body movement maintenance of posture respiration production of body heat communication constriction...
TRANSCRIPT
• Body movement
• Maintenance of posture
• Respiration
• Production of body heat
• Communication
• Constriction of organs and vessels
• Heart beat
• Contractility: ability of a muscle to shorten with force
• Excitability: ability of muscle to receive & respond to stimuli
• Extensibility: muscle can be stretched beyond its normal resting length and is still able to contract
• Elasticity: ability of muscle to recoil to original resting length after stretched
• Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement
• Three basic muscle types are found in the body– Skeletal muscle– Cardiac muscle– Smooth muscle
• These types differ in structure, location, function, and means of activation
• Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated and are called muscle fibers
• Muscle contraction depends on two kinds of myofilaments – actin and myosin
• Muscle terminology is similar– Prefixes – myo, mys, and sarco all refer to
muscle– Sarcolemma – muscle plasma membrane– Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle cell
• Skeletal muscles that attach to and cover the bony skeleton
• Has obvious stripes called striations
• Is controlled voluntarily (i.e., by conscious control)
• Contracts rapidly but tires easily
• Responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, respiratory movements, other types of body movement
• Is extremely adaptable and can exert forces ranging from a fraction of an ounce to over 70 pounds
• Found in the walls of hollow visceral organs, such as the stomach, urinary bladder, and respiratory passages
• Some functions: propel urine, mix food in digestive tract, dilating/constricting pupils, regulating blood flow
• Not striated
• Controlled involuntarily by endocrine and ANS
• Occurs only in the heart
• Striated like skeletal muscle
• Involuntary
• Heart: major source of movement of blood
• Autorhythmic
• Controlled involuntarily by endocrine and ANS
• Composed of muscle cells (fibers), connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves
• Fibers are long, cylindrical, multinucleated
• Striated appearance due to light and dark banding
• The three connective tissue sheaths are:– Endomysium – fine sheath of
connective tissue composed of reticular fibers surrounding each muscle fiber
– Perimysium – fibrous connective tissue that surrounds groups of muscle fibers called fascicles
– Epimysium – Dense regular connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle (many fascicles)
• Each muscle is served by one nerve, an artery, and one or more veins
• Each skeletal muscle fiber is supplied with a nerve ending that controls contraction
• Contracting fibers require continuous delivery of oxygen and nutrients via arteries
• Wastes must be removed via veins
• Most skeletal muscles span joints and are attached to bone in at least two places
• When muscles contract the movable bone, the muscle’s insertion moves toward the immovable bone, the muscle’s origin
• Muscles attach:– Directly – epimysium of the muscle is
fused to the periosteum of a bone
– Indirectly – connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a tendon or aponeurosis
• Outer boundary of the cell is made of plasma membrane – sarcolemma
• Multiple nuclei present inside sarcolemma
• Cytoplasm of muscle cell - sarcoplasm
• Endoplasmic reticulum – Sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Most of muscle fiber is packed with myofibrils
• Other organelles, such as mitochondria, glycogen granules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T tubules are found between myofibrils
• Myofibrils: are thread like organelles
– Composed of protein threads called myofilaments:
– thin (actin) – thick (myosin)
– Sarcomeres: repeating units of myofilaments
• Interaction between actin and myosin filaments leads muscle to shorten or contract
• The tropomyosin/troponin complex regulates the interaction between actin and myosin
• Consists of two strands of fibrous (F) actin, troponin and tropomyosin molecules
• Strands of F actin coiled to form double helix
• Each F actin strand is composed of G actin monomers each of which has an active site
• Each F actin strand consists of 200 G actin monomers
• Active site binds with myosin during muscle contraction
• Tropomyosin: an elongated protein winds along the groove of the F actin double helix
• Troponin is composed of three subunits: one that binds to actin, a second that binds to tropomyosin, and a third that binds to calcium ions
• The tropomyosin/troponin complex regulates the interaction between active sites on G actin and myosin
• Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin
• Shaped like golf clubs • Each myosin molecule has a rod-
like tail and two globular heads
– Tails – two interwoven, heavy polypeptide chains
– Heads – Each head contains two smaller, light polypeptide chains
• Each myosin filaments consists of about 300 myosin molecules
• Properties of Myosin heads
1. Can bind to active sites on the actin molecules to form cross-bridges
2. Attached to the rod portion by a hinge region, bend and straighten during contraction
3. Heads have ATPase activity, activity that breaks down ATP, releasing energy
• The smallest contractile unit of a muscle
• The region of a myofibril between two Z discs
• The point where actin originates is called Z disk
• Each sarcomere has alternating actin and myosin filaments
• The arrangement of myosin (dark in color and is called anisotropic band or A band)
• And actin (light in color and is called isotropic or I band) alternatively
• Gives the muscle a striated appearance
• H zone (bare zone) - lacks actin filament
• M line: middle of H zone; delicate filaments holding myosin in place
• Upon stimulation, myosin heads bind to actin and sliding begins
• Actin myofilaments slide over myosin to shorten sarcomeres
– Actin and myosin do not change length
– Shortening sarcomeres responsible for skeletal muscle contraction
• Nervous system controls muscle contractions through action potentials
• Electrical signals, called action potentials travel from brain or SC via axons of the nerve to muscle fibers and cause them to contract
• Skeletal muscles are stimulated by motor neurons
• Axons of neurons branch (axon terminals) as they enter muscles
• Each axonal branch forms a neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fiber
• Neuromuscular junctions – association site of nerve and muscle
• The neuromuscular junction is formed from:
– Axonal endings, which have small membranous sacs (synaptic vesicles) that contain the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)
– Sarcolemma of the muscle fiber is highly folded that contains ACh receptors and helps form the neuromuscular junction
• Axonal ends and muscle fibers are always separated by a space called the synaptic cleft
• When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon at the neuromuscular junction:
– Voltage-regulated calcium channels open and allow Ca2+ to enter the axon
– Ca2+ inside the axon terminal causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the axonal membrane
– This fusion releases ACh into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis
– ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft to ACh receptors on the sarcolemma
– Binding of ACh to its receptors initiates an action potential in the muscle
• ACh bound to ACh receptors is quickly destroyed by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
• This destruction prevents continued muscle fiber contraction in the absence of additional stimuli
• At rest, membranes are polarized
• There is voltage difference across
membranes
• Difference between charge inside and outside cell membrane = RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL (RMP)
• Inside of cell membrane is more negative charge than outside
• Due to the presence of more positive ions (Na+) outside the cell
• Axonal terminal of a motor neuron releases ACh and binds to the receptors of sarcolemma
• Causes the opening of Sodium channels
• Sodium ions enter rapidly– RMP becomes more positive
• If the stimulus is strong enough, reaches threshold
• Depolarization occurs
• An action potential is initiated
• Thus, the action potential travels rapidly along the sarcolemma
• Once initiated, the action potential is unstoppable, and ultimately results in the contraction of a muscle
• Immediately after the depolarization wave passes, the sarcolemma permeability changes
• Na+ channels close and K+ channels open
• K+ diffuses from the cell
• Repolarization takes place
• The ionic concentration of the resting state
is restored by the Na+-K+ pump
• All-or-none principle: like camera flash system
• AP produced in sarcolemma of muscle lead to muscle fiber contraction by Excitation-Contraction Coupling
• Involves
– Sarcolemma– Transverse (T) tubules: invaginations
of sarcolemma– Sarcoplasmic reticulum: smooth ER– Terminal cisternae: Enlarged SR– Triad: T tubule, two adjacent terminal
cisternae– Ca2+
– Troponin
• AP produced at neuromuscular junction:– Is propagated along the
sarcolemma– Travels down the T tubules– Triggers Ca2+ release from
terminal cisternae
• Ca2+ released from SR binds to troponin and causes: – The blocking action of
tropomyosin to cease
• Active binding sites of actin are exposed
• Myosin heads attach with actin and forms cross bridges
• Thin filaments move toward the center of the sarcomere
• Hydrolysis of ATP powers this cycling process
• Ca2+ is removed into the SR, tropomyosin blockage is restored, and the muscle fiber relaxes
• A muscle twitch is contraction of muscle in response to a stimulus that causes action potential in one or more muscle fibers
• There are three phases to a muscle twitch– Lag (latent) phase– Contraction phase– Relaxation phase
• Lag phase – first few msec after stimulus; EC coupling taking place
• Contraction phase – cross bridges form; muscle shortens
• Relaxation phase – Reentry of Ca2+ in SR
• In response to each action potential muscle fiber produces contraction of equal force
• Follow All-or-none law - muscle fibers
• Sub-threshold stimulus: no action potential; no contraction
• Threshold stimulus: action potential; contraction
• Stronger than threshold : action potential; contraction equal to threshold stimulus
• Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
• But in whole muscle not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval
• Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses – Graded Response
• Motor units (Nerve-Muscle Functional Unit) : a single motor neuron and all muscle fibers innervated by it
• Strength of contraction is graded: ranges from weak to strong depending on stimulus strength
• Multiple motor unit summation: strength of contraction depends upon no. of motor units
• A muscle has many motor units
– Submaximal stimuli– Maximal stimulus– Supramaximal stimuli
• As the frequency of action potentials increase, the frequency of contraction increases– Incomplete tetanus: muscle
fibers partially relax between contraction
– Complete tetanus: no relaxation between contractions
– Multiple-wave summation: muscle tension increases as contraction frequencies increase
• Graded response
• Occurs in muscle rested for prolonged period
• Each subsequent contraction is stronger than previous until all equal after few stimuli
• Possible explanation: more and more Ca2+ remains in sarcoplasm and is not all taken up into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Isometric Contraction: no change in muscle length but tension increases during contraction– Eg. Postural muscles of body, muscles that hold the spine erect while
a person is sitting or standing
• Isotonic Contraction: change in length but tension constant during contraction, eg. Movement of upper limbs, fingers such as waving, using a computer
– Concentric: Tension in muscle overcomes opposing resistance and muscle shortens, eg. Lifting a loaded backpack from the floor to table
– Eccentric: tension maintained, enough opposing resistance to cause the muscle to increase in length, eg. Person slowly lowers the heavy weight
• Decreased capacity to work and reduced efficiency of performance
• Types– Psychological: depends on emotional state of
individual– Muscular: results from ATP depletion – Synaptic: occurs in Neuromuscular junction due to lack
of acetylcholine – Physiological contracture: state of fatigue where due
to lack of ATP neither contraction nor relaxation can occur
– Rigor mortis: development of rigid muscles several hours after death. Ca2+ leaks into sarcoplasm and attaches to myosin heads and cross bridges form. Rigor ends as tissues start to deteriorate
• ATP provides immediate energy for muscle contractions
• Produced from three sources
– The interaction of ADP with creatine phosphate (CP) – Anaerobic respiration – Aerobic respiration
• Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate
– Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP)
• CP is a high-energy molecule
– ADP is left, after ATP is depleted,
– CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
– CP supplies are exhausted in about 15 seconds
• Aerobic Respiration
– Series of metabolic pathways occur in the mitochondria, require oxygen
– Known as oxidative phosphorylation
– Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, & release energy in the form of ATP
– This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen and nutrient fuel
– 36 ATP/ glucose
• Anaerobic glycolysis– Reaction that breaks
down glucose without oxygen
– Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce some ATP
– Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
• Anaerobic glycolysis
• This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
• 2ATP/glucose
• Huge amounts of glucose are needed
• Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
• Vigorous exercise causes dramatic changes in muscle chemistry
• For a muscle to return to a resting state:
– Oxygen reserves must be replenished– Lactic acid must be converted to pyruvic acid– Glycogen stores must be replaced– ATP and CP reserves must be resynthesized
• Slow-twitch oxidative– Contract more slowly, smaller in diameter, better blood
supply, more mitochondria, more fatigue-resistant than fast-twitch, large amount of myoglobin.
– Postural muscles, more in lower than upper limbs. Dark meat of chicken.
• Fast-twitch – Respond rapidly to nervous stimulation, contain myosin
ATPase that can break down ATP more rapidly than that in Type I, less blood supply, fewer and smaller mitochondria than slow-twitch
– Lower limbs in sprinter, upper limbs of most people. White meat in chicken.
• Not striated, fibers smaller than those in skeletal muscle
• Spindle-shaped; single, central nucleus
• More actin than myosin
• Caveolae: indentations in sarcolemma; may act like T tubules
• Ca2+ required to initiate contractions; binds to calmodulin which regulates myosin kinase. Cross-bridging occurs
• Relaxation: caused by enzyme myosin phosphatase
Smooth Muscles• Arranged in two layers:• circular layer• longitudinal layer
• These two layers alternately contract and relax
• And move food through digestive tract, emptying the bowels & bladder
• Maintain housekeeping activities
• Slow and steady
• Visceral or unitary: cells in sheets; function as a unit– eg. Digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts– Numerous gap junctions– Allow Action potential to pass from cell to cell– Often autorhythmic
• Multiunit: cells or groups of cells act as independent units– Sheets (blood vessels); bundles (arrector pili and iris);
single cells (capsule of spleen)– Fewer gap junctions– Contracts when stimulated by nerves or hormones
• Slow waves of depolarization and repolarization transferred from cell to cell
• Depolarization caused by spontaneous diffusion of Na+ and Ca2+ into cell
• Does not follow all-or-none law
• Contraction regulated by nervous system and by hormones
• Some visceral muscle exhibits autorhythmic contractions
• Tends to contract in response to sudden stretch but not to slow increase in length
• Exhibits relatively constant tension: smooth muscle tone
• Amplitude of contraction remains constant although muscle length varies
• Innervated by autonomic nervous system
• Neurotransmitters are acetylcholine and norepinephrine
• Hormones important as epinephrine and oxytocin
• Receptors present on plasma membrane to which neurotransmitters or hormones bind determines the response of smooth muscle
• Found only in heart• Striated• Each cell usually has one
nucleus• Has intercalated disks and gap
junctions• Autorhythmic cells• Action potentials of longer
duration and longer refractory period
• Ca2+ regulates contraction
• Reduced muscle mass
• Increased time for muscle to contract in response to nervous stimuli
• Reduced stamina
• Increased recovery time
• Loss of muscle fibers
• Decreased density of capillaries in muscle