's compass. Rosen calls this introduction to the fugue The Birth ofCounterpoint, ,39 and rightly so, for it spends time exploring different styles ofcounterpoint in an improvisatory fashion, without bar lines (though the time signatureindicates common time). The key does not remain constant, and immediately moves fromthe F established at first, with syncopated chords descending in the ubiquitous thirds.There arc three different approaches to counterpoint in three different tempi, eachseparated by syncopated chords and a fermata: the first is a three part texture in G-f1atmajor, Lar ?o; the bass descends on G-f1at, E-f1at, and B, leading to the secondW Rosen Companion 226

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contrapuntal entry Un po o piit vivace) n B major in two voices, consisting of scalarpatterns n contrary motion, landing on F-sharp major; the bass descends from B to G-sharp for a G-sharp minor exercise Allegro) n two voices. This last entry grows nvolume and breaks off suddenly with a rest and fermata on the downbeat of measure 8, asthough Beethoven chose to harshly reject these Baroque-style examples of counterpoint.The bass descends yet again in thirds, from G-sharp to A. In measure 9, all A s sound inthe same way as the opening F s, revealing that the last page has simply been a long-formdescending third progression from F to A; these pitch classes will form the head of thefugue subject. This long-range focus s entirely new to Beethoven s sonatas. Theintroduction finishes by continuing the chain of thirds n the bass; the final descent is afourth40 from D to A. From the A, an A major chord s built, in a section markedprestissimo, the A major triad is repeated fortissimo and gradually fades to pianissimo.The A descends to F to begin the Allegro riso/uto fugue. Bars 11-]5 anticipate the fuguesubject with treble trills and tenth-leaps in the bass.

The subject, which enters in bar 16, is within the realm of possibility for aBaroque subject, staying within the interval of a tenth and containing only a fewimportant developmental motives:

-0 1

(a) . (b) (c)

(d) Fig. 13. Op. 106 IV rn. J7 21


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The only nonstandard feature of the subject is the prominence of its trill. Typicalty, inBaroque and Classical fonns, the trill is purely decorative. n this fugue, Beethoven usesit as a motivic element, as is apparent throughout.

Unlike the first three movements of the sonata, the fourth movement is not in anyorthodox form. Rather, it combines the fugue setting with rondo and variation forms. 4Every recurrence of the complete subject uses a different contrapuntal device, each ofwhich forms a new variation. The episodes are largely formed from fragments of thesubject or from one of the two countersubjects. Two independent episodes, longer thanmost of the other episodes, and an individually introduced third subject take the aspect ofrondo-form digressions. The fonn of this movement can be summa.rized thus:First statements (fugue exposition) (m. 16-40)Episode (m. 4 I-51)Subject with reversed accents in D-f1at major (m. 5\/52-60)Episode (60/61-65)Answer (65-70) in response to entry in m. 5\Episode (7 1-84)Independent Episode in G-f1at major (m. 85-93)Subject in Augmentation in E-flat minor (m.94-129)Return of Independent Episode in A-flat major (\30-152)Subject in Retrograde in B minor with new subject (153- I95)Re-entry of original subject in D major (154-207)Subject in Inversion in G major (208-234)Episode with move toward V of D major (235-249)Exposition and Development of short third subject in D major (250-278)First and Third Subjects in B-ftat Major (279-293)Subject in Inversion and StretLo (294-317)Formal Peroration (318-358)Final Entry in Tonic (359-366)Coda, beginning in E-flat major (367-400)

The organization of this movement, and the preceding movements, is impeccablylogical. However, the third and fourth movements sound conspicuously free and

4 The fin l movement of Beethoven's Symphony No.9 in D Minor (J 824) is in a similar hybrid form.

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improvisational. This is a hallmark of the mastery found in Beethoven s final period: thereconciliation of strict organization with improvisation.Op l10

After Op. 106, Beethoven backed away from extreme experimentalism. Op. 110is shorter and simpler, but continues the idea of unifying elements between movements,despite the contrast of character from one movement to another. Each movement containsat least one of two formative elements: ascending or descending fourths and ascending ordescending sixths filled in with passing tones.

The first movement is in A-flat major, marked Moderato cantabile moltoespressivo The opening uses the distinctive parallel fourths motive m. 5-8). The melodythat begins in measure 5 has a completely orthodox homophonic accompaniment thatcould have been transferred from any of his earlier sonatas. The harmony is simple, notstraying far from the tonic as did some earlie r works notably, Op. 53). The transition m.12- I9) is non-thematic, simply serving as a graceful transition to the secondary thematicgroup. The second group begins n the highest register of Beethoven s piano, tracing outa two-bar theme that is repeated with syncopation. Transitioning to the next theme,Beethoven uses descending trills in the bass, a technique that would not have been foundn his early works; the trills make it easier to create an effective crescendo and increasetension by the introduction of nonharmonic tones. The development m. 40-55), startingn the dominant, is quite smalJ-16 bars long-and simple, modulating only to F minor,

D-f1at major, and B-f1at minor; all of these are closely related to the original key. As wasBeethoven s tendency in middle and late works, he does not simply repeat the expositionmaterial in the recapitulation, but varies it. n measures 56-62 he uses a bass line

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reminiscent of the transition from the exposition to accompany the opening melody in thetonic key, similar to the overlapping techniques discussed in Op. 53 and Op. 57. There

are three bars added to the end of the opening motives to transition to the subdominantkey area in the second melody. After beginning in the subdominant, the theme begins asmooth modulation to E major for the transition. The second group is approached from Emajor by chromaticism that leads back to A-flat G-sharp to G-natural in the treble, Esharp to E to E-flat in the bass). The movement continues to progress without surprisesuntil it closes gently on the tonic triad.

The second movement s a standard three-phrase minuet form in F minor. Its onlyodd feature s that the metric accent between bars is uncertain and scholars continue todisagree on where the emphasis lies within the first four bars. At the end of the scherzosection, D-flat major is approached by a common-tone modulation from F minor,beginning the trio. The trio is quite sparse, particularly when compared with works suchas the second movement of Op. 106 and even some earlier trio movements. Each barspans a fourth, with passing tones between; this is yet another example of the unity ofcommon motives between movements.

The third movement like the finale in Op. 106, is a fugue. Again, this is not aBachian fugue, but one that begins with a recitative and rioso introduction in B-flatminor supertonic of the first movement). A distinguishing feature of the introduction isthe use of repeated notes. Most interesting among the repeated notes is the A in measure5; in this case, the repeated note is a chord seventh. Rarely in Baroque and Classicalmusic does a chord seventh receive such emphasis. As in the opening to the fugue of Op.106, there arc no bar lines in the recitative. There are few surprises within the fugue; the

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recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as iteventually leads back to the fugue in inversion and in G major), whereupon a new fugue

exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration oftbe subject in double-diminution and stretto where the note value is reduced to sixteenthsinstead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normalform of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, thefugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject.The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before endingin arpeggiation42 on the tonic, A-flat major.Conclusion

From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in eachperiod. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more simila r in texture to theworks of Mozart or Haydn.4 This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style sooften associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listenerwith the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of lightarticulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound,often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sordino. The phrase lengthincreases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fullness oftexture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones toalready thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas.Initially there was either no coda or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. n the middle

42 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent of the transition from the first movemenl.4 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works.

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recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as iteventually leads back to the fugue in inversion and in G major), whereupon a new fugue

exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration ofthe subject in double-diminution and stretto where the note value is reduced to sixteenthsinstead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normalform of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, thefugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject.The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before endingin arpeggiation42 on the tonic, A-flat major.Conclusion

From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in eachperiod. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more similar in texture to theworks of Mozart or Haydn.43 This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style sooften associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listenerwith the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of lightarticulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound,often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sardino. The phrase lengthincreases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fuJI ness oftexture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones toalready thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas.Initially there was either no coda, or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. n the middle

12 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent or the transition rrom the first movement4 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works.

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and lale periods the coda became a device for additional developmental materialpreceding the final cadence.

Another important observable shift is the size of the ideas from which Beethovenbuilt sonata form movements. In the early period Beethoven s themes tend to be longermore expansive and less related to each other. In the middle period we begin to seeBeethoven building lengthy movements from miniscule motives all of which are related.His great mastery in this area only increased in the later sonatas.

The complexity of Beethoven s harmony also increased reaching a climax in Op.106 where the classical circle-of-fifths progression is replaced by a reliance on thirdrelations. The forms in which harmony exists however did not undergo the samechanges that extended to most other aspects of Beethoven s writing. It is only in thecontext of form that Beethoven s revolutions of texture harmony and phrasing can existand still be truly Classical.

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Glossary of TermsArpeggio: a broken triad or seventh chord with notes played in succession.Articulation: refers to different kinds of touch, such as staccato or legato.Attacca: continue without break.Augmentation: increase in note value (e.g. a quarter note to half note).Bachian: in the style of J.S. Bach (1685-1750).Bar: measure.Baroque: the musical period lasting roughly from 1600-1750.Cadenza: traditionally a freely improvised section in a concerto.Chopinesque: in the style of Frederic Chopin (1810-1849).Classical: a blanket term for all art music. The period from approximately 1750-1815.Con sordino: with the damper, or sustain, pedal.Diminution: the opposite of augmentation, where note values are decreased (e.g. quarternote to eighth note).Dominant: the fifth pitch (or chord) in a scale, usual1y progressing to tonic orsubmediant.Downbeat: the first beat in a measure.Enharmonic: two notes with the same audible pitch, but different spelling (e.g., C andB- sharp).Episode: 1 Section in a rondo between statements of the rondo theme. 2. Non-thematicsection in a fugue between statements of the subject.Fermata: a mark indicating that a note should be held longer than the note value.Forte: loud, marked on sheet music.jp forte-piano, indicating one note or chord to be played loudly, followed immediatelyby soft notes.Fugue: a form in which a musical phrase or idea, called the subject, is introduced alonein one voice. Subsequent voices state the subject while the previous voice(s) continue incounterpoint (often including a second important line cal1ed the countersubject ). Thesubject is treated with various devices of counterpoint, possibly including inversion,diminution, augmentation, or stretto. Statements of the subject are periodicallyinterrupted by episodes consisting of non-subject material.Glissando: slide finger or thumb up or down the keyboard, playing each note in rapidsuccession.Grave: gravely.Harmonic interval: two notes played simultaneously.Homophonic: a style of melody in which the melody is distinct and the accompanimentis less important; contrasts with counterpoint, where there are two or more importantmelodic lines.Inversion: an inversion in fugue is the subject with its intervals reversed, or upsidedown.Key: the particular set of pitches from which a piece or section is derived.Measure: a small organizing segment, delineated by vertical lines.Melodic Interval: two pitches played in succession, as opposed to simultaneously (see:harmonic interval).

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Minuet: musical form, usually consisting of two repeated sections of three-phrases each.Originally, the minuet was a dance, but in the classical era it became highly stylized.

o d ~ a specific set of i t h s from which a piece is written. In tonal music.(postRenaissance and pre-2011 century), there are two commonly used modes, major andminor. These are made distinct by their patterns of half-steps and whole-steps.Modulate: to shift from one key to another.Motive: a miniscule musical idea, usually only a few notes long.Mozartean: in the style ofW.A. Mozart (1756-1791).Neapolitan: a major triad buil t on the lowered second scale degree, usually in firstinversion.Opus: "Work." The numerical system used to catalogue a composer's works in the orderin which they were published. It is not always reflective of composition date.Abbreviated "op." In titles, it is capitalized.Piano: softly, marked on sheet music.Pizzicato: a style for stringed instruments, wherein the strings are plucked instead ofbowed.Poco: a little.Portato: an articulation shown by slurs over staccatos, indicating that the notes should bedetached but not short.Relative major: the major key sharing the same key signature as a minor key (e.g. Cmajor and A minor).Retrograde: in fugue, the subject played backward.Ritardando: gradually slowing.Romantic: the period from roughly 1800-1900.Rondo: a musical form with a recurring section, called the rondo theme. The rondotheme (A) is interrupted by contrasting sect ions called episodes (B, C, D, etc.). Andexample of rondo pattern is as follows: ABACA' BA". The apostrophe indicates "Aprime," an alteration of the theme.Scherzo: literally, "a joke." Music characterized by a jovial character.Sempre: always.Seventh Chord: a chord with four members, with the interval of a seventh between thefirst and fourth chord members.Slur: a curved line indicating that the notes encompassed should be played withoutbreaks in sound.Sonata rorm: form consisting of an exposition, development, recapitulation, andsometimes a coda. An introduction may precede the exposition. The exposition is the firststatement of thematic materials. These materials are explored using various devices in thedevelopment. The recapitulation serves to reintroduce the exposition material, similarlyto the way it appeared in the exposition, releasing the tension of the development.Staccato: an articulation indicating that notes should be played with distinct breaks insound.StreUo: one hand or voice begins a melody or figure and another hand or voice interruptswith the same material before the first entry is complete.Subito piano: suddenly soft.Tonic: the first pitch or chord in a key.Tremolo: rapid repetition of pitches.

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Trill rapid alternation etween two neigh oring pitches.Trio in a sonata, the second part of a minuet and trio movement.Voice refers to an independent melodic line in instrumental music.

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BibliographyBeethoven, Ludwig van, Klaviersonaten, Band I Munchen: G. Henle Verlag, 1952/1980.

Beethoven, Ludwig van, Klaviersonaten, Band II Munchen: G. Henle Verlag, 1980.Beethoven, Ludwig van, Piano Sonatas. El Atril Music Database. (Accessed 4 February 2 07).

Fisher, Steven C, "French Overture." Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 4February 2007), Fuller, David, "Alberti Bass ," Grove Music Online ed. L Macy (Accessed 4 February2007) Lockwood, Lewis, Beethoven: The Music nd the L(fe. New York: W.W. Norton &Company, 2005.Rosen, Charles, Beethoven's Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 2002.Rosen, Charles, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, nd Beethoven. New York: W.W.Norton & Company, 1972.Sheppard, Craig, Beethoven: A Journey. The 32 Piano Sonatas PerformedChronologically. Romeo Records compact disc, 2005.Tovey, Donald Francis, Sir, A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas (CompleteAnalyses). New York: AMS Press, 1931.

bloomberg, chelsea beethoven's piano sonatas

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