bond types bond type electron electronegativity difference ionicdonate/take>1.7 polar covalent...
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Bond typesBond types
Bond typeBond type electronelectron ElectronegativElectronegativity difference ity difference
IonicIonic Donate/takeDonate/take >1.7>1.7
Polar covalentPolar covalent ShareShare 0.6-1.70.6-1.7
Nonpolar Nonpolar covalentcovalent
ShareShare <0.6<0.6
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Comparing ionic and covalent Comparing ionic and covalent compoundscompounds
Molecular compoundsMolecular compounds Ionic compoundsIonic compounds
smallest particlessmallest particles moleculesmolecules cations and anionscations and anions
origin of bondingorigin of bonding electron sharingelectron sharing electron transferelectron transfer
forces between forces between particlesparticles
strong bonds between atomsstrong bonds between atomsweak attractions between weak attractions between moleculesmolecules
strong attractions between anions strong attractions between anions and cationsand cationsstrong repulsions between ions of strong repulsions between ions of like chargelike charge
elements presentelements present close on the periodic tableclose on the periodic table widely separated on the periodic widely separated on the periodic tabletable
metallic elements metallic elements presentpresent
rarelyrarely usuallyusually
electrical electrical conductivityconductivity
poorpoor good, when melted or dissolvedgood, when melted or dissolved
state at room state at room temperaturetemperature
solid, liquid, or gassolid, liquid, or gas solidsolid
melting and boiling melting and boiling pointspoints
lowerlower higherhigher
other namesother names covalent compoundscovalent compounds saltssalts
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Metallic bondsMetallic bonds
Metals’ valence electrons can move Metals’ valence electrons can move about between metal ions.about between metal ions.
These These nonlocalized nonlocalized electrons give electrons give metals their conductivity, metals their conductivity, malleability and strengthmalleability and strength
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Intermolecular forces(van der Waals forces)
London dispersion-instantaneous dipole moment
-increases with mass -found between all molecules
Dipole-dipole- increases with polarity Hydrogen bonding
The stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater the melting and boiling points and viscosity will be.
Viscosity- resistance to flow.
stronger
weaker
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Lewis Dot DiagramsLewis Dot Diagrams
HH22 H HHH bond to form H:H bond to form H:H
Each bond uses an electron from each Each bond uses an electron from each atom.atom.
To create a Lewis dot diagram. . .To create a Lewis dot diagram. . .
1.1. Count the total valence electrons Count the total valence electrons available.available.
2.2. Ensure each atom has an octet (or a Ensure each atom has an octet (or a pair for H) pair for H)
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Exceptions to the Octet RuleExceptions to the Octet Rule
Less than 8: B & BeLess than 8: B & Be Expanded valence: elements in Expanded valence: elements in
period 3 or higher bonding with period 3 or higher bonding with highly electronegative elements like highly electronegative elements like F, O, and Cl.F, O, and Cl.
Odd no. of valence electronsOdd no. of valence electrons
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Valence Shell Electron Pair Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory- electron pairs Repulsion theory- electron pairs repel each other, so are oriented repel each other, so are oriented
as far apart as possible.as far apart as possible.
> > > > Unshared-unshared repulsion
Unshared-shared repulsion
Shared-shared repulsion
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Molecule
Total no. of
electron pairs
No. of shared pairs
No. of unshared pairs
Molecular shape
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MoleculeTotal no.
of electron
pairs
No. of shared
pairs
No. of unshared
pairsMolecular shape
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Bent 104.5°
Trigonal pyramidal 107.3°
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PolarityPolarity
Molecule is polar if. . .Molecule is polar if. . .
there is a polar bond ANDthere is a polar bond AND
it is asymmetricalit is asymmetrical
HH++
O - O - ++H C HH C H++
H H + HH H + H++
polarnonpolar
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If a central atom is symmetrically If a central atom is symmetrically surrounded by identical atoms, it will surrounded by identical atoms, it will be be nonpolarnonpolar..
Ex: linearEx: linear ABAB22
trigonal planartrigonal planar ABAB33
tetrahedral tetrahedral ABAB44
square planarsquare planar ABAB44
trigonal bipyramidal trigonal bipyramidal ABAB55
octahedraloctahedral ABAB66
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HybridizationHybridization
The mixing of 2 or more orbitals of The mixing of 2 or more orbitals of similarsimilar energies on the same atom energies on the same atom to produce new orbitals of to produce new orbitals of equalequal energies.energies.
C C __ 1s1s2s 2p2s 2p 1s sp1s sp33
tetrahedraltetrahedral
3 p orbitals were used
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How many bonds How many bonds andand unshared pairs unshared pairs are around the central atom? This is are around the central atom? This is the number of equal energy orbitals the number of equal energy orbitals needed.needed.
sp has 2 electron domainssp has 2 electron domains spsp22 has 3 electron domains has 3 electron domains spsp33 has 4 electron domains has 4 electron domains spsp33d has 5 electron domainsd has 5 electron domains spsp33dd22 has 6 electron domains has 6 electron domains
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Sigma bonds are along the bond axis.Sigma bonds are along the bond axis.Pi bonds are sideways with parallel overlap.Pi bonds are sideways with parallel overlap.
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Single bond: Single bond: 1 sigma bond1 sigma bond
Double bond: Double bond: 1 sigma, 1 pi bond1 sigma, 1 pi bond
Triple bond: Triple bond: 1 sigma, 2 pi bonds1 sigma, 2 pi bonds
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Coordinate covalent bondsCoordinate covalent bonds
The shared electrons are supplied by The shared electrons are supplied by a single atoma single atom
H H H H ++
H N H + HH N H + H++ H N H H N H
HH
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Heat
of
fusi
on
Heat of vaporization
Heating Curve for Water
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Calculate the enthalpy change for each Calculate the enthalpy change for each stage, then total them.stage, then total them.
To get the ice to 0To get the ice to 0◦◦C:C:
∆∆HH = (10.0g)(2.09J/g= (10.0g)(2.09J/g··K)(25K)(25◦◦K)=515JK)=515J
To melt the ice:To melt the ice:
∆∆HH = (10.0g)(334 J/g)=3340J= (10.0g)(334 J/g)=3340J
To heat the water to 100To heat the water to 100◦◦C:C:
∆∆HH = (10.0g)(4.18J/g= (10.0g)(4.18J/g··K)(100K)(100◦◦K)=4180JK)=4180J
To vaporize the water:To vaporize the water:
∆∆HH = (10.0g)(2260 J/g)=22600J= (10.0g)(2260 J/g)=22600J
To heat the water to 125To heat the water to 125◦◦C:C:
∆∆HH = (10.0g)(2.02 J/g= (10.0g)(2.02 J/g··K)(25K)(25◦◦K)=505JK)=505J
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Phase Diagram
Critical point- beyond this, the gas and liquid phases become indistinguishable.
Triple point- all three phases are at equilibrium
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The effect of increasing temperature and Activation Energy
As the temperature increases, the peak for the most probable KE is reduced, and more significantly, moves to the right to higher values so more particles have the highest KE values. At the higher temperature T2, a greater fraction of particles has the minimum KE to react.
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Enthalpy of solution- Enthalpy of solution- ∆H∆Hsolsol
The energy change during dissolving.The energy change during dissolving.
For solids in liquids, usually endothermic For solids in liquids, usually endothermic (>0)(>0)
For gases in liquids, usually exothermic For gases in liquids, usually exothermic (<0)(<0)
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Henry’s LawHenry’s Law
The amount of a gas that will The amount of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature varies directly with the temperature varies directly with the partial pressure of that gas.partial pressure of that gas.
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ConcentrationsConcentrations
Molarity (M) Molarity (M) moles solutemoles solute
L solutionL solution Molality (m) Molality (m) moles solutemoles solute
kg solventkg solvent % by mass % by mass g soluteg solute
g solutiong solution Mole fractionMole fraction moles of solutemoles of solute
moles of solutionmoles of solution
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Colligative propertiesColligative properties
Properties determined by the number Properties determined by the number of particles in solution (rather than the of particles in solution (rather than the type)type) Vapor pressure decreasesVapor pressure decreases Boiling point increasesBoiling point increases Freezing point decreasesFreezing point decreases Osmotic pressureOsmotic pressure
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vapor pressurevapor pressure
Decreases (with a nonvolatile solute)Decreases (with a nonvolatile solute) PPsolutionsolution = x = xsolventsolvent ∙P ∙P solvent solvent
Vapor pressure = (mole fraction) (vapor Vapor pressure = (mole fraction) (vapor pressure)pressure)
solution solution solvent solventsolvent solvent
Raoult’s Law: vapor pressure of a Raoult’s Law: vapor pressure of a solution varies directly as the mole solution varies directly as the mole fraction of the solvent.fraction of the solvent.
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Determining freezing/boiling point Determining freezing/boiling point changeschanges
∆∆TTfp fp = m∙K= m∙Kfpfp
molality x freezing point constantmolality x freezing point constant
∆∆TTbp bp = m∙K= m∙Kbpbp
molality x boiling point constantmolality x boiling point constant
KKfp fp for water is 1.853 C°/1m waterfor water is 1.853 C°/1m water
KKbpbp for water is .515 C°/1m water for water is .515 C°/1m water
For other substances, see table A-8 on p.860. For other substances, see table A-8 on p.860.
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Determining molecular Determining molecular massmass
If 8.02g of solute in 861g water lowers the If 8.02g of solute in 861g water lowers the freezing point to -0.430°C, calculate the freezing point to -0.430°C, calculate the molecular mass of the solute.molecular mass of the solute.
∆∆TTfp fp = m∙K= m∙Kfpfp so m = so m = ∆T∆Tfp = fp = -0.430-0.430°C °C
== .232m .232m
KKfpfp 1.853°C/m 1.853°C/m
8.02g solute8.02g solute xx 1 kg water1 kg water == 40.1 g/mol 40.1 g/mol
.861kg water .232 mol solute.861kg water .232 mol solute