blue road research applications of the fiber optic sagnac interferometer blue road research session...
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Blue Road Research
Applications of the Fiber Optic Sagnac Interferometer
Blue Road Research
Session6
Session8
Session7
Session1
Session5
Session4
Session3
Session2
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Blue Road Research
Sagnac Interferometer
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 1
Part I
Rotation Sensing
Part II
Quasi-Static and Time Varying Sensing
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Blue Road Research
Rotation Sensor Characteristics
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 2
Rate Gyro
= KV
= Rotation rate
K = Scale factor
V = Output signal
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Blue Road Research
Definition of Terms
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 3
• Rate integration gyro - Integrates angular rate
to get angular output
• Fixed bias - Output rotation rate with zero
input rotation rate
• Bias drift - Change in output rate over time
(temperature, wear, etc.)
• Scale factor - Linearity and hysteresis
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Blue Road Research
Rotation Sensor Performance Factors
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 4
• Sensitivity» Lowest measurable rotation rate
• Spectral noise characteristics
• Dynamic range
• Turn on time
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Blue Road Research
The Sagnac Effect
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 5
R
cwccwcw path: 2R+ RL/c
ccw path: 2R - RL/c
Net path difference: 2RL/c
ZR = 2RL/(c)
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Blue Road Research
The Sagnac Effect
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 6
cwccw
ZFcw = (Fo+F)(Ln/c)
ZFccw = FoLn/c
ZF = FLn/c
Setting ZR = ZFRenders F = 2R/n
F
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Gyro Competition
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 7
• Mechanical Gyros» Advantages
• Established industrial base
» Disadvantages• Bearing wear
• Start-up time
• Reliability
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Gyro Competition
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 8
• Ring Laser Gyros» Advantages
• Established industrial base
• Replaced mechanical gyros for navigation
» Disadvantages• Mechanical dither
• Ultraclean vacuum tube technology
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Gyro Tradeoffs
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 9
• All solid state
• Packing flexibility
• Potentially very long lifetimes
• Small size
• Low cost
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Blue Road Research
Ring Laser Gyro Assembly
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 10
Anode
Cathode
Partially transparentmirror
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Blue Road Research
Ring Laser Gyro Readout Optics
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 11
cw beam ccw beam
Rolling fringe pattern
Splitdetector
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Blue Road Research
Ring Laser Lock In Zone
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 12
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Blue Road Research
Open Loop Fiber Optic Gyro
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 13
Detector
Light sourcePolarizer
Fiber optic loop
Modulator
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Blue Road Research
Detection Signals
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 14
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Blue Road Research
Open Loop Fiber Optic Gyro Output
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 15
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Blue Road Research
Closed Loop Fiber Optic Gyro
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 16
Detector
Light sourcePolarizer
Fiber optic coil
Modulator
Frequency shifter
Oscillator
IntegratorVCO
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Blue Road Research
Scale Factor
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 17
Open loop fiber gyro
= ZR[c/2RL]
Closed loop fiber gyro
= F(n/2R)
Dependence on wavelength
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Blue Road Research
Correction of Scale Factor
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18
-F F
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Blue Road Research
First Closed Loop Fiber Optic Gyro
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18A
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Blue Road Research
First Solid State Fiber Optic Gyro
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18B
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Blue Road Research
2.5” 1980 Fiber Optic Gyro
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18C
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Blue Road Research
1982 Oil Drilling FOG
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18C
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Blue Road Research
1983 Closed Loop FOGs
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18C
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Blue Road Research
First Honeywell Production FOG
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18C
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Blue Road Research
Litton (NG) FOG IMU
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 18C
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Blue Road Research
The Open Loop Fiber Optic Gyro Marketplace
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 19
• Automobiles and trucks
• Pointing and tracking
• Robot navigation
• Aircraft attitude control
• Short range air navigation
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Blue Road Research
The Closed Loop Fiber Optic Gyro Marketplace
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 20
• Medium to long range aircraft
• Spacecraft
• Missiles
• Launch vehicles
• Platforms making rapid turns
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Blue Road Research
FOG Manufacturers
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 21
• Hitachi» Closed loop automotive and low cost FOGs
» Delivered over supports high end automobiles like Lexus navigators, thousands of units per year
• Japan Aviation Electronics
» Intermediate grade FOGs for Japan self-defense force,
variety of commercial applications, soccer field grass
cutters, cleaning robots, mini-crop spraying helicopters…
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Blue Road Research
FOG Manufacturers (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 22
• Honeywell
» Supplies 3 axis FOG navigator for German Dornier commuter
aircraft, 777 back up navigator
» Leader in commercial aircraft navigation and space based FOG
• Northrup
» 3 axis closed loop AHRS units with 0.1-1.0 deg/hr
performance to full military specifications
» Working on full navigation grade 0.01 deg/hr FOGs targets
competing with Honeywell on commercial aircraft
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Blue Road Research
FOG Manufacturers (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 24
• Mitsubishi Precision Company
» Flight tested first space based FOG on Feb. 22, 1990
aboard S-520-11 rocket
» Makes both open and closed loop FOGs
• Photonetics
» Closed loop 0.1 deg/hr FOGs to support ship
navigation
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Blue Road Research
Estimated FOG Market Size
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 26
• 1995 - $50,000,000
• 2000 - $100,000,000
• 2005 - $150,000,000
• Combination of commercial
and military/government
funded markets
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Gyro References
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 27
• S. Ezekiel and H.J. Arditty, Editors, “Fiber Optic Rotation
Sensors”, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982.
• E. Udd, Editor, “Fiber Optic Gyros: 10th Anniversary
Conference”, SPIE Proc., Vol. 719, 1986.
• R.B. Smith, Editor, “Selected Papers on Fiber Optic
Gyros”, SPIE Milestone Series, Vol. MS 8, 1989.
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Gyro References (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 28
• S. Ezekiel and E. Udd, “Fiber Optic Gyros: 15th
Anniversary Conference”, SPIE Proc., Vol. 1585, 1991.
• H. Lefevre, “The Fiber Optic Gyroscope”, Artech House,
1993.
• W.K. Burns, Editor, “Optical Rotation Sensing”,
Academic Press, 1994.
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Blue Road Research
Part II
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 29
Quasi-Static and Time Varying Sensing Using the
Fiber Optic Sagnac Interferometer
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Blue Road Research
Time Varying Environmental Effects-Acoustics
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 30
Detector
Light source
Center
AcousticWave
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Blue Road Research
Optimized Fiber Coil Configurations
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 31
Variablecoating
ShieldedFiber
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Blue Road Research
Effects of Shielding/Position
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 32
Induced phase shift unshielded coil
Induced phase shiftshielded coil
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Blue Road Research
Time Varying Effects
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 33
dyyFiber Coil Length L
Response of Fiber G(y,P)
..y n
c
.( )L y n
cd
d tP
R( )P( )t d
0
L
y.G( ),y Pd
d t.P
.( ).2 y L n
c
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Blue Road Research
Example Cases
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 34
I. G(y,P) = A = Constant, R[P(t)] = 0
II. G(y,P) = 0, 0<y<L/2
G(y,P) = A = Constant, L/2<y<L,R[P(t)] = AnL2/4c]dP/dt
for P = Bsin(t)R[P(t)] = [ABnL2/4c] sin(t)
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Blue Road Research
Quasi-Static Sensing-Strain
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 35
Detector
Light source
Frequency shifter
Fo+F
FoPolarizer
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Blue Road Research
Quasi-Static Sensing
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 36
ZF = F(Ln/c)
Suppose ZF = Constant
0 = dF(Ln/c)+FdL(n/c)
dF/F = -dL/L
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Blue Road Research
Sagnac Strain Sensor Cabling
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 37
Detector
Light source
Frequency shifter
Fiber cable
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Blue Road Research
Earth Movement Detection System
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 38
Fault line
Fiber cables
Earthmovement
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Blue Road Research
Monitoring Oil Platform Motion
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 39
Fiber optic strain sensor
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Blue Road Research
Stress on Power Lines
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 40
Fiber strain sensor surroundedby conductive cable elements
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Blue Road Research
Distributed Sagnac Sensors
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 41
• Changing modes from time varying to quasi-static
• Interlaced Sagnac loops
• Combination of the Sagnac and Mach-Zehnder
interferometers
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Blue Road Research
Changing Mode Distributed Sensor
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 42
Detector
Light source
Frequency shifter
Polarizer
Fo+F
Fo
Switches
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Blue Road Research
Interlaced Sagnac Loops
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 43
Detector, 1
Light source, 1
Detector, 2
Light source, 2
Position
I
WDMs
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Blue Road Research
Sagnac/Mach-Zehnder
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 44
Detector, 1
Light source, 1
Sagnac
Mach-Zehnder
Detector, 2Light source, 2
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Blue Road Research
Detection of Leaks in Pressurized tanks
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 45
Sagnac distributed sensor
Fiber coil
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Blue Road Research
Coherence Length
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 46
L1
L2
Light source Detector
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Blue Road Research
Basic Sagnac Interferometer Secure Communication System
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 47
Detector
Light source
Data out
Receiver Transmitter
Phasemodulator
Data in
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Blue Road Research
Basic Intrusion Scenario
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 48
Detector
Light source
Data out
Receiver Transmitter
Phasemodulator
Data in
LA LB
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Blue Road Research
References for Part II
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 49
Acoustic Sensors
• E. Udd, “Fiber Optic Acoustic Sensors Based on the
Sagnac Interferometer”, SPIE Proc., Vol. 425, p. 90,
1983.
• K. Krakenes and K. Blotekjaer, “Sagnac Interferometer
for Underwater Sound Detection: Noise Properties”,
Optics Letters, Vol. 14, p. 1152, 1989.
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Blue Road Research
References for Part II (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 50
Strain Sensors
• R.J. Michal, E. Udd, and J.P. Theriault, “Derivative Fiber
Optic Sensors Based on the Phase Nulling Optical Gyro”,
SPIE Proc., Vol. 719, p. 150, 1986.
• E. Udd, R. Blom, D. Tralli, E. Saaski and R. Dokka,
“Application of the Sagnac Interferometer Based Strain
Sensor to an Earth Movement Detection System”, SPIE
Proc., Vol. 2191, 1994.
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Blue Road Research
References for Part II (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 51
Spectrometers and Scale Factor
• E. Udd, “Usage of Dispersive Effects for Scale Factor
Correction in the Fiber Optic Gyro, SPIE Proc., Vol.
1585, p. 255, 1991.
Distributed Sensing
• E. Udd, “Sagnac Distributed Sensor Concepts”, SPIE
Proc. 1586, p. 46, 1991.
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Blue Road Research
References for Part II (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 3, Page 52
Secure Communication
• E. Udd, “Secure Communication System”, U.S. Patent
5,223,967, June29, 1993.
• E. Udd, “Secure Communication System, U.S. Patent
5,274,488, December 28, 1993.
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Blue Road Research
The Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Interferometers and Multiplexing
Blue Road Research
Session6
Session8
Session7
Session1
Session5
Session4
Session3
Session2
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Blue Road Research
Interference requirements:
Polarization state of two beams identical
Path length difference < Coherence length:
Interferometer Basics
nL nL2
cLL
Detector
2
sin2 1010 IIIIID
Light Source
Detector
Light Source
2
cL
Mach-Zehnder Michelson
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Blue Road Research
Flexible Geometries, High Sensitivity
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 1
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Blue Road Research
Basic Elements of the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 2
Light source / coupler module
Homodyne demodulator
Transducer
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Blue Road Research
Grating Based Homodyne Demodulator
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 3
Dual input fibers
Grin lens
Interferencepattern
Split photomasked detector,sine and cosine outputs
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Blue Road Research
Quadrature Demodulation Electronics
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 4
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Blue Road Research
The Signal Fading Problem
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 5
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Blue Road Research
Active Feedback
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 6
Light source / coupler module
Transducer
Coupler
Amplifier/integrator
Detectors
Modulator
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Blue Road Research
3 by 3 Coupler
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 7
1
2
3
Light source
120 degree offsets between outputs
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Blue Road Research
Phase Generated Carrier
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 8
Light source
L1
L2
Current driver
, 2
OutputF(L1-L2)n/c
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Blue Road Research
The Michelson Interferometer
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 9
Light sourceCoupler
L1
L2
Mirrors
Detector
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Blue Road Research
SMARTEC Strain Sensors
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 10
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Blue Road Research
SMARTEC Strain Sensors (continued)
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 11
Coupleur
Photo- LED1300nm
A/D
Ampli
PC
LED1300nm
A/D
Ampli
PCInternal
LED1300nm
Mirr
ors
Structure under test Coupleur
Portable PC
diode
A/D
filtre Ampli
Mirror
Internal PC
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Blue Road Research
Coatings
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 12
Glass fiber
Secondary compliantcoating
Primarycoating
Pressure
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Blue Road Research
Compliant Mandrels
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 13
Pressure
Optical fiber
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Blue Road Research
Transducer Materials
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 14
• Acoustics» Nylon
• Magnetic fields» MetGlass, Nickel
• Electric fields» PVF
• Seismic/Vibration» Soft rubber
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Blue Road Research
Transducer Geometries
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 15
Hollow mandrel
Strip
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Blue Road Research
Seismic/Vibration Sensor
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 16
Fiber coil
Soft rubbermandrel
Seismicmass
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Blue Road Research
Serial Layout
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 17
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Blue Road Research
Seismograph Layout
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 18
Line arrays
Seismograph recorders
Transmitter
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Blue Road Research
Multiplexing Techniques
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 19
• Time division
• Frequency division
• Wavelength
• Coherence
• Polarization
• Spatial
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Blue Road Research
Time Division Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 20
Light source
Signal processingelectronics
Detector
Microbendfiberattachment
Pipe joints
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Blue Road Research
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 21
Light source
F1
F2
F3
Detector
L1 L2 L3
L L L
Frequency chirpedlight source
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Blue Road Research
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 22
Light source
1
2
34
2 3 4
1
Wavelength divisionmultiplexer/detectors
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Blue Road Research
Coherence Length
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 23
L1
L2
Light source Detector
Signal falls exponentially to zero when
|L1-L2|>Lc
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Blue Road Research
Coherence Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 24
L1 L2Light source
L L
L
L
L1
L2
Detector 2
Detector 1
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Blue Road Research
Polarization Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 25
Light source
Detector 1
Detector 2
Polarizing beamsplitter
Evanescent sensors
Polarization states
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Blue Road Research
Spatial Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 26
Light sources
S1
S4
S3
S2
1
2
S1(1),S3(2)
S2(1),S4(2)
DetectorsUnbalanced interferometers
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Blue Road Research
Extensions of Spatial Multiplexing
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 27
1
2
3
J
Sou
rces
11
J1
1K
JK
1 32 KDetectors
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Blue Road Research
Distributed Fiber Sensors
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 28
• Optical time domain reflectometers» Rayleigh
» Raman
» Brillouin
» Fluorescence
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Blue Road Research
Raman Scattering
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 29
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Blue Road Research
Brillouin Scattering
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 30
Wavelength
Brillouinlines
Incident laser wavelength
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Blue Road Research
Summary
Blue Road Research Session 4, Page 31
• Mach-Zehnder and Michelson
interferometers
» High sensitivity
» Excellent multiplexing potential
• Distributed sensors may be used to
cover wide areas with less sensitivity
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Smart Structures for Natural, Civil, and Aerospace Applications
Blue Road Research
Session6
Session8
Session7
Session1
Session5
Session4
Session3
Session2
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Smart Structures
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 1
Part I
Fundamental concepts and technology
Part II
Applications
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Blue Road Research
Access to Space/Rockets
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2A
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Blue Road Research
Space Platforms
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2B
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Blue Road Research
Transport Aircraft SHM
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2C
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Blue Road Research
Transport Aircraft SHM
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2D
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Blue Road Research
Military Aircraft SHM
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2E
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Blue Road Research
Aspects of Fiber Optic Smart Structures
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 2
• Smart manufacturing
• Nondestructive testing
• Health and damage
assessment
• Control systems
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Blue Road Research
Advantages of Fiber Optic Sensors for Smart Structures
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 3
• Lightweight/nonobtrusive
• All passive
• EMI resistant
• Environmental ruggedness
• Multiplexing potential
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Smart Structure System
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 4
Composite panelwith multiplexedfiber sensors
Fiber optic link toactuator system
Control system-Performance-Health
Optical/ElectronicProcessor
Environmental effect
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Smart Structure System Technology
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 5
• Fiber/material issues
• Fiber optic sensors
• Multiplexing
• Signal processing
• System architecture
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Blue Road Research
Fiber/Material Issues
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 6
• Fiber coatings
• Ingress/egress
• Connectors
• Wide range of materials
» Carbon epoxy, polyimides
» Aluminum, titanium
» Ceramics, carbon-carbon
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Blue Road Research
Fibers Embedded in Carbon Epoxy
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 6A
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Blue Road Research
Polyimide Coating in Thermoplastic
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 6B
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Blue Road Research
Fibers in Titanium Metal Matrix
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 6C
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Blue Road Research
Fiber Optic Sensors-Issues
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 7
• Parameters to be sensed
» Strain, temperature, viscosity, etc.
• Gauge length
• Number of sensors per string
• Fiber/sensor diameter
• Dynamic range/sensitivity
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Blue Road Research
References for Part I
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 28
• Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists, Edited by Eric Udd, Wiley, 1991 (Chapter 14).
• SPIE - The International Optical Engineering Society Proceedings, Volumes on Fiber Optic Sensors and Smart Structures (call for current catalogue 206-676-3290).
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Blue Road Research
Part II
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 29
Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures
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Blue Road Research
Smart Manufacturing
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 30
Temperaturesensor demodulator
Composite partAutoclave
Degree ofcure monitor(Fluorescence)
Autoclave controller
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Blue Road Research
Nondestructive Evaluation
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 31
Fiber optic sensor acoustic demodulator
Pulsed laser
External acoustic source
Composite part
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Blue Road Research
Damage Assessment in Composite Panel
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 32
Light sources
Detectors
Damage site
Beamsplitters
Microbend sensitive fiber
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Blue Road Research
Monitoring Bond Line
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 33
Light source
Tension
Fixed structure
Detector
Bond area
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Blue Road Research
Embedded Fiber Sensors for a Large Structure
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 34
• Large numbers» Thousands to tens of thousands
• Cost» System must be a small fraction of
platform cost
• Must add substantial value» Safety, reliability, maintainability
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Blue Road Research
Overall Architecture
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 35
• First layer» Distributed sensors
• Localize damage• Measure ambient conditions
• Second layer» Multiplexed discrete sensors
• Reconfigurable• Detailed assessment
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Blue Road Research
First Layer Coverage
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 36
• Low cost distributed sensors or long
gauge length sensor networks
• Low to medium accuracy
• Temperature distribution
• Acoustics
• Wide area strain changes
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Blue Road Research
First Layer Coverage Candidates
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 37
• Blackbody sensor - networks• Microbend sensor - networks• Distributed sensors
» Rayleigh» Raman» Brillouin» Fluorescence» Interleaved interferometric
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Blue Road Research
Second Layer Coverage
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 38
• Discrete, high performance sensor
arrays
• Detailed damage/health assessment of
designated area
• Reconfigurable to minimize
processing requirements
• Redundant
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Blue Road Research
Second Layer Sensor Criteria
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 39
• Single Point of Ingress/Egress
• Amplitude independence
• Compatible with in-line multiplexing
• Low cost and manufacturable
• No larger than fiber diameter
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Blue Road Research
Second Layer Sensor Candidates
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 40
• Fabry-Perot etalons
• Fiber gratings
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Blue Road Research
Modular Architecture
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 41
Sensor string
Vehicle healthmanagement bus
Subsystem signalprocessor
Demodulator
Data formatterand transmitter
Optical switch
Fiberopticlink
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Blue Road Research
Avionics Example
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 42
Pilot
Display
Processor
Avionics bus
Vehicle health management bus
Distributionsystem
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Blue Road Research
Civil Structures
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 43
Buildings
Police, fire,maintenance
Bridges
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Blue Road Research
Natural Structures
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 44
• Geophysical fault line monitors
• Earth movement around oil platforms
• Strain induced by earth movement on
high voltage lines
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Blue Road Research
Manufacturing
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 45
• Environmental Control
» Water and air chemistry
• Process control
» Oven temperature, pressure
» Valve position, liquid levels
» Flow rate
• Health monitoring
» Vibration
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Blue Road Research
Medicine
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 46
• Chemistry of the blood» Oxygen content» Dosage levels
• Internal inspection» Blood vessels» Intestines» Stomach
• Power delivery• Potential for artificial limbs,
nerves
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Blue Road Research
References for Part II
Blue Road Research Session 5, Page 47
• Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists, Edited by Eric Udd, Wiley, 1991.
• Eric Udd, “Fiber Optic Smart Structures”, Chapter 14.