body ritual among the nnacirema ac i r e m a

CASE STUDY

Ceremonies and rituals—formal patterns of behavior that symbolically express shared beliefs—are an integral part of any culture. They provide sociologists with insight into a culture’s system of values and beliefs. In the 1950s anthropologist Horace Miner examined some of the ritu-als of the Nacirema culture. The following is an excerpt from the article he wrote on his findings, “Body Ritual Among the Nacirema.”

[The Nacirema] are a North American group living in the territory between the Canadian Cree, the Yaqui and Tarahumare of Mexico, and the Carib and Arawak of the Antilles. Little is known of their origin, although tradition states that they came from the east. . .

Nacirema culture is characterized by a highly developed market economy which has evolved in a rich natural habitat. While much of the people’s time is devoted to economic pursuits, a large part of the fruits of these labors and a considerable portion of the day are spent in ritual activity. The focus of this activity is the human body, the appearance and health of which loom as a dominant concern in the ethos of the people. While such a con-cern is certainly not unusual, its ceremo-nial aspects and associated philosophy are unique.

The fundamental belief underlying the whole system appears to be that the human body is ugly and that its natu-ral tendency is to debility and disease. Incarcerated in such a body, man’s only hope is to avert these characteristics through the use of ritual and ceremony. Every household has one or more shrines devoted to this purpose. . .

The focal point of the shrine is a box or chest which is built into the wall. In this chest are kept the many charms and magical potions without which no native believes he could live. These preparations are secured from a variety of specialized practitioners. The most powerful of these are the medicine men, whose assistance must be rewarded with substantial gifts. However, the medicine men do not pro-vide the curative potions for their clients, but decide what the ingredients should be and then write them down in an ancient and secret language. This writing is understood only by the medicine men and by the herbalists who, for another gift, provide the required charm. . .

Beneath the charm-box is a small font. Each day every member of the family, in succession, enters the shrine room, bows his head before the charm-box, mingles different sorts of holy water in the font, and proceeds with a brief rite of ablution [bathing]. The holy waters are secured from the Water Temple of the community,

BODY RITUAL AMONG THEN A C I R E M AN A C I R E M A

32 CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 22where the priests conduct elaborate ceremonies to make the liquid ritually pure. . .

The daily body ritual performed by everyone includes a mouth-rite. Despite the fact that these people are so punctili-ous [careful] about care of the mouth, this rite involves a practice which strikes the uninitiated stranger as revolting. . . The ritual consists of inserting a small bundle of hog hairs into the mouth, along with certain magical powders, and then mov-ing the bundle in a highly formalized series of gestures. . .

A distinctive part of the daily body ritual . . . is performed only by men. This part of the rite includes scraping and lacerating the surface of the face with a sharp instrument. Special women’s rites are performed only four times during each lunar month, but what they lack in fre-quency is made up in barbarity. As part of this ceremony, women bake their heads in small ovens for about an hour.

Can you identify the culture Miner stud-ied? If not, read the word Nacirema back-wards. Miner’s study attempts to show that the values and culture of one society may seem strange, even ridiculous, to others.

What are the various items and rituals described by Miner?

What other aspects of American culture lend themselves to being analyzed in this way? Choose one and write a piece using the same point of view as Miner.

1.

2.

What do you think?What do you think?

CULTURALCULTURAL DIVERSITYDIVERSITYAND CONFORMITYAND CONFORMITY

SECTION 1: The Meaning of CultureCulture is made up of the material and nonmaterial products of human groups.

A society is a group of interdependent people who share a com-mon culture and feeling of unity. Society differs from culture, in that societies are made up of people and cultures are made up of products.

All cultures share certain elements: technology, symbols,language, values, and norms.

SECTION 2: Cultural VariationCultures can be very different from one another in many ways. There are, however, certain features that all cultures share. These are known as cultural universals.

Variations exist between societies, but they also exist within soci-eties. Subcultures and countercultures are examples of variations with societies.

Sociologists must take care to view cultural variations without bias, allowing each culture to be judged by its own standards and not those of another culture.

SECTION 3: The American Value SystemOver the years, sociologists have identified what they believe are the core values of American society.

Among these values are work, individualism, morality and humanitarianism, personal achievement, and others.

American values have not stayed the same over time, however. New values, such as respect for the environment, regularly develop and become part of American culture.

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Chapter at a Glance

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CONFORMITY 33

Watch the VideoExplore topics on cultural diversity and conformity.

SECTION 1SECTION 1

The MeaningThe Meaning of Cultureof Culture

Reading Focus 1. What is the meaning of the

term culture, and how do material culture and nonmate-rial culture differ?

2. What are the basic components of culture?

Main IdeaCulture is made up of all the shared products, both phys-ical and abstract, of human groups. While specific prod-ucts differ between cul-tures, all cultures are made up of the same five basic components.

Vocabularyculturematerial culturenonmaterial culturesocietyvaluesnormsfolkwaysmoreslaws

34 CHAPTER 2

Before You Read As you read, use a graphic

organizer like this one to take notes on the compo-nents of culture.

Car Culture U.S.A. How did the car influence American culture? Americans have always been in love with

their cars. The attitude of “just get in your car and go!” has lured millions to seek the freedom of the open road since the mid-1930s. After World War II a specific “car culture” blossomed along Route 66, a highway that stretched 2,448 miles between Chicago and Los Angeles.

What made driving this route a unique culture? Partly, it was the mythology that surrounded the journey. To many, a road trip vacation on Route 66 was like taking the old pioneer trail. Native American imagery was common along the road in the Southwest, from tepee motels to pueblo “trading posts.” Cowboy and Spanish motifs were also com-mon. This combination of ideas and material things is what defines a culture, as you’ll see throughout this section.

What Is Culture?Most sociologists believe that, unlike other animals, humans are not controlled by natural instincts. Because humans are not locked into a set of predetermined behav-iors, they are able to adapt to and change their environment. The methods by which collections of people—be they small groups or entire societies—deal with their environ-ment form the foundation of their culture.

CultureCulture consists of all the shared prod-ucts of human groups. These products include not only physical objects, but also

Component Explanation

The Wigwam Village Motel, in Holbrook, Arizona, gave drivers a fun place to rest while traveling on Route 66—the “Main Street of America.”

the beliefs, values, and behaviors shared by a group. The physical objects that people cre-ate and use form a group’s material culture.material culture.Examples of material culture include auto-mobiles, books, buildings, clothing, comput-ers, and cooking utensils. Abstract human creations form a group’s nonmaterial culture.nonmaterial culture.Examples of nonmaterial culture include beliefs, family patterns, ideas, language, polit-ical and economic systems, rules, skills, and work practices.

In everyday speech, people tend to use the terms society and culture interchangeably. However, sociologists distinguish between the two terms. A societysociety is a group of interde-pendent people who have organized in such a way as to share a common culture and feeling of unity. Society consists of people, and cul-ture consists of the material and nonmaterial products that people create.

Contrast What is the difference between a society and a culture?

The Components of CultureCulture is both learned and shared. This idea does not mean that everyone in the United States dresses the same way, belongs to the same church, or likes the same type of music. However, it does mean that most people in the United States choose from among the same broad set of material and nonmaterial ele-ments of culture in dealing with and making sense of their environment.

Specific examples of the material and non-material elements of culture vary from society to society, but all cultures have certain basic components such as technology, symbols, lan-guage, values, and norms.

Technology A society’s culture consists of not only physical objects but also the rules for using those objects. Sociologists some-times refer to this combination of objects and rules as technology. Using items of material culture, particularly tools, requires various skills, which are part of the nonmaterial cul-ture. For example, knowledge of computer languages and the ability to access and surf the Internet are skills related to the computer. Sociologists are not only interested in skills but also in the rules of acceptable behavior when using material culture. For example, the

Reading CheckReading Check

practice of “hacking”—accessing Web sites or computer systems illegally—is considered unacceptable behavior.

Symbols The use of symbols is the very basis of human culture. It is through symbols that we create our culture and communicate it. As you learned in the previous chapter, a symbol is anything that represents something else. In other words, a symbol has a shared mean-ing attached to it. Any word, gesture, image, sound, physical object, event, or element of the natural world can serve as a symbol as long as people recognize that it carries a particu-lar meaning. A church service, a class ring, the word hello, the Lincoln Memorial, and a handshake are examples of common symbols in the United States. Although specific exam-ples vary from culture to culture, all cultures communicate symbolically.

Language One of the most obvious aspects of any culture is its language. Language is the organization of written or spoken sym-bols into a standardized system. When orga-nized according to accepted rules of grammar, words can be used to express any idea. In the United States most people learn to speak an American form of English and use this lan-guage as their primary means of communica-tion. English is the principal language used in schools, in books and magazines, on radio and television, and in business dealings, even though there are members of American soci-ety who do not speak English. Have you ever visited a foreign country and been unable to speak the language? If so, you realize how important the use of language is in daily life.

Values Language and other symbols are important partly because they allow us to communicate our values to one another and to future generations. ValuesValues are shared beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. The types of values held by a group help to determine the charac-ter of its people and the kind of culture they create. A society that values war and displays of physical strength above all else will be very different from one that places emphasis on cooperation and sharing. The Yanomamö of South America and the San of southern Africa provide examples of how different value sys-tems produce different cultures.


Complete a Webquest at thinkcentral.com on indigenous cultures of the Americas.

The Yanomamö are farmers who live in villages along the border between Brazil and Venezuela. Warfare and feats of male strength play such an important role in the Yanomamö way of life that anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon called them the Fierce People. Although farming villages normally support between 500 and 1,000 people, Yanomamö villages rarely have as many as 200 people. Conflicts within the village usually cause groups to split off and form new settlements. Hostilities do not end with the splitting up of the village. Most instances of warfare occur between villages that were originally part of the same settlement.

In contrast, the way of life of the San peo-ple of southern Africa is based on cooperation. San groups have their own territories, and they take great care not to trespass on the lands of others. Within groups, all members who are able take part in the search for food. The group shares the food with all members. If food is in short supply, the group breaks into smaller units. When food is plentiful, these small units come back together.

Norms All groups create normsnorms to enforce their cultural values. Norms are shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in spe-cific situations. For example, in the United States the value of a democratic government is reinforced through norms governing politi-cal participation, respect for the American

flag, and the treatment of elected officials. It is important to keep in mind that norms are expectations for behavior, not actual behavior. The fact that a group has norms governing certain behaviors does not necessarily mean that the actions of all individuals will be in line with those norms. In the United States, there are norms concerning financial responsibility, but some people do not pay their bills.

A tremendous number of norms exists in our society ranging from the unimportant, such as covering your mouth when you yawn, to the very important, such as not committing murder. While some norms apply to everyone in society, others are applied selectively. For example, no one in American society is legally allowed to marry more than one person at a time. But only selected groups of people, such as children and the clergy of some religions, are forbidden from marrying at all.

Even important norms are sometimes applied selectively. The norm against taking life, for example, is applied differently to sol-diers and police officers acting in the line of duty than it is to most members of society. Norms also vary in the strictness of enforce-ment. In recognition of all these variations, sociologists distinguish between two types of norms: folkways and mores (MAWR–ayz).

FolkwaysFolkways are norms that describe socially acceptable behavior but do not have great moral significance attached to them. In essence, they outline the common customs of

36 CHAPTER 2

The Elements of Culture

Technology For sociologists, technology refers not only to physical objects but also to the rules established for using those objects. So, technology involves an understanding of how a silicon chip works as well as the chip itself.

Symbols A symbol is any commonly understood gesture, word, object, sound, or design that has come to stand for something else. For example, the yin-yang symbol originated in China, but it has long been recognized as a symbol of harmony in many cultures.

A culture is made up of all the shared products of a human group—everything from physical objects to beliefs, values, and behaviors. While cultures may differ from society to soci-ety, they all consist of the same key elements: technology, sym-bols, language, values, and norms. Which element of culture do you feel is most important? Why?

SECTION 1SECTION 1 AssessmentAssessmentOnline Quiz thinkcentral.com


6. Draw Conclusions Using your notes and a graphic organizer like this one, give two examples of how each of the compo-nents of culture is impor-tant to your life.

7. Descriptive Write two paragraphs describing a culture within the United States to which you belong. For example, you might write about a club or a team of which you are a part.

FOCUS ON WRITINGFOCUS ON WRITING

everyday life. All of the following are folkways: do not put food in your mouth with a knife; when lowering the American flag, do not allow it to touch the ground; shake hands when you are introduced to someone; do not jostle and push people when waiting in line; get to class on time; do your homework. Failure to abide by such rules usually results in a reprimand or a minor punishment. Some degree of non-conformity to folkways is permitted because it does not endanger the stability of society.

Mores,Mores, on the other hand, have great moral significance attached to them. This relation exists because the violation of such rules endangers society’s well-being and stability.

For example, dishonesty, fraud, and murder all greatly threaten society. These are devi-ances from cultural mores.

Societies have established punishments for violating mores in order to protect the social well-being. These serious mores are formalized as lawslaws—written rules of conduct enacted and enforced by the government. Most laws enforce mores essential to social stabil-ity, such as those against arson, murder, rape, and theft. However, laws may also enforce less severe folkways, such as not parking in spaces reserved for drivers with disabilities.

Identify What are the key compo-nents of culture?Reading CheckReading Check

Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Describe What is the difference between material and non-

material culture?

2. Recall Is technology part of material culture or nonmaterial culture or both? Explain.

3. Explain Use the Yanomamö and San cultures to explain how different value systems produce different cultures.

Thinking Critically 4. Support a Position Give and defend your opinion about

the way the norm against taking life is applied to soldiers.

5. Analyze In your own words, explain how folkways and mores are different.

Norms Cultural values are enforced by norms—shared rules of conduct people follow in their relations with one another. Some norms, such as obeying traffic signals, are formalized as written laws.

Values In sociological terms, values are shared beliefs about what is good, desirable, and proper. Respect for one’s elders is an important value in many cultures. In Thailand, the new year festival, Songkran, is a time to honor one’s elders.

Language Perhaps the most important element of culture is language, the organization of written or spoken symbols into a standardized system. In countries such as Canada, several languages are part of the culture. Above, a sign uses both English and Cree, a Native American language.

Component How It’s Important

SECTION 2SECTION 2

Cultural VariationCultural VariationReading Focus 1. What do most cultures have in

common with each other?

2. What factors account for cul-tural variations within cultures?

3. How have some social scientists responded to cultural variation?

4. How does cultural change occur?

Main IdeaThere are many elements that all cultures share. Many cultural variations exist, however, and cultures change over time.

Vocabularycultural universalssubculturecounterculture ethnocentrismcultural relativismcultural diffusioncultural lagcultural leveling

38 CHAPTER 2

Before You Read Use a graphic organizer like

this one to take notes on cultural variation.

Time for Dinner

How do everyday activities such as eating dinner differ from cul-ture to culture? You are visiting

Tokyo, and Japanese friends have invited you to dinner. They tell you they will be dining in traditional Japanese style. Do you know what to expect? Here are some guidelines.

Bring a small gift to your friends to show your appreciation for their hospitality. On entering the house, take off your shoes and put on the slippers they offer you. They will probably suggest that you take the place of honor at the table. Decline a couple of times before accepting. The table will be very low to the floor, because the Japanese do not use chairs. You will have to kneel or sit on the floor. If you sit, do not stretch your legs out under the table. It is considered bad manners to point the soles of your feet at someone. During the meal, lift your bowl to your chest, then grip a bite-sized piece of food with your chopsticks and move it from the bowl to your mouth. Slurping while eating soup or noodles is acceptable. Never pour a drink for yourself. Pour drinks for others; someone else at the table will fill your glass. After the meal, do not leave a mess. Place chopsticks on your plate and fold your napkin neatly. This is probably a little different from a dinner at your house, right?

Cultural Universals

Cultural Variation

Response to Variation

Cultural Change

What Do We All Have in Common?Everyday activities, such as having dinner with friends, show that cultures can differ widely. To get an idea of how diverse world cultures are, you might consider language. If you count only the languages that have more than 2 million speakers, there are more than 220 different languages spoken in the world today. In addition, because there may be dia-lects of the same basic language, even people who speak the same language may have dif-ficulty understanding one another. In the Spanish language, for example, speakers liv-ing in Latin America speak different dialects from speakers living in Spain.

You may be wondering how cultures can be so different when all humans have the same basic needs. The answer is that we have the ability to meet our needs in a vast number of ways. Only biological makeup and the physical environment limit this ability. Nevertheless, some needs are so basic that all societies must develop certain features to ensure their fulfill-ment. These features, common to all cultures, are called cultural universals.cultural universals.

In the 1940s anthropologist George Murdock examined hundreds of different cultures in an attempt to determine what general traits are common to all cultures. Murdock used his research to compile a list of more than 65 cultural universals. Among these universals are body adornment, cook-ing, dancing, family, feasting, forms of greet-ing, funeral ceremonies, gift giving, housing, language, medicine, music, folklore and myths, religion, sports, and toolmaking.

Murdock also found that although survival may dictate the need for cultural universals, the specific nature of these traits can vary widely. One factor that gives rise to families is the need to care for young children. He argued that in all cultures, the purpose of the fam-ily is the same. The family ensures that new members will be added to society and cared for until old enough to fend for themselves. In addition, the family introduces children to the components of their culture.

The makeup of a family, however, varies from culture to culture. In most of the Western world, a family consists of one or both parents and their children. In some cases, grandpar-ents may also be included in the definition.

In some parts of the world, a family might look completely different and include a man, his several wives, and their children. While the structure of family may be different, Murdock argued that the existence and purpose of fam-ilies compose a cultural universal.

Find the Main Idea What are cul-tural universals?

Cultural VariationsCultural variations exist not only among societies but also within societies. Among the major sources of cultural variation within a society are the unique cultural practices of various subgroups.

As an American, you share a common culture with all other Americans. American culture is a collection of traits, complexes, and patterns that, by and large, are distinct from those of other societies. In addition to these broad cultural features, some groups in society share values, norms, and behaviors that are not shared by the entire population.

Reading CheckReading Check


Anthropologist George Murdock identified more than 65 cultural universals—features that are common to all cultures. How these universals are expressed, however, differs from culture to culture.

Arts and Leisureathletic sports, dancing, decorative art, games, music

Basic Needsclothing, cooking, housing

Beliefsbody adornment, dream interpretation, folklore, funeral rites, religious ritual, weather control

Communication and Educationeducation, greetings, language

Familycourtship, family feasting, kin groups, marriage

Government and Economycalendar, division of labor, government, law, property rights, status differentiation, trade

Technologymedicine, toolmaking

CULTURAL UNIVERSALS

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYfolklore traditional customs, tales, sayings, dances, or art forms preserved among a people

U.S. POPULATION BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 2007

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

66.0%15.1%

12.3%

4.3% 2.3%

White, non-Hispanic Hispanic African American Asian American Other

Increase from 2000 to 2007: 27.6% Hispanic 25.1% Asian, non-Hispanic 17.0% Other 7.6% Black, non-Hispanic 1.7% White, non-Hispanic

The unique cultural characteristics of these groups form a subculture.subculture. Criminologist Edwin Sutherland developed the idea of subcultures in the 1920s through his work on crime and juvenile delinquency. In addition to deviant subcultures, sociologists today recognize age, gender, ethnic, religious, political, geographic, social-class, and occupational subcultures.

Most subcultures do not reject all of the values and practices of the larger society. For example, residents of San Francisco’s

Chinatown have many broad American cul-tural traits, such as going to public schools, playing with toys, and working at similar jobs. The culture of the Chinatown residents also includes the Chinese language and specific foods and celebrations that are not shared by most Americans. Likewise, the residents of Little Havana in Miami and the Navajo of the Southwest have their own languages and other cultural traits that are not shared by the larger American society.

Subcultures have also developed around age groups. Youth subcultures have existed in the United States since the early 1900s. Characteristics of these youth cultures have included owning fast cars, listening to rock or hip-hop music, and wearing certain clothes. Some teenagers today consider themselves part of “emo” culture, which has its own dis-tinct style of music, dress, and hairstyles.

Most subcultures do not present a threat to society. Modern society is dependent on various subcultures—such as the military, the police, lawyers, physicians, teachers, and reli-gious leaders—to provide important functions. Furthermore, subcultures, particularly those based on race and ethnicity, add diversity and may make society more open to change.

In some instances, however, subcultural practices are consciously intended to challenge the values of the larger society. Sometimes a group rejects the major values, norms, and practices of the larger society and replaces them with a new set of cultural patterns. Sociologists call the resulting subculture a counterculture.counterculture. The cyberpunk movement, anarchists, organized crime families, and the hippie movement of the 1960s are examples of countercultures in the United States.

The Mafia provides an extreme example of a counterculture. It rejects accepted societal norms, such as obeying the law, and creates its own cultural practices. To begin with, its day-to-day operations—the drug trade, illegal gambling, money laundering, and so on—are all against the law. Further, entrance to and promotion within the Mafia often requires violent acts such as beatings and murder. In fact, practically every aspect of life in the Mafia is a challenge to accepted norms.

Contrast What is the difference between a subculture and a counterculture?Reading CheckReading Check

40 CHAPTER 2

The Diverse U.S. Population Ethnic and racial diversity in the United States has greatly influenced American culture, and the makeup of the population is constantly changing.

26.3% Growth in the Asian population by 2020

25.1% Growth in the Hispanic population by 2020

21.1% Growth in the African American popula-tion by 2020

INTERPRETING GRAPHS Will the African American population catch up to the Hispanic population by 2020? Explain.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Skills FocusSkills Focus

Statistically Speaking...

Interactive Feature thinkcentral.com

INTERACTIVE

CONNEC TION

Response to VariationThe study of variations in cultures presents challenges for social scientists. Cultural vari-ations are what make societies interesting to study. However, social scientists must be care-ful to remain critical of biases in their obser-vations and conclusions.

Ethnocentrism Turn back to the beginning of this section and reread the description of Japanese customs. Do some of them seem odd? It is not unusual for people to have a negative response to cultural traits that dif-fer drastically from their own. This tendency to view one’s own culture and group as supe-rior is called ethnocentrism.ethnocentrism. People in all soci-eties are, at times, ethnocentric. From the functionalist viewpoint, this belief that the characteristics of one’s group or society are right and good helps to build group unity. In contrast, the conflict perspective argues that belief in the superiority of a group or society often results in one group or society seeing others as inferior. This tends to encourage discrimination against those seen as infe-rior. Further, when ethnocentrism becomes extreme, culture can stagnate. By limiting the pool of acceptable members, groups and societies run the risk of excluding new influ-ences that might prove beneficial.

Even anthropologists and sociologists struggle with ethnocentrism. Napoleon Chagnon’s first impression of the Yanomamö of South America was filtered through the standards of his own culture. Everything about the Yanomamö culture contradicted his expectations of how people should look and act. Chagnon admits that when he began to study the Yanomamö, their appearance and behavior horrified him. He even questioned the switch he had made from a career in civil engineering to anthropology! Over time, how-ever, Chagnon was able to see the Yanomamö from a less ethnocentric point of view.

Cultural Relativism Like Chagnon, sociolo-gists attempt to keep an open mind toward cultural variations. To do so, they adopt an attitude of cultural relativism,cultural relativism, which is the belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards rather than by applying the standards of another culture. In other words, researchers who practice cultural relativism

attempt to understand cultural practices from the points of view of the members of the soci-ety being studied.

Cultural relativism helps sociologists and anthropologists understand practices that seem strange or different from those of their own culture. In Cannibals and Kings, anthropologist Marvin Harris explored the religious prohibition in India against kill-ing cows even when food shortages exist. He suggested that the prohibition was related to the development of Indian agriculture. Cows played a vital role in feeding the Indian people, even though cows themselves were not eaten. Cattle provided the power for plowing, which prepared the land for plant-ing. Therefore, a large number of cows were needed to ensure good harvests. In addition, cows provided milk, a traditionally impor-tant part of the Indian diet. When viewed from this perspective, it is possible to see that the prohibition against killing cows has practical benefits.

Identify Cause and Effect How might ethnocentrism cause discrimination?Reading CheckReading Check


Functionalist Perspective Culture reflects and enforces society’s central values. It encourages harmony and stability by integrating individuals into society. Subcultures diffuse discontent of subgroups in society. Ethnocentrism encourages group solidarity.

Conflict Perspective Culture reflects and enforces the values of those who hold power. It encourages and maintains social inequality. Subcultures and countercultures challenge those in power. Ethnocentrism encourages discrimina-tion against the powerless.

Interactionist Perspective Culture is main-tained and modified through everyday social interaction. Interaction among subcultural groups helps to transmit customs and traditions and also introduces new cultural meaning systems.

Perspectives onCulture

Nacirema Body Ritual Before you

knew who the “Naci-

rema” were, did their

rituals seem weird to

you? Ethnocentrism

is a common, nega-

tive reaction to unfa-

miliar customs.


Cultural ChangeAll cultures around the world are constantly changing. Sometimes this change comes very slowly. At other times, change happens sud-denly. Change can occur in both material and nonmaterial culture, and a change in one area of life normally means that other areas will change, too.

The Process of Change Perhaps the most common way that change takes place is through a process called cultural diffusion.cultural diffusion. This involves the spreading of culture traits—ideas and beliefs as well as material objects—from one society to another. The more contact a soci-ety has with other societies, the more culture traits it will borrow. Today, with mass trans-portation and instant communication through the media, the telephone, and the Internet, cultural diffusion sometimes takes place almost instantly.

Sociologist William Ogburn noted that not all cultural traits change at the same rate. Some traits change rapidly, Ogburn observed, while the transformation of others may take considerable time. Material culture tends to change more readily than nonmaterial cul-ture. Ogburn referred to the time between changes, when ideas and beliefs are adapting to new material conditions, as cultural lag.cultural lag.

Two other ways through which change takes place are discovery and invention.

Discovery occurs when people recognize new uses for existing elements in the world or begin to understand them in new ways. Invention occurs when people use existing knowledge to create something that did not previously exist. Discovery often leads to invention. For example, scientists discovered nuclear fission in 1934. By 1951 a nuclear reactor that gener-ated electricity had been invented.

Cultural Leveling Globalization—the devel-opment of economic and social relationships that stretch across the world—and the quick-ening rate of diffusion have brought about a situation that sociologist James Henslin calls cultural leveling.cultural leveling. This is a process in which cul-tures become more and more alike.

Examples of cultural leveling abound. McDonald’s has more than 31,000 restau-rants in over 100 countries, while Starbucks has more than 2,000 coffee houses in over 30 countries. Other American enterprises, such as Pizza Hut and Burger King, also have a world presence. Further, from the street corners of every major world city to the foothills of Tibet, a New York Yankees cap seems to be a must-have fashion item for many young peo-ple. Some sociologists suggest that cultural leveling is the first step toward the develop-ment of one global culture.

Summarize What are the major processes of cultural change?Reading CheckReading Check

42 CHAPTER 2

Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Recall What is a subculture?

2. Identify What perspective says that culture reflects and enforces society’s central values?

3. Explain How are globalization and cultural leveling related?

Thinking Critically 4. Compare and Contrast How are a subculture and a coun-

terculture similar? How are they different?

5. Evaluate Why do you think ethnocentrism tends to encour-age discrimination?

6. Develop Explain why you think cultural lag exists—why does material culture change more readily than nonmaterial culture?

7. Interpret Using your notes and a graphic organizer like this one, explain how each perspective on culture relates to cul-tural variation.

8. Expository Write a few paragraphs on your opinion of cultural leveling. Is it a good or bad thing for people and cultures to become more alike? Why? For whom is it good or bad? Give a few other examples of cultural leveling that you have noticed in the world today.


Functionalist Perspective

Conflict Perspective

Interactionist Perspective


Cultural Diversity and sociology

In the past few decades, large num-bers of immigrants from Mexico and other Latin American countries have greatly influenced American culture. The following 2004 article “Hispanic Nation” from Business Week describes how this trend began.

Latinos, as many prefer to be called, offi-cially passed African Americans last year to become the nation’s largest minority. Their numbers are so great that, like the postwar baby boomers before them, the Latino Generation is becoming a driving force in the economy, politics, and culture. . .

Hispanics’ soaring buying power increas-ingly influences the food Americans eat, the clothes they buy, and the cars they drive. Companies are scrambling to revamp products and marketing to reach the fast-est-growing consumer group. . .

For more than 200 years, the nation has succeeded in weaving the foreign-born into the fabric of U.S. society, incorporat-ing strands of new cultures along the way. With their huge numbers, Hispanics are adding all kinds of new influences. Cinco de Mayo has joined St. Patrick’s Day as a public celebration in some neighborhoods, and burritos are everyday fare. More and more, Americans hablan Español.

The cultural influence of Hispanic immigrants is visible in many areas. For example, Mexican foods such as tortillas and salsa have become common across the United States. Americans now buy billions of dollars worth of tortillas each year, and salsa is more popular than ketchup.

The growth in popularity of Spanish language television, such as Telemundo, has also changed the way large corporations such as General Motors and Ford advertise. Spanish-language ads for new automobiles have been made specifically to reach the more than 2.8 million viewers in the United States.

They’re not just viewers, however. They’re also consumers, and the amount of money they have to spend has become quite substantial. One estimate from 2007 said that Hispanic buying power in the United States had risen to about $860 billion.

Immigration from some South Asian nations, such as India and Pakistan, has become significant as

well. According to U.S. government statistics, between 1998 and 2007, 581,110 Indians and 138,469 Pakistanis obtained legal permanent resident status in the United States. The U.S. government estimates that a further 270,000 unauthorized Indian immi-grants were living here by 2006.

In the not too distant past, Pakistani or Indian cuisine was con-sidered extremely exotic. Today, especially in cities with large South Asian populations, this is no longer so. “Bollywood” movies from India are also gaining popularity in the United States. In 2005 they earned an esti-mated $100 million here.

The AdaptiveAmerican CultureA long history of immigration to the United States has greatly influenced American culture. Immigrants incor-porate their culture into American culture. As a result, these new cultural traditions influence many aspects of daily life, including business practices, advertising, and what Americans choose to eat.

Thinking Critically

1. Evaluate How have immigrant groups influenced American culture in your community?

2. Discuss What are some examples of how food, business practices, and advertising have changed because of immigration?

Grocery stores that cater to both South Asian immigrant commu-nities and the wider U.S. society are becoming more common.

SECTION 3SECTION 3

The American The AmericanValue SystemValue System

Reading Focus 1. What are traditional American

values?

2. How have our values changed since the 1970s?

Main IdeaEven though American society is quite diverse, there are certain core values that the vast majority of Americans share.

Vocabularyself-fulfillmentnarcissism

44 CHAPTER 2

Before You Read As you read, use a graphic

organizer like this one to take notes on the values of American society.

How important is work in the American value system? Hard work has always been a

cornerstone value of American culture. The United States has a long tradition of people going to work very young, working their way “up the ladder,” and succeeding in a variety of ways.

The story of Andrew Carnegie illustrates what many see as “the American Dream.” Carnegie’s fam-ily emigrated from Scotland to Pennsylvania in 1848 when he was 12. He immediately went to work in a textile mill. Fifty years later—after success in the rail-road business, as an investor, and in the steel indus-try—Carnegie was worth over $250 million. By the time he died in 1919, he had given about $350 million to various charities.

But you don’t have to be a multimillionaire to gain respect for your hard work. U.S. Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald’s father worked as a doorman in New York City. Fitzgerald went to work young as well, as a school janitor to make money for college. During summer breaks from college, he worked as a doorman, like his father, to save for the next term. Throughout his career as an attorney, one word has always been applied to him: workaholic. As U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois, Patrick Fitzgerald has garnered nearly universal respect for his dedication, fairness, and achievement.

Showing initiative as a young person and working through adversity continue to be truly valued in the United States. As you will read, hard work is but one of a number of traditional American values.

Traditional American

Values

Changing American

Values

“Work Is Its Own Reward”

American society is made up of many diverse groups, but there is a core set of values that the majority of these groups share.

Personal AchievementDoing well at school and at work is important. Gaining wealth and prestige is a sign of success.

Progress and Material ComfortHistory is marked by ongoing progress, and this progress improves people’s lives.

WorkDiscipline, dedication, and hard work are signs of virtue.

IndividualismHard work, initiative, and individual effort are the keys to personal achievement.

Efficiency and PracticalityEvery problem can be solved through efficiency and practicality. Getting things done well in the shortest time is very important.

Morality and HumanitarianismJudgments should be based on a sense of right and wrong. This sense of morality also involves helping the less fortunate.

Equality and DemocracyEveryone should have an equal chance at success and the right to participate freely in government.

FreedomPersonal freedoms, such as freedom of religion, speech, and the press, are central to the American way of life.

Traditional American ValuesEthnic, racial, religious, social-status, and geographical variations in American society make for a diverse culture. Nevertheless, the vast majority of Americans share certain val-ues. Sociologists refer to these values when they speak of traditional American culture.

In his highly-regarded study American Society: A Sociological Interpretation, soci-ologist Robin M. Williams identified 15 tra-ditional values he believes are central to the American way of life. Among these values are personal achievement, progress and material comfort, work, individualism, efficiency and practicality, morality and humanitarianism, equality and democracy, and freedom.

Personal Achievement Most Americans value personal achievement. This value is not a surprise considering that the United States was built primarily by people who believed in individualism and competition. This belief in the importance of personal achievement is most evident in the area of employment, where achievement often is measured in terms of power and wealth.

Progress and Material Comfort Americans have always looked to the future with opti-mism. They believe that through hard work and determination, living standards will con-tinue to improve. This belief in progress is paired with a belief in the ability of science and technology to make the world a better and more comfortable place. Both views are important because most Americans also place a high value on material comfort.

Work Most Americans value work, regard-less of the rewards. Americans view discipline, dedication, and hard work as signs of virtue. But this can be taken to the extreme. Often, people work long hours at the expense of their family lives but are still praised. On the other hand, Americans tend to view those who choose not to work as lazy or even immoral.

Individualism For most Americans, individ-ual effort is the key to personal achievement. They believe that success comes through hard work and initiative. This emphasis on indi-vidualism has a negative side, however. Most Americans feel that if a person does not suc-ceed, that person is to blame.


AMERICAN VALUES

Efficiency and Practicality Americans tend to be practical and inventive people. They believe that every problem has a solution. Problem solving involves discovering the most efficient way of dealing with a situation or determining the most practical response to the issue at hand. As a result, Americans tend to judge objects on their usefulness and judge people on their ability to get things done.

Morality and Humanitarianism The United States was founded on strong religious faith, on a belief in justice and equality, and on char-ity toward the less fortunate. Most Americans place a high value on morality and tend to view the world in terms of right and wrong. At the same time, they are quick to help those who are less fortunate than themselves.

Equality and Democracy The United States was founded on the principle of human equality. The Declaration of Independence proclaims, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.” Many Americans believe that to have equality, there must be an equality of opportunity and an equal chance at success. Although Americans value equal opportunity, they do not necessar-ily believe that everyone will be equally suc-cessful. The values of hard work and personal achievement lead most Americans to view success as a reward that must be earned.

The belief in equality extends to the form of government that Americans value:democracy. Americans believe that every citi-zen has the right to express his or her opin-ions and to participate freely in choosing rep-resentatives in government.

Freedom Freedom is an important value for most Americans. Americans particularly value personal freedoms of choice such as the freedoms of religion, speech, and the press, which are guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution. Americans steadfastly protect these freedoms from direct government interference in their daily lives and in business dealings.

Other Core Values These values are not the only values that help define American culture. Williams also included nationalism

and patriotism, science and rationality, and racial and group superiority in his list of core values. Another sociologist, James Henslin, suggested that additional values such as edu-cation might be included. Many Americans think that everyone should achieve the high-est level of education that his or her abilities will allow. Americans tend to unfavorably view those who deliberately choose not to ful-fill their educational potential. Henslin also pointed out that religious values are impor-tant in American culture. While Americans do not expect people to belong to a church, temple, or mosque, they do expect them to live according to basic religious principles. Finally, Henslin suggested romantic love was another core American value. Americans strongly believe that people should marry primarily because they fall in love with each other.

Even though values are vital to the sta-bility of society, they may sometimes pro-duce conflict. Not everyone agrees on what are acceptable American values. Even when people agree, they may not uphold all values to the same degree. Strongly upholding the value of personal achievement, for example, may weaken an individual’s commitment to such values as morality and equality.

Summarize List and describe four traditional American values. Reading CheckReading Check

46 CHAPTER 2

Quick Lab thinkcentral.com

Quick LabAmerican Values: What’s Your Opinion?Do young Americans still uphold traditional American values? Or are the core values of American culture changing? Poll your fellow students to discover what they think.

PROCEDURE1 Review the traditional American values listed in this section.

2 Working in a group with two or three classmates, develop a questionnaire addressing these values. Each question should take the form of a statement on one of the values with several possible responses—strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, and strongly disagree, for example.

3 Make copies of your questionnaire and distribute them to the rest of the class.

ANALYSIS 1. Collate all the responses to the questionnaires and present

your findings to the class.

2. Lead a class discussion of your findings, using questions such as: Which core values do young people still hold? Which core values seem to be falling out of favor? Are there other values that should be considered core American values?



Our Changing ValuesThe problem of conflicting values is compli-cated by the fact that values, like all aspects of society, are dynamic. Over time, some values change and new ones emerge. In recent years sociologists have traced the development of several related new values in the United States. These values, which include leisure, physical fitness, and youthfulness, might be grouped under the term self-fulfillment.

Self-fulfillmentSelf-fulfillment is a commitment to the full development of one’s personality, talents, and potential. The emergence of this value can be seen in the large and growing self-help indus-try. Seminars, television programs, and books offer people ideas on how to improve their personal and professional lives. At the same time, health clubs and diet centers promise to transform people’s health and looks.

This growing emphasis on personal fulfill-ment created debate among social scientists. In his book The Culture of Narcissism, social historian Christopher Lasch went so far as to consider this emphasis on personal fulfill-ment a personality disorder. He termed this disorder narcissism,narcissism, which means extreme self-centeredness. Sociologist Daniel Bell also saw dangers in the focus on the self. He felt that it weakened the established values of hard work and moderation and threatened the stability of the capitalist system. Psychologist and survey researcher Daniel Yankelovich took a

different view. He admitted that this new value probably indicated that Americans believed less in hard work than did earlier generations. However, he viewed this shift toward self-fulfillment as a beneficial change. It marked a movement away from satisfaction based on material gain, he suggested.

Studies during the 1990s noted the emer-gence of other new American values, such as concern for the environment. Public opinion polls during that time reflected a growing support among Americans for environmental protection. Throughout much of the 1990s, for example, more than 60 percent of Americans said that they favored protecting the envi-ronment, even if it limited economic growth. However, during the 2000s, this number fell to about 50 percent.

The emergence of environmentalism illus-trates how values often change. For long peri-ods in American history, the desire for prog-ress led people to alter the natural world. Americans cleared forests, diverted rivers, and built factories and roads in an effort to improve life in the United States. After a time, however, it became clear that some of these actions had damaged the environment. This damage had an adverse effect on quality of life. Americans then began to realize that they value the environment as well as progress.

Analyze In what ways have American values changed?Reading CheckReading Check

Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 1. Describe Name and describe 5 of the 15 American values

identified by the sociologist Robin M. Williams.

2. Recall What does the emergence of environmentalism in the 1990s illustrate about values?

Thinking Critically 3. Draw Conclusions In your own words, explain how the

American values of equality and democracy are linked.

4. Explain In what ways might one of Williams’s other core val-ues that help to define American culture, “racial and group superiority,” conflict with some of his 15 traditional American values?

5. Categorize Using your notes on the values of American society and a graphic organizer like this one, decide whether each value reflects practical concerns, idealistic goals, or a little of both.

6. Descriptive Choose two American values that you feel strongly about (positively or negatively). Write one para-graph on each one, describing your feelings and explaining why you feel the way you do.


Practical Idealistic

Both

ACADEMIC VOCABULARYpersonality disorder a long-term and deeply ingrained pattern of socially unac-ceptable behavior that is harmful to the person who displays it and to others

Use the workbook to complete this lab.

Reading and Activity Workbook

48 CHAPTER 2

1. IntroductionValues are a key component of society. They enable us to share and pass on what is important to us and form the basis for our expectations for behavior. While every culture has a broad set of shared values, some cultures have subcultures that hold different values. Even within subcultures values can vary from person to person. Such is the case with American teenagers.

In this lab you will compare your values against the values of others who are also in the American Teen subculture. This lab will give you the opportunity to compare your values with the values of your peers and see how they are similar or different. To complete this lab follow the steps below.

Review the chapter material on the concept and components of culture. Pay special attention to the terms material culture, values, ethnocentrism, cultural relativism, and subculture. Write down a few main points on these concepts and any others that you think might be important to identifying and understanding cultural differences.

Select two personal items to share with the class. One should be something you highly value, and one should be something you value little.

Write a paragraph explaining why you selected each item and how you value it.

Participate as a class in a presentation where everyone’s items will be given a positive or negative value.

Explain why you selected your items and talk about your valuation of the items versus that of the rest of the class.

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2. Selecting Your ItemsFollowing your teacher’s instructions about appropriateness, select two personal items to share with the class. Use the following as a guide for making your selections.

Go home and evaluate the items in your room. As you do so, think about why you have what you have in your room. What value do you give to the items in your room? Why do you have the various items? Is it for sentimental reasons? Are the items kept for their usefulness?

Choose two items to take to the next class. The items you choose should be on opposite ends of the spectrum. In other words, one item should be most valued and the other least valued. You can think in whatever terms of value you want to: valuable/worthless, pretty/ugly, good/bad, etc.

Each item can be anything that has a positive or negative value for you. Remember that can mean different things for different people. For example: A concert ticket might be highly valued if it was a from a happy couple’s first date. On the other hand, it might have no value if it was the occasion of a couple’s break up.

Place your items in a bag or box so that they are not clearly visible.

Upon arriving to class, give the box or bag to your teacher or place it in a designated spot.

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Sample Items

Analyzing MaterialCultureHow can material culture be used to tell about cultural values and differences?

Guitar

Stuffed animal

Eyeglasses

Workshirts or ID

Favorite shirt

Seashells

Paperweight

Football or sports equipment

Jewelry — rings, necklaces, etc.

Driver’s License

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CONFORMITY 49Applying What You’ve Learned thinkcentral.com

3. Analyzing Your SelectionAfter selecting your two items, write a detailed analysis of your choices. The analysis should explain your thought process during the selection process. This part of the activity will help you with your part of the presentation. Consider the following questions as you write your analysis paper.

How difficult was it to select only two items from your room?

What process did you use to eliminate items and settle on the two you chose?

What were some of the items you considered, but did not choose? Why?

Which item did you assign a negative value to? Why have you kept it? What value or purpose does it hold for you?

4. Presenting and Judging the Items

Once everyone is ready for the presentation, your teacher will begin unveiling the items. As each item is revealed it will be presented to the class. The teacher will lead a discussion about what value they give to the item. Then the class should decide on which side of the spectrum it should be placed. Should it be placed on the good/valuable/pretty side or the bad/worthless/ugly side? The items should be clearly placed on one side of a table or the room to designate what value the class has given them. This procedure is repeated with each item until all items have been given a value.

After all the items have been given a value by the class it is time for each student to come forward and claim their items. Each student should give a complete explanation of their items, explaining why they chose them and what value they give them. They should also compare how they valued their item with how the class valued the item.

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5. DiscussionOnce all items have been claimed by their owners, the teacher will lead the class in a discussion about the lab. Consider some of the discussion questions listed below.

Were you surprised by the values assigned to items by your classmates compared to how you valued them? Why?

Why is there such variation in results among a group that is similar in age?

Did your opinion of an object change upon hearing the owner’s explanation of their item? Why or why not?

How do you think a person’s age might change the values assigned to each object? Would a 5-year-old think differently about the items? A 50-year-old?

Would a person from another part of the country think differently about the items? What about a person from another part of the world?

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From the classroom of Greg Talberg, Howell High School, Howell, MI

ReviewReviewCHAPTER CHAPTER 22Comprehension and Critical ThinkingSECTION 1 (pp. 34–37)1. a. Identify What is the central characteristic that

makes something a successful symbol? b. Contrast How are folkways different from laws? c. Support a Position Do you think folkways are

necessary for our culture to exist? Why or why not?

SECTION 2 (pp. 38–42)2. a. Recall What is the most common way that cul-

tural change takes place?b. Contrast What is ethnocentrism? How does it

differ from cultural relativism? c. Make Judgments Is the existence of counter-

cultures valuable or harmful to society? Why?

SECTION 3 (pp. 44–47)3. a. Recall What new American values have

emerged in recent years? b. Analyze How might a strong commitment

to such values as personal achievement and individualism affect an individual’s economic decisions?

c. Evaluate Briefly describe the differing opinions of the emergence of the value of self-fulfillment. In your opinion, which one is correct? Why?

INTERNET ACTIVITY

4. How have important counterculture movements challenged the values of the larger society? Choose one of the following counterculture movements: the cyberpunk movement, anar-chists, or hippies. Use the Internet to research the group of your choosing. Write a report that gives a historical overview of the movement. When, where, and why did it begin? When did the movement reach its height? Is it ongoing, or has its influence worn out?

Reviewing VocabularyMatch the terms below with their correct definitions.

5. cultural diffusion 6. nonmaterial culture 7. personality disorder 8. mores 9. subculture

10. narcissism 11. norms 12. material culture 13. cultural lag

A. extreme self-centeredness B. norms that have great moral significance

attached to them C. situation in which some aspects of a culture

change less rapidly than others D. a group with its own unique values, norms, and

behaviors that exists within a larger culture E. abstract human creations, such as ideas, lan-

guage, rules, political systems, and so on F. shared rules of conduct that tell people how to

act in specific situations G. the spreading of cultural traits from one society

to another H. a long-term and deeply ingrained pattern of

socially unacceptable behavior that is harmful to the person who displays it and to others

I. physical objects created by human groups

Sociology in Your Life 14. Simply by living in the United States, you are

immersed in the broader American culture. But are you a member of a subculture? Since sociologists recognize age, gender, ethnic, reli-gious, political, geographic, social-class, and occupational subcultures, you almost can’t avoid it. Within your school there is an overarching culture, but there are certainly numerous sub-cultures operating as well. Think about a subcul-ture that you belong to and that is meaningful to you. It can be any of the ones mentioned here or another that you recognize and feel strongly about. Write a paragraph that describes your chosen subculture. How is this subculture’s val-ues different from those of the wider, dominant culture? What accepted values (if any) does your subculture reject? Does your subculture seriously challenge the values of the larger society? Is it a counterculture?

50 CHAPTER 2

ONLINE QUIZZESTake a practice quiz for each section in this chapter.

WEBQUESTComplete a structured Internet activity for this chapter.

QUICK LABReinforce a key concept with a short lab activity.

APPLYING WHATYOU’VE LEARNEDReview and apply your knowledge by completing a project-based assessment.

Quiz and Review

eACTIVITIESComplete chapter Internet activities for enrichment.

INTERACTIVE FEATUREExplore an interactive version of a key feature in this chapter.

KEEP IT CURRENTLink to current news and research in sociology.

Activities

Online TextbookLearn more about key topics in this chapter.

Visit thinkcentral.com for review and enrichment activities related to this chapter.

Connecting Online

2000

Protection of environmentshould be givenpriority overeconomic growth

No opinion

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

0%

10%

Economic growthshould be givenpriority even if the environmentsuffers

2004 2008

PUBLIC OPINION ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Source: The Gallup Organization, 2008

SKILLS ACTIVITY: INTERPRETING GRAPHSThe bar graph below shows how the opinions of Americans about whether the environment or the economy should be given priority have changed between the years 2000 and 2008. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow.

15. Analyze Which category between which two years saw the greatest change in support?

16. Compare In which year does the total number of people who want to give priority to the economy or have no opinion fall well short of the number of people who want to give priority to the environment?

17. Develop Judging strictly by numerical change, does this graph sug-gest that over time, fewer people support protecting the environment or more people support emphasizing the economy? Explain.

Use your knowledge of the components of culture to answer the question below. Do not simply list facts. Present a clear argument based on your critical analysis of the question, using the appropriate sociological terminology.

18. Briefly describe each of the components of culture below. For each, say whether it is part of material culture, nonmaterial culture, or both. Then give an example of each and explain how it is relevant to your everyday life.

SymbolsValuesNorms

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