bringing visibility to the needs and interests of indigenous students… · 2020-01-21 ·...

ASHE-NITE Paper Series

BRINGING VISIBILITY TO THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF INDIGENOUS STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH, POLICY,

AND PRACTICE

Nicole Alia Salis Reyes, Assistant Professor, Educational Administration

The University of Hawai’i MānoaHeather J. Shotton, Associate Professor

Native American StudiesUniversity of Oklahoma

2 Bringing Visibility to the Needs and Interests of Indigenous Students

ABOUT THE SERIESWith support from Lumina Foundation, the Association for the Study of Higher Education and the National Institute for Transformation and Equity are excited to launch a collection of national papers on critical underserved populations in postsecondary education. The series is one of four initiatives under the leadership of the 2017-2018 ASHE President, Dr. Lori Patton Davis.

The overarching aim of the papers is to synthesize existing knowledge about how to create inclusive and equitable campus environments for underserved popula-tions, and provide recommendations for higher education research, policy, and practice.

3Bringing Visibility to the Needs and Interests of Indigenous Students

TABLE OF CONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4

Introduction 9

Review of Literature 11 Factors Influencing Access 13 Factors Influencing Success 15 Recommendations for Policy and Practice 19

Recommendations for Research 26

Closing Thoughts 27

References 28

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks to Richard Jay Aglugub, Monty S. Begaye, and Maria K. T. McCormick for their assistance in putting together this report as well as to

Drs. Varaxy Yi Borromeo, Erin L. Castro, Mitchell Chang, and Stephanie J. Waterman for their feedback on previous drafts of this report.

Thank you to the University of Oklahoma American Indian Programs and Services for photos featured on the cover.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Although Indigenous peoples have existed and governed themselves within their homelands since time immemorial, they are often misunderstood or forgotten today due in part to their relatively small numbers and the history and continued reality of colonization in the U.S. In higher education, Indigenous peoples have been largely left out of institutional data, re-search, and curricula and, thus, rendered virtually invisible. Unfortunately, the statistics that are available indicate that Indigenous students enroll in, persist in, and complete college at lower than average rates. These inequities have existed for decades, and they will persist as long as Indigenous peoples remain invisible to educational policymakers, practitioners, and researchers alike.

In this report, we bring visibility to what is currently known about American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians in U.S. higher education. We make efforts in particular to high-light what we know that contributes to or hinders their postsecondary access and success. In the end, we provide several recommendations for further research and for more equitable policy and practice.

Setting the Context

It is important to note that there is no singular Indigenous higher education experience. How-ever, themes in the literature help explain some of the varied experiences among Indigenous students, as well as some of the experiences that they may share.

• Native Nations as Political Entities. Key to understanding Indigenous students in higher education is the recognition of the diversity that exists amongst Indigenous people and the political statuses of Indigenous nations in the United States. Tribal nations are po-litical entities and Native college students must be recognized as citizens of sovereign tribal nations. Tribal sovereignty is intimately tied to the status of Native people as the original inhabitants of this continent, including what is now known as the United States.

• Indigenous Populations across the U.S. In order to understand Indigenous students, it is important to have a clear picture of Indigenous populations in the U.S. American Indians/Alaska Natives (AIAN) make up about 1.7 percent (approximately 5.2 million) of the total U.S. population. Meanwhile, less than 0.2 percent (nearly 530,000) of the total U.S. population identifies as Native Hawaiian. While it is often assumed that In-digenous people exclusively reside within rural, reservation areas, Indigenous people populate different areas of the United States, including their original homelands, federally designated reservations, reservation border towns, rural communities, and urban areas.

• Enrollment Patterns. Indigenous students take a variety of pathways toward participating in higher education. Although they enroll in a variety of institution types, most Indigenous students are enrolled in public institutions. Indigenous women enroll in college at higher


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

rates than Indigenous men. And, slightly more than half of Indigenous college students enroll full-time.

Factors Influencing Access

Literature suggests that several factors, including socioeconomic status, family and societal ex-pectations, as well as educational policies and practices, may impact Indigenous students’ access to higher education in complex ways.

• Negative environmental influences on academic preparation. Students’ K-12 experienc-es play an important role in shaping students’ preparation for college. Evidence suggests that, even when they complete high school, AIAN students are less likely to have com-pleted important college preparatory courses. This has been attributed to various fac-tors, including lack of encouragement from school counselors, poorly resourced schools, and limited access to college-preparatory courses and ACT/SAT preparation resources.

• Unmet financial need. Most Indigenous students receive some form of financial aid. How-ever, many Indigenous students face unmet financial need. Both institutions of higher educa-tion and Native nations must seek to better understand and meet the financial aid needs of Indigenous students.

• Value of Indigenous college access programs. Indigenous college access programs have emerged as important sources of college readiness for Indigenous students. They are based in Indigenous approaches and help support students in developing college-bound Indigenous identities so that they may find personal and communal value in their college experiences.

Factors Influencing Success

Research points to several factors that may hinder or empower Indigenous students to be suc-cessful in college. While the concept of college success for Indigenous students might include persistence and graduation, it might also include other forms of success that are tied to Indig-enous ways of knowing, being, and doing.

• Colonialism and racism. The literature suggests that Indigenous students often en-counter racism and stereotypes on college campuses. Misconceptions and stereo-types that Indigenous students confront in higher education perpetuate issues of in-visibility and often lead Indigenous students to feel that they do not belong in college.

• Invisibility and hypervisibility. Because of their minoritized status and the racialized mis-conceptions that they face, Indigenous students sometimes feel simultaneously invis-ible and hypervisible on college campuses. While invisibility can contribute to the ex-perience of social and academic marginalization, it can also provide students with the cover to maintain their cultural identity without attention from others. Indigenous stu-dents may strategically employ (in)visibility tactics to accomplish their college goals.

• Culturally relevant curricular and co-curricular experiences. Culturally relevant curricu-lar and co-curricular experiences may help Indigenous students develop and main-tain a sense of belonging in college. They validate students’ senses of cultural iden-tity and help students know that they do not have to assimilate in order to succeed.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• Connections to home. Maintaining connections to home allows Indigenous stu-dents to continue their practices of cultural traditions and fulfill their responsibilities to family and community. Thus, home-going behaviors can empower Indigenous stu-dents to persist in college, providing them with the support that they need to succeed.

• A sense of place on campus. Research indicates that a connection to place on college cam-puses is critical for Indigenous students. Indigenous centered spaces, such as Native student centers or cultural centers, provide resources to help Indigenous students build relationships, reinforce Indigenous identity, foster a sense of belonging, and create home spaces for Indig-enous students.

• Giving back. Many Indigenous students are motivated to attend college to gain the necessary tools to help their communities. Through higher education, Indigenous students can attain knowledge and skills that may contribute to self-determination and self-governance in Indig-enous communities. In this way, using education as a means of giving back can be under-stood as an act of nation building and serve as a source of strength for Indigenous students.

Recommendations for Policy and Practice

We offer several recommendations for improving higher education policy and practice in ways that better serve Indigenous students.

• Develop Partnerships with Native Nations. Higher education is viewed as a neces-sary tool for nation building for Native nations. As such, it is important for institu-tions of higher education to develop meaningful partnerships that honor the sov-ereign status of Native nations. Many of the points of action we recommend below should be done in collaboration with Native nations and Indigenous communities.

• Critically Examine How We Use Data to Better Understand Indigenous Students’ Experiences in Higher Education. There is still much more that we need to know about Indigenous stu-dents’ experiences in higher education. Addressing this issue will require better collection and use of data on Indigenous populations in higher education. We offer several specific recommendations related to data collection and data use among Indigenous peoples:• Make efforts to oversample Indigenous populations. • Collaborate with Native nations and organizations to determine what data should be col-

lected among Native peoples and how it should be collected. • Collect data on tribal citizenship.• When feasible and meaningful, collect and report disaggregated data for Indigenous

groups.

• Commit Institutional Support to College Access. Institutions of higher education must make concerted efforts to make college more accessible and welcoming for Indigenous popula-tions. This involves the following recommendations.• Work with Native nations and communities to determine and address access issues. • Make intentional efforts to recruit and have a presence within Indigenous communities. • Host targeted recruitment days and/or summer bridge programs for Indigenous students. • Critically examine current admissions policies and practices for how they might privilege


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

or hinder some populations over others.

• Empower Students to Maintain Connections with their Families and Home Communities. Institutions of higher education must develop policies that are flexible and work to honor the needs of Indigenous students as they relate to family and home. Such policies should:• Support the needs of Indigenous students to return home for ceremonies. • Focus on family centered activities that are not solely located on college campuses. • Allow Indigenous students to practice their cultural and spiritual beliefs, particularly in

student housing.

• Honor Connections to Place. Institutions should work to understand the history of the land on which they are located and the Indigenous peoples historically and currently connected to that land. To honor connections to place, institutions should actively work to:• Develop land acknowledgement policies. • Support Indigenous student centers. • Create Indigenous places of learning on campus.

• Provide Students with More Culturally Relevant Curricular and Co-Curricular Experiences. Curriculum that connects to Indigenous students’ lives, communities, and values of reci-procity has been established as an effective approach for educating Indigenous students. In providing more culturally relevant curricular experiences, institutions should:• Honor Indigenous knowledge systems. • Create internships and service learning opportunities that connect student learning to

Indigenous communities. • Support Indigenous Studies programs.

• Train Faculty and Staff to be Culturally Competent. While it is important for Indigenous students to be able to connect with Indigenous faculty and staff, it is also vital that non-Indigenous faculty and staff take active roles in understanding and supporting Indigenous students. To this end, we suggest the following:• Seek support from professional organizations. • Provide diversity trainings for faculty and staff.

Recommendations for Research

The fact that Indigenous students continue to face a number of inequities in higher education is telling. Research efforts must seek to develop a more complete picture of Indigenous students, explore emerging trends, and ultimately inform efforts to address persistent inequities in edu-cational attainment for Indigenous students and communities. We make the following recom-mendations for future research.

Explore Gender Differences in College Enrollment and Attainment among Indigenous StudentsIndigenous women are entering college at a higher rate than Indigenous men and make up about 60% of the total Indigenous student population. The shift in enrollment for Indigenous men and women has not been fully explored and is important to understanding future trends in Indigenous student college enrollment. Our understanding of the experiences of Indigenous males in particular remains incomplete. Thus, further research should seek to better understand enrollment patterns for Indigenous males, their pathways to college, and experiences in higher education.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Explore Complexities of Identity among Indigenous Students Much of the scholarship on Indigenous student identity focuses on cultural identity. However, Indigenous students come to college with multiple identities (e.g. cultural, tribal, geographic, gender, and sexual) that intersect in various ways to shape their unique experiences. Research is needed that explores the intersections of identity for Indigenous students. In particular, the literature is virtually silent on issues related to gender identity and sexual orientation. Thus, future research should address the experiences and needs of Indigenous LGBTQ students.

Assess Campus Climates for Indigenous StudentsLiterature suggests that Indigenous students often encounter racism and microaggressions on college campuses and that experiences with racism lead them to feel that they do not belong in college. In light of these issues, future research needs to assess campus climates for Indigenous students at institutional and national levels.

Explore Diverse Pathways in Higher Education for Indigenous StudentsThe pathways of Indigenous students in higher education are varied and may involve periods of stopping out, transfer among multiple institutions, and reverse transfer. Future research should address how Indigenous students and communities create pathways to higher educa-tion. Additionally, research should critically examine issues of transfer, reverse transfer, and stop-out for Indigenous students.

Explore Higher Education and Nation BuildingWhile enrollment, persistence, and graduation figures are important, it is also important for re-searchers to gain a better understanding of how Indigenous students and communities define successful outcomes of higher education. Thus, further research should address the needs of Native nations and Hawaiian communities with regard to higher education and how institutions of higher can serve goals of nation building.

Closing Thoughts

Our aims in writing this report have been to bring visibility to the current state of Indigenous students in higher education and the critical issues they face. We provide critical recommenda-tions for policy, practice, and research that are based in the existing scholarship and our own knowledge and experiences as Indigenous scholars. Inequities in higher education persist for Indigenous students, and, as long as Indigenous peoples remain invisible to policymakers, edu-cational practitioners, and researchers, this trend will continue. We urge policy makers to take up these issues and address the needs and interests of Indigenous peoples in higher education.


INTRODUCTIONAccording to Deloria and Wildcat (2001), “Indigenous” means to be of a place. There are 573 federally recognized tribes (Federal Register, 2018) as well as several other In-digenous nations that are not currently rec-ognized by the federal government in the United States. Each of these Indigenous peoples, sometimes called Native peoples, are inextricably tied to specific homelands. While Indigenous peoples are often collec-tively referred to as American Indians, Alas-ka Native, and Native Hawaiians (K a naka ‘Oiwi), there is great diversity among these nations.

Although Indigenous peoples have exist-ed and governed themselves within their homelands since time immemorial, they are often misunderstood or forgotten today due in part to their relatively small numbers and in part to a history and continued reality of colonization in the U.S.. As a microcosm of the broader society, higher education also often forgets or misunderstands Indig-enous peoples. There is relatively little that is known about Indigenous peoples in U.S. higher education. Speaking to this point, Shotton, Lowe, and Waterman (2013) noted that “we [Native peoples] are often excluded from institutional data and reporting, omit-ted from the curriculum, absent from the research and literature, and virtually writ-ten out of the higher education story” (p. 2). Borrowing from Garland (2007), they called this phenomenon the “American In-dian research asterisk” (Shotton, Lowe, & Waterman, 2013), where asterisks are used to explain the absence of data concerning Indigenous peoples and thus serve to fur-ther reinforce Indigenous peoples’ invisibil-ity. In a review of twenty years of schol-arship (between 1991-2011) in the top four higher education journals, out of 2,683 pub-lished articles, only 36 (1.3%) addressed In-digenous students (Willmott, Sands, Raucci, & Waterman, 2016). Perhaps as a result of the invisibility of Indigenous people, “[m]ost higher education professionals appear to be unaware of the unique histories – which

have present-day realities attached to them – of Indigenous peoples in the United States” (Brayboy, Fann, Castagno, & Solyom, 2012, p. 6).

Unfortunately, available statistics suggest that Indigenous peoples face a number of inequities in U.S higher education. In 2015, only 15% of American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIAN) age 25 years and older held bachelor’s degrees or higher (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015a), whereas 30% of the general population of adults aged 25 and older in the U.S. held bachelor’s degrees ((U.S. Cen-sus Bureau, 2017b). This disparity in college attainment may be the result of disparities in college enrollment and persistence for AIAN students. Despite significant increas-es in AIAN college enrollment over the last thirty years, AIAN students remain the least likely to be enrolled in college (Brayboy et al., 2012). In 2015, among 18-24 years olds only 23% of AIANs enrolled in college ver-sus 41% of the general population (NCES, 2016b). Additionally, the most recent data indicates that the 6-year graduation rate for AIAN students is 35%, compared to 55% for the general population (NCES, 2017a).Thus, AIAN students are enrolling in college and completing college degrees at rates signifi-cantly lower than the general population in the U.S. Figure 1 depicts educational attain-ment rates among AIAN students.

We [Native peoples] are often excluded from institutional data and reporting, omitted from the curriculum, absent from the research and literature, and virtually written out of the high-er education story.


Figure 1. Educational Attainment for AIAN Students

Developing a full picture of how Native Hawaiians are faring in higher education is difficult since national-level, disaggregated data are not readily available. Most recently, the U.S. Census Bureau has reported Native Hawaiian education data along with the data of other Pacific Islander groups, including Micronesians, Melanesians, and other Poly-nesians. In 2015, 22% of Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders (NHPIs) age 25 and older nationally had completed a bach-elor’s degree or higher (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015b). While this represents a four percent increase since 2005 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017a), it is still well below the percentage (30) of bachelor’s degree earners within the total U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017b). The 6-year graduation rate for NHPI students is 43%, still well below the overall population (NCES, 2017a).

Within the state of Hawai‘i, where approxi-mately one-third of all NHPIs live (Hixson, Hepler, & Kim, 2012), more disaggregated educational data for Native Hawaiians are available. In 2009, approximately one in four Native Hawaiians between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, com-pared to one in three 18-24 year olds across Hawai‘i (Kamehameha Schools, 2014). De-spite constituting nearly one quarter of the total population in Hawai‘i, Native Hawaiians represented only 17% of all undergraduate students and 13% of all graduate students (Kamehameha Schools, 2014). Moreover, there is a persistent gap in college comple-tion for Native Hawaiians. In 2009, only 14 % of all Native Hawaiians age 25 and

older had completed a bachelor’s degree or higher versus 42% of non-Hispanic Whites in Hawai‘i (Kamehameha Schools, 2014). Fig-ure 2 represents the educational attainment rates among Native Hawaiians in Hawai‘i.

Figure 2. Educational Attainment for Native Hawaiian Students in Hawai’i

Unfortunately, these inequities are not new. The underrepresentation of Indigenous (American Indian, Alaska Native, and Na-tive Hawaiian) students has consistently re-mained an issue in higher education. In fact, over a forty year period, the representation of AIAN students has changed little, hover-ing between .7% and 1% of the total U.S. undergraduate enrollment (NCES, 2017b). And between 2010 and 2016, enrollment of NHPIs dropped from 64,000 (.3%) to 53,200 (.2%) (NCES, 2017b). These trends will per-sist as long as Indigenous peoples remain invisible to policymakers, educational prac-titioners, and researchers alike. As Brayboy and colleagues (2012) reminded us, we can-not “ignore statistics and reports that contin-ue to inform us that Indigenous students are not well served by mainstream institutions of higher education” (p. 2).

More must be done to recognize the peo-ples whose homelands institutions of higher

These trends will persist as long as Indigenous peoples remain invisible to policymakers, educational practitioners, and researchers alike.


education occupy. Understanding the higher education needs and interests of Indigenous peoples is particularly important given the connection between higher education and nation-building for Indigenous peoples (Brayboy et al., 2012). In this report, we bring visibility to what is currently known about American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians in U.S. higher education1. We make efforts in particular to highlight what we know that contributes to or hinders their postsecondary access and success. In the end, we provide several recommenda-tions for further research and for more equi-table policy and practice.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In institutions of higher education, knowl-edge and understanding of Indigenous peoples is generally limited. This limited understanding has perpetuated a myth of homogeneity among Indigenous student populations (Shotton, 2016) and is com-pounded by the lack of data available on Indigenous students. Indigenous students are often incorrectly viewed as comprising a homogenous racial group, and broad gener-alizations are made about their experiences. However, the reality is that Indigenous stu-dents represent diverse backgrounds, geo-graphical locations, and experiences. While Indigenous students share some common experiences in higher education, there is not a singular Indigenous higher education ex-perience (Minthorn & Shotton, 2015; Shot-ton et al., 2013).

Native Nations as Political EntitiesKey to understanding Indigenous students in higher education is the recognition of the diversity that exists amongst Indigenous people as well as the political statuses of In-digenous nations in the United States (Shot-ton, 2016).

1 Although we focus on American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians in this report, there is perhaps even less that we know about populations that are Indigenous to U.S. territories, including Guam (Guahan), the Northern Marianas Islands, American Sāmoa, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. While this work is outside of the scope of this particular report, we hope that other scholars will be able to contribute research on these populations in the future.

Since tribal nations are political entities (Brayboy et al., 2012), Native college stu-dents must be recognized as citizens of sov-ereign tribal nations. Tribal sovereignty is intimately tied to the status of Native people as the original inhabitants of this continent, or what is now known as the United States. Tribal nations had their own systems of rule and forms of governance long before con-tact with European colonizers, and tribal nations continue to exercise their own gov-ernments today (Shotton, 2016). Through processes of treaty making between the U.S. and tribal nations, Native American Tribes share nation-to-nation relationships with the U.S. federal government (Deloria & Lytle, 1983). Likewise, tribal nations share govern-ment-to-government or sovereign-to-sover-eign relationships with state governments as well. This has particular relevance for public institutions of higher education, as state en-tities, and their relationships with tribal na-tions and their citizens.

Since tribal nations are political entities (Brayboy et al., 2012), Native college students must be recognized as citizens of sovereign tribal nations.

Like AIAN peoples do with lands and natu-ral resources of the North American conti-nent, Native Hawaiians share ancestral ties with the lands and natural resources of the Hawaiian archipelago. They developed a society across the Hawaiian islands that flourished according to cultural and politi-cal systems that tied people to one another, the natural world, and the spiritual realm (Kame‘eleihiwa, 1992; Stannard, 1989). By the 1840s, the Hawaiian Kingdom became recognized among the world’s family of na-tions through the development of diplomat-ic relationships and treaties (Perkins, 2006). In spite of this, the Hawaiian Kingdom was

Unfortunately, available statistics suggest that Indigenous peoples face a number of inequities in U.S higher education.


illegally overthrown in 1893 through the ef-forts of American businessmen and was later annexed by the U.S. government (Good-year-Ka‘opua, Kauai, Maioho, & Winchester, 2008; Trask, 2000). No formal treaties were signed in this process. So, while Native Ha-waiians continue to reserve the rights to self-determination and self-governance as an Indigenous people (Trask, 1999), these rights have been largely denied by the U.S. government for more than a century.

Perhaps due in part to the geographic lo-cation of Hawai‘i, Native Hawaiians have been racialized differently than AIANs. They are often grouped together with other Pa-cific Islanders and even Asians and Asian Americans (Salis Reyes, 2018). Nevertheless, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Na-tive Hawaiians have had similar experiences with colonization. And, despite differences in their political statuses as recognized by the U.S. federal government, they comprise Indigenous nations with interests in sover-eignty. When the legal and political statuses of Native peoples are forgotten, so too are their histories and their complex social reali-ties. In order to better understand and sup-port the expectations, goals, and successes of Indigenous students, institutions of higher education (IHEs) must recognize these stu-dents’ intersecting racial, cultural, and politi-cal identities (Salis Reyes, 2014).

Indigenous Populations Across the U.S.In order to understand Indigenous students, it is important to have a clear picture of In-digenous populations in the U.S. The latest U.S. Census reports that 1.7% (approximate-ly 5.2 million) of the total U.S. population reported their race as American Indian or Alaska Native2, either alone or in combi-nation with another race (Norris, Vines, & Hoeffell, 2012). Meanwhile, less than 0.2% (nearly 530,000) of the total U.S. population identified as Native Hawaiian, either alone or in combination with another race (Hix-

2 The term American Indian/Alaska Native is used here and when re-ferring to national data because that is the legal term utilized by the U.S. federal government to refer to tribal people. Throughout this report we utilize the terms Indigenous and Native to more appropriately capture and name ourselves, as American Indian and Alaska Native are terms imposed on us.

son, Hepler, & Kim, 2012).

One major misconception about Indigenous populations relates to the geographic pat-terns of where they live (Shotton, 2016). It is often assumed that American Indians and Alaska Natives reside primarily within rural, reservation areas. However, Indige-nous people populate different areas of the United States, including their original home-lands, federally designated reservations, res-ervation border towns, rural communities, and urban areas alike (Shotton et al., 2013).

In fact, according to the most recent U.S. Census, the majority (78%) of AIANs ac-tually live outside of American Indian/Alaska Native areas, which may include federal reservations, off-reservation trust lands, state reservations, and other Alaska Native and tribal statistical geographical areas3 (Norris et al., 2012). And, a large of Native populations are concentrated in ur-ban areas (Norris et al., 2012).

According to 2010 U.S. Census data, nearly 528,000 people (0.2% of the total U.S. popu-lation) identified as Native Hawaiian, either alone or in combination with one or more races (Hixson et al., 2012). Like AIAN popu-lations, the geographic distribution of Native Hawaiians extends well beyond their origi-nal homelands. Though the majority of Na-tive Hawaiians continue to live in Hawai‘i, almost half of Native Hawaiians live within the continental U.S. or Alaska. Outside of Hawai‘i, the states with the largest popu-lations of Native Hawaiians include Cali-fornia (75,000), Washington (20,000), Ne-vada (16,000), Texas (13,000), and Oregon (10,000) (Kamehameha Schools, 2014). Enrollment Patterns

3 Issues of land for Indigenous populations in the U.S. are intimately tied to our histories with the U.S. federal government, colonization, and policies of removal, allotment, and relocation (Shotton, 2016).

Indigenous people populate different areas of the United States, including their original homelands, federally designated reservations, reservation border towns, rural communities, and urban areas alike.


Indigenous students take a variety of path-ways toward participating in higher educa-tion. The following provides a brief snapshot of Indigenous students’ enrollment patterns:• The majority of AIANs (80%) and NHPI

(68%) college students are enrolled in pub-lic institutions;

• 12% of AIAN students attend private not-for-profit institutions;

• 10% of AIAN students are enrolled in Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities (TCU)

• 60% of AIAN and 55% of NHPI college stu-dents are women; and,

• 57% of AIAN and NHPI students are enrolled full-time (Aud, Fox, & KewalRamani, 2010; NCES, 2017).

FACTORS INFLUENCING ACCESS

Literature suggests that several factors, in-cluding socioeconomic status, family and societal expectations, as well as educational policies and practices, may impact Indig-enous students’ access to higher education in complex ways (Brayboy et al., 2012). Be-low we highlight some of the factors that influence Indigenous students’ access to and pathways through higher education.

Pre-College Academic PreparationStudents’ K-12 experiences play an impor-tant role in shaping students’ preparation for college. Cabrera and LaNasa (2000) suggest that high school degree completion, college preparatory course enrollment, and access to knowledge related to college applica-tion and financial aid processes all impact

whether or not students eventually enroll in college. Literature also suggests that cul-turally relevant course materials and peda-gogies shape students’ interests and sense of belonging in education (e.g., Deyhle & Swisher, 1997).

K-12 School ContextsAmong AIAN eighth-graders who participat-ed in the National Indian Education Study (NCES, 2017a), the vast majority of students (93%) attended public schools, while much smaller percentages of students (7% and 2%, respectively) attended federally supported Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) schools or other types of schools, including private or Department of Defense schools. Signifi-cant differences in reading and mathemat-ics performance were found among stu-dents according to the type of schools that they attended. More specifically, students who attended low density public schools (i.e., less than 25% of students identified as AIANs earned higher scores in both read-ing and math than students who attended high density public schools or BIE schools (NCES, 2017a). In Hawai‘i, Native Hawaiian students face widening disparities in math-ematics and reading proficiency over time (Kamehameha Schools, 2014). Figure 3 and Figure 4 displays these growing gaps.

School type also matters in terms of the presence of American Indian and Alaska Na-tive teachers. Students who attended public schools with high density Indigenous popu-lations as well as BIE schools were more likely to have teachers who self-identified as AIAN than students who attended low den-

Native Hawaiians Hawai’i Total

Figure 3. Math Proficiency Among Native Hawaiian Students

Figure 4. Reading Proficiency Among Native Hawaiian Students

Native Hawaiians Hawai’i Total


sity public schools (NCES, 2017a).

For the 2009 National Indian Education Study, most AIAN students (84%) reported aspirations of attending college either full- or part-time immediately after completing high school (NCES, 2010). However, students who attended high density public schools or BIE schools were more likely to report plans to join the military or to work full-time upon completion of high school than students who attended low density public schools (NCES, 2010). What is most concerning is that the college aspirations of AIAN students is not reflected in actual college enrollment rates (Brayboy et al, 2012).

High school completion and college readi-ness indicators. Several indicators suggest a persistent gap in college readiness for Indigenous students. For the 2011-2012 school years, the gradua-tion rate for AIAN students was 67% as com-pared to the national average high school graduation rate of 80% (Stetser & Stillwell, 2014). Evidence suggests that, even when they complete high school, AIAN students are less likely to have completed important college preparatory courses (Greene & For-ster, 2003). This has been attributed to vari-ous factors, including lack of encouragement from school counselors, poorly resourced schools, and limited access to college-pre-paratory courses and ACT/SAT preparation resources. Misperceptions about Indigenous students’ desires and abilities to attend col-lege abound (Waterman et al., 2018), as a re-sult Indigenous students are often less likely to receive encouragement to go to college from high school counselors (Fann, 2005).

Furthermore, Fann (2005) explained that In-digenous students in rural schools typically have access to fewer resources for college entrance exam preparation.

Although numbers have increased in recent years, Indigenous students also remain un-derrepresented in terms of their participation in Advanced Placement (AP) and college entrance examinations. Of the almost 5 mil-lion students who completed AP exams in 2018, only 0.3% (12,459) identified as AIAN and only 0.1% (7,340) identified as NHPI (College Board, 2018). Whereas 59% of all AP exam takers earned a score of three or higher, only 42% of NHPI exam takers and 36% of AIAN exam takers earned a score of three or higher (College Board, 2018). Among the students who took the new SAT test as part of the class of 2017, 0.5% (7,782) identified as AIAN and 0.2% (4,131) identi-fied as NHPI (College Board, 2017). AIANs as well as NHPIs had lower mean scores in evidence-based reading and writing as well as mathematics than the general population (College Board, 2017). Please see Table 1 for further details regarding SAT mean scores and the percentages of students who have met benchmarks in evidence-based reading and writing and mathematics. For the new SAT, “benchmark scores represent a 75% likelihood of a student achieving at least a ‘C’ grade in a first-semester, credit-bearing college course in a related subject” (Hexter, 2016).

Literature suggests that financial resources can partly explain the disparities that exist in Indigenous students’ pre-college academ-

Race/Ethnicity Mean Scores % Met Benchmark

Total ERW Math Both ERW Math None

All 1060 533 527 46 70 49 27

American Indian/ Alaska Native

963 486 477 27 53 29 45

Native Hawaiian/ Pacific Islander

986 489 488 32 57 34 40

Table 1. Class of 2017 SAT Mean Scores and Benchmark Percentages


ic preparation. On this note, Waterman and associates (2018) stated:

Native American students often attend poorly resourced secondary schools that are unable to offer the math and sciences necessary to prepare them for postsecondary educa-tion. Rural and heavily populated urban schools are rarely funded on par with suburban schools and are populated by minoritized students, including Native students. (p. 8)

Each of these factors impact college access for Indigenous students. However, in the absence of school environments that pro-duce a college going culture some Indige-nous communities have worked to develop Indigenized college access programs (Wa-terman et al., 2018).

Indigenous College Access Programs When high quality college counseling and academic advising are not otherwise easily accessible, Indigenous college access pro-grams can serve as important sources of college-related information for Indigenous students (Waterman et al., 2018). One such program is College Horizons, which is de-signed to prepare talented Native youth for the college application and choice process (Keene, 2016, 2018). Its motto, “College pride, Native pride,” illustrates College Ho-rizon’s efforts to cultivate pride both in at-tending college and in maintaining senses of Native identity among its participants (Keene, 2014). More specifically, the College Horizons curriculum incorporates knowl-edge about college and the application pro-cess, including finding schools that fit one’s skills and interests, completing application and financial aid forms, writing college es-says, and preparing for interviews, as well as opportunities to share cultural knowledge and to discuss issues of Native identity and citizenship (Keene, 2014). The goal is to help students to develop college-bound Na-tive identities so they may find personal and communal value in their college experienc-es (Keene, 2018).

Financial Aid Given the continually escalating costs of college tuition, financial aid can provide an important point of access into higher educa-

tion for students. Research has shown that financial aid shapes students’ perceptions of the costs of attending college, which there-by also influences whether or not as well as where students ultimately to enroll (Perna, 2008, 2010). There is still relatively little re-search that investigates the significance of financial aid among Indigenous students in particular (Nelson, 2018). However, statistics indicate that Indigenous families may need support in financing higher education. De-Voe and Darling-Churchill (2008) found that AIANs and NHPIs experience higher levels of poverty (26% and 18%, respectively) than Whites (9%). In 2012, the vast majority (87%) of AIAN college students received some amount of financial aid (Nelson & Tachine, 2018). Sources of financial aid for Indigenous students may include need-based and merit-based grants from the federal government, state governments, and private entities; fed-eral and state loans; federal work study; and tribal scholarships (Nelson, 2018). However, Nelson and Tachine (2018) debunk the myth that all Indigenous students attend college for free. Context matters in terms of what streams of funding are available to students, and many Indigenous students face unmet need. Nelson and Tachine (2018) urged that both institutions of higher education and Na-tive nations must seek to better understand and meet the financial aid needs of Indig-enous students.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SUCCESS

Research points to several factors that may hinder and/or empower Indigenous stu-dents to be successful in college. While col-lege success for Indigenous students might include persistence and graduation, it might also include other forms of success that are tied to Indigenous ways of knowing, being, and doing. Below we highlight some of the factors that help or hinder Indigenous stu-

Several indicators suggest a persistent gap in college readiness for Indigenous students.


dents along their pathways through college.

Colonialism and Racism Higher education has a complicated history with colonialism and racism. In his work, B. Wright (1991) sheds light on how some of America’s first institutions of higher edu-cation aimed to educate and civilize Indig-enous students through projects of assimila-tion. Though many Native people resisted these efforts, many of those who did attend these colleges became “marginal men,” re-jected by European Americans for their race and by Native peoples for their adoption of European American customs (B. Wright, 1991). This history continues to set the tone for the colonialism and racism that Indig-enous students to face in U.S. higher educa-tion today.

For Indigenous students, experiences with racism often lead them to feel that they do not belong in college.Literature suggests that Indigenous students often encounter racism and stereotypes on college campuses. Because populations of Indigenous peoples across the U.S. are relatively small, many Americans have not personally interacted with people who are Indigenous (Pewewardy, 1994). And, per-haps due in part to this lack of personal in-teraction, misconceptions and stereotypes of Indigenous peoples are common. Some misconceptions and stereotypes that Indig-enous students confront in higher educa-tion might include the idea that Indigenous peoples no longer exist, that all Indigenous peoples share the same culture, that all Na-tive nations have casinos and can attend col-lege for free, and that all Indigenous stu-dents are stoic, shy, and silent (Keene, 2016;

Minthorn & Shotton, 2015). Indigenous stu-dents often encounter misconceptions and stereotypes in the form of microaggressions (Shotton, 2017; Tachine, Cabrera, & Yellow Bird, 2017). Though each individual instance might seem slight, over time they accumu-late and can meaningfully and materially impact personal well-being (Pierce, 1995). For Indigenous students, experiences with racism often lead them to feel that they do not belong in college (Tachine et al., 2017). Invisibility and HypervisibilityBecause of their minoritized status and the racialized misconceptions that they face, Indigenous students sometimes feel simul-taneously invisible and hypervisible on college campuses. Such invisibility and hy-pervisibility can impact Indigenous college students in complex ways. To this end, Brayboy (2004) found that while the hyper-visibility that comes from being one of few Indigenous students on campus could lead to increased surveillance and marginaliza-tion, it also can provide students with a plat-form to participate in activist and advocacy activities that contribute to the well-being of Indigenous communities. On the other hand, while invisibility could contribute to the experience of social and academic mar-ginalization, it could also provide students with the cover to maintain their cultural identity without attention from others (Bray-boy, 2004). Indeed, Indigenous students may strategically employ (in)visibility tactics to accomplish their college goals, which are related to their senses of both cultural in-tegrity and academic achievement. To this end, Covarrubias and Windchief (2009) have pushed back against misconceptions of Indigenous students as being inherently silent. Instead, they discovered that Indige-nous students may sometimes utilize silence in purposeful ways. This could be to assert their senses of Indigenous identity, to pro-tect Indigenous knowledge and ideas, and to preserve Native ways of communicating.

Culturally Relevant Curricular and Co-Cur-ricular ExperiencesFor many Indigenous students, culturally relevant curricular and co-curricular experi-

The vast majority (87%) of AIAN college students received some amount of financial aid.


ences can be important. Such experiences empower students to engage in cultural practices and cultivate traditional knowl-edge. For example, Kupo (2010) found that cultural activities, such as hula, speaking ‘olelo ‘Oiwi (Hawaiian language), and taro cultivation, help to strengthen Native Ha-waiian students’ understandings of Hawai-ian values while in college. It is also crucial that Indigenous students be able to engage in their spiritual practices through college as spirituality may offer Indigenous students with a vital source of strength (Shield, 2009). Drywater-Whitekiller (2010), for instance, found that some Native students discuss prayer as a vital source of strength through the college process. And Lee (2009) found that curriculum that connects to Indigenous students’ lives, communities, and values of reciprocity is an effective approach for edu-cating Indigenous students.

On the whole, culturally relevant curricular and co-curricular experiences can help In-digenous students develop and maintain a sense of belonging in college. They validate students’ senses of cultural identity and help students to know that they do not have to assimilate in order to succeed. This is im-portant as there is evidence to suggest that Indigenous students who feel that they can obtain knowledge and skills through college and still maintain a strong sense of Indige-nous identity might be more likely to persist (Huffman, 2001).

Connections to Home Research has consistently found family to have an important influence on Indigenous student persistence (e.g., Gloria & Kurpius, 2001; Guillory, 2009; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; HeavyRunner & DeCelles, 2002; Ma-komenaw 2014; Waterman, 2012). Often, family provides Native students with vital support, encouragement, and motivation to enter into and persist in college (HeavyRun-ner & DeCelles, 2002; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). In complicated ways, however, fam-ily can also sometimes pull Native students away from persisting in college (Jackson & Smith, 2001; Lee, Donlan, & Brown 2010; Waterman, 2012). Recently, Lopez (2018)

suggested that “family alone does not pre-dict persistence” (p. 805). Rather, he pro-posed that factors such as community sup-port (tribal and institutional) and desire to give back are moderated by family support. To maintain relationships to their families and home communities, some Native stu-dents choose to enroll in institutions locat-ed in close proximity to home or to make frequent trips home (Kealoha, 2012; Water-man, 2012). By doing this, they are able to continue to practice cultural traditions and to fulfill their responsibilities to others (Wa-terman, 2012). Waterman (2012) argued that home-going behaviors can empower Native students to persist in college, providing them with the support that they need to succeed.

A Sense of Place on CampusIndigenous students thrive when they are able to maintain relationships at home and to forge new relationships on campus. (Bosse, Duncan, Gapp, & Newland, 2011; Hokoana, 2010; Kealoha, 2012). Shotton, Oosahwe, and Cintron (2007), for example, discovered that Indigenous peer-to-peer mentoring supported students in three key ways: one, helping students to connect with a network of other Native students; two, through providing emotional and academic support; and, three, through providing guid-ance regarding goal, leadership, and person-al development. Lundberg and Lowe (2016) posited that faculty can play important roles in supporting learning among Indigenous college students through quality academic advising, feedback that pushed students to work hard, and coursework emphasizing analysis, application, and diverse perspec-tives. Building relationships with peers, fac-ulty, and staff can help Indigenous students to maintain senses of cultural integrity and to feel that they belong on campus.

Indigenous students may strategically employ (in)vi-sibility tactics to accomplish their college goals.


Research indicates that a connection to place on college campuses is critical for Indig-enous students. Indigenous centered spac-es, such as Native student centers, cultural centers, or Native resources offices, serve to provide resources, help Indigenous students build relationships, reinforce Indigenous identity, foster a sense of belonging, and create home spaces for Indigenous students (Flynn et al., 2012; Guillory, 2009; Joseph & Windchief, 2015; Minthorn, 2015; Shotton, Oosahwe, & Cintron, 2010; Tachine et al., 2017). As Joseph & Windchief (2015) ex-plained, such spaces serve to help students “claim higher education as an Indigenous space” (Windchief & Joseph, 2015, p. 267).

Giving BackAccording to Waterman and associates (2018), Native students are consistently told “that education is ‘a ladder,’ a ‘weapon,’ a tool their communities need to combat his-torical atrocities and identify and create so-lutions to the challenges facing their tribal nations” (p. 2). This message helps to frame why research has consistently found giving back to play a role in the college experienc-es of Indigenous students. Many Indigenous students are motivated to attend college so that they may become equipped with tools they can use to give back to their communi-ties in myriad ways (Brayboy, 2006; Guillory, 2009; Huffman, 2011; Shield, 2009). Through higher education, Native students can attain knowledge and skills which may contribute to self-determination and self-governance in Native communities (Brayboy, 2006). In this way, using education as a means of giving back can be understood as an act of nation building (Salis Reyes, forthcoming).

Native students seek to give back in different ways, from serving as role models for Native youth to breaking negative stereotypes of Native peoples (Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010; J. P. Guillory, 2008; R. M. Guillory & Wolver-ton, 2008). Indigenous college students may seek training in various disciplines and forge careers in different fields (Salis Reyes, forth-coming). However, in however they choose to give back, they do so both to honor pre-vious generations and to contribute to the continued well-being of future generations (Salis Reyes, forthcoming). For Indigenous college students, such motivations and com-mitments to give back may also serve as a source of strength to persist in the face difficulties (e.g., Brayboy, 2004; Drywater-Whitekiller, 2010). Perhaps reflecting this idea, Lopez (2018) recently found the desire to give back to be a predictor of academic performance and persistence among Native college students. More specifically, when Native college students held goals to give back to their peoples, they were found to be more likely to persist from the first semester into the second semester and to earn higher GPAs (Lopez, 2018).

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE

Brayboy (2005) argued that “no research should be conducted with Indigenous Peo-ples that is not in some way directed by a community and aimed toward improving the life chances and situations of specific com-munities and American Indians writ large” (p. 440). Therefore, in light of the literature we have reviewed above, we offer several recommendations for improving higher edu-cation policy and practice in ways that bet-ter serve Indigenous students.

Culturally relevant curricular and co-curricular experiences can help Indigenous students develop and maintain a sense of belonging in college.

To maintain relationships to their families and home communities, some Native students choose to enroll in institutions located in close proximity to home or to make frequent trips home.


Critically Examine How We Use Data to Bet-ter Understand Indigenous Students’ Experi-ences in Higher EducationAs we have argued above, there is still much more that we need to know about Indig-enous students’ experiences in higher edu-cation. This is vital if policymakers, practitio-ners, and researchers are to work together to address the persistent gaps in college enrollment and attainment that exist for In-digenous populations. Addressing this issue will require better collection and use of data on Indigenous populations in higher edu-cation. Faircloth, Alcantar, and Stage (2015) delineated five problems that have impacted the limited use of large-scale data sets on understanding issues related to Indigenous peoples. These include:

• Discrepancies between how Native na-tions may determine membership and how individuals may self-identify as In-digenous;

• Possible masking of between-group dif-ferences among diverse Indigenous peo-ples;

• Limited access and entree into Indig-enous communities for the purpose of research;

• Need for culturally appropriate strategies for increasing Indigenous representation in data sets; and

• Small sample sizes of Indigenous stu-dents.

Waterman and associates (2018) note that these issues may be further compounded by the the introduction of multiple race options to national data reporting in 2010. While in-dividuals may now choose more than one racial group, data are often reported for AIANs alone or for two or more races. A

potential unintended consequence of the multiple race option and how it is reported within institutions is that it masks the pres-ence of AIANs who report more than one race. That is, AIAN students who indicate they are AIAN in combination with anoth-er race are often lumped in the category of “two or more races”. This has led to fewer students being identified as AIAN in large-scale data sets, further compounding the problem of the Native American research as-terisk (Waterman et al., 2018). It is likely that this also presents an issue for Native Hawai-ian reporting given that the majority of Na-tive Hawaiians identify as being of multiple races (Kamehameha Schools, 2014).

Develop Partnerships with Native NationsHigher education is viewed as a necessary tool for nation building for Native nations (Brayboy et al., 2012). As such, it is impor-tant for institutions of higher education to develop meaningful partnerships that honor the sovereign status of Native nations. In-deed, many of the points of action we rec-ommend below should be done in collabo-ration with Native nations and community organizations. In the end, such partnerships can be mutually beneficial for Indigenous students, Native nations, institutions of high-er education, and society at large.

Make Efforts to Oversample Indigenous PopulationsSmall sample size has consistently been identified as an issue for Indigenous popu-lations in higher education research, result-ing in the problem of the research asterisk for Indigenous people (Shotton et al., 2013). Oversampling may help to increase sample sizes of Indigenous populations, helping to minimize standard errors and issues of sta-tistical significance (Faircloth et al., 2015; Lavelle et al., 2009). The implementation of more culturally appropriate sampling and

Indigenous students thrive when they are able to maintain relationships at home and to forge new relationships on campus.

Using education as a means of giving back can be understood as an act of nation building.


data collection strategies may be essential in such efforts.

Collaborate with Native Nations and Orga-nizations to Determine what Data Should be Collected Among Native Peoples and How it Should be CollectedAs research has been used historically in ways that have hurt Indigenous communi-ties (Smith, 1999), it is vital that Indigenous nations have a say in how research is con-ducted among their people. Faircloth and associates (2015), for instance, noted that agreements should be made between Na-tive nations and the agencies or organiza-tions conducting research. Such agreements should explain “what information will be collected, how it will be used, and the ways confidential information will be protected” (Faircloth et al., 2015, p. 16).

Collect Data on Tribal CitizenshipAs Faircloth et al. (2015) suggested, there may be discrepancies between how Tribal/Native nations determine membership and how individuals self-identify. That is, an in-dividual may self-identify as Indigenous but may not be an enrolled citizen of a Native nation; as tribal citizenship is determined by each Native nation and varies greatly from tribe to tribe. For this reason, it is important that institutions consistently collect data on tribal citizenship when individuals identify as AIAN in institutional data reporting docu-ments. At a minimum institutions should ask if individuals who identify as AIAN are 1) enrolled tribal citizens and 2) in which tribe they are enrolled. When Feasible and Meaningful, Collect and Report Disaggregated Data for Indigenous GroupssAs we noted earlier, gathering clear picture

of the state of education for Native Hawai-ians, in particular, is difficult given how Native Hawaiians have been categorized among NHPIs and often still among Asian American/ Pacific Islanders. And, while the AIAN category may offer useful data, it may also mask differences between American Indians and Alaska Natives and, even fur-ther, various tribal groups. Collecting and reporting more disaggregated data will help to provide more nuanced understandings of the diversity that exists among Indigenous populations. Additionally, colleges and uni-versities should work with Native nations and Native Hawaiian communities to report data on Indigenous student enrollment, per-sistence, and graduation.

Commit Institutional Support to College Ac-cessWhile we noted above that Indigenous col-lege access programs can play an important role in helping Indigenous students to de-velop college-going Indigenous identities, institutions of higher education must also take active measures to make college more accessible and welcoming for Indigenous populations. On this note, Brayboy and as-sociates (2012) posited that “[i]nstitutions must assess how they recruit Indigenous students” (p.116). We offer several more specific recommendations for how institu-tions can better support college access for Indigenous students:

Work with Native Nations and Communities to Determine and Address Access IssuesAs we note above, it is essential that institu-tions of higher education work with Native nations and communities to better meet the needs of Native students. This starts with the issue of access and is critical given the stake that Native nations have in the education

It is important for institutions of higher education to develop meaningful partnerships that honor the sovereign status of Native nations.

Addressing this issue will require better collection and use of data on Indigenous populations in higher education.


of Indigenous students as a function of na-tion building. Indigenous communities have specific knowledge about the needs of their students. Engaging with Native nations and Indigenous communities provides opportu-nities for institutions to garner input from the communities about the needs of Indige-nous students and Indigenous communities.

• Make intentional efforts to recruit and to have a presence within Indigenous com-munities. Especially since Indigenous students do not always know where to go to gather information regarding col-lege admissions, it is important that in-stitutions of higher education not wait on Indigenous students to find them. Rather, institutions of higher education must make efforts to meet Indigenous students where they are. This may in-volve going into Indigenous communi-ties and schools with high density Indig-enous populations, making connections through community events, and offering comprehensive information about ad-mission requirements and other perti-nent information.

• Host recruitment days and/or summer bridge programs for Indigenous students. As exemplified by College Horizons (Keene, 2016), Indigenous students ben-efit from programs that specifically seek to support them in their entrance into college. By offering recruitment days and/or summer bridge programs that specifically target and serve Indigenous students, institutions of higher educa-tion can help Indigenous students to feel welcomed on campus and to connect to specific resources on campus prior to the beginning of the academic year. This may help to make for smoother transi-tions into college for Indigenous stu-dents.

• Critically examine current admissions policies and practices for how they might privilege or hinder some populations over others. In spite of institutions’ best efforts to make them neutral, admission policies and practices can often privilege some groups over others. For instance, as in-stitutions move more of their recruitment

and admissions efforts online, they may still not reach Indigenous students who live in rural areas without adequate ac-cess to the internet or who do not have ready access to computers. Institutions must continually review and revise their policies and practices to serve all stu-dents.

Empower Students to Maintain Connections with their Families and Home CommunitiesIt has been established that connections to home communities and families are critical for Indigenous students. HeavyRunner and DeCelles (2002) highlight what is at stake for institutions of higher education to recog-nize the importance of family for Indigenous students as they stated:

When colleges and universities view student attrition as resulting from a lack of individual commitment or ability, these institutions fail to recognize the disconnect between the institutional values and student/family val-ues; hence the real reasons for high attrition rates among disadvantaged students are never addressed. (p. 33).

To better serve Indigenous students then, Waterman (2012) suggested that “the con-cept of home needs to be redefined and the language of ‘going home’ framed positively rather than negatively” (p. 202) by higher education professionals. Institutions of high-er education must develop policies that are flexible and work to honor the needs of In-digenous students as they relate to family and home. Such policies should:

• Support the needs of Indigenous stu-dents to return home for ceremonies. Institutions should develop university wide policies that provide protections and make accommodations for students to return home to participate in cultural ceremonies. This includes excused ab-

It is vital that Indigenous nations have a say in how research is conducted among their people.


sences from courses and mandates that allow for rescheduling examinations and/or required class work that occurs during the observance of cultural cer-emonies.

• Support the needs of Indigenous stu-dents to tend to family responsibilities. Indigenous students’ responsibilities to their families do not end when they en-roll in college. Thus, some students may have to find a balance between meet-ing course expectations and caring for family needs. This could necessitate part-time rather than full-time enroll-ment, in some cases, or could necessi-tate stopping out, in other cases,. While policies emphasizing on-time graduation may place undue pressure on students to enroll in course loads beyond their capacities, academic advisors must play a role in helping students to strike an appropriate balance. Additionally, infor-mation on policies and processes related to stopping out must be readily available to Indigenous students. Institutions of higher education must also make sure not to place undue barriers to students being able to return to school and re-en-roll in coursework when they are able.

• Focus on family centered activities that are not solely located on college campus-es. It has been well established that in-volvement of family, including extended family, is important for Indigenous stu-dent success. As such, institutions should engage with Indigenous students’ fami-lies regularly. Family centered activities can not rely on practices that always re-quire families to come to college cam-puses. Institutions must work to build trust with Indigenous communities and families and this requires that they take activities to Indigenous communities.

• Allow Indigenous students to practice their cultural and spiritual beliefs, par-

ticularly in student housing (Minthorn, 2014; Singson et al., 2016). Waterman (2012) suggests that Indigenous students often return home to participate in cer-emonies and to maintain spiritual con-nections. When students are not able to return home it is imperative that they are able to engage in ceremonial practices. This often includes the use of specific sacred plants, medicines, and tobacco. Institutions should review their current policies to assess how they might hinder or better support cultural practices for Indigenous students on campus -- e.g. tobacco policies, smudging policies, etc.4

Honor Connections to PlaceAs we previously stated, the term “Indig-enous” means to be of a place (Deloria & Wildcat, 2001). The connection to place for Indigenous students has been addressed re-peatedly among Indigenous higher educa-tion scholars (Shotton et al., 2013; Tachine et al., 2017). Additionally, all institutions of higher education in the U.S. reside on occu-pied Indigenous land. It is important to rec-ognize that the lands that colleges and uni-versities occupy are the original homelands of Indigenous peoples. That being the case, Indigenous students are often connected to these lands in deep ancestral, cultural, and historical ways. Institutions should work to understand the history of the land on which they are located and the Indigenous peoples historically and currently connected to that land. To honor connections to place, institu-tions should actively work to:

• Develop land acknowledgement policies. Institutions should start by developing a land acknowledgement statement that

4 For examples of smudging policies please see South Dakota State University’s smudging policy at https://www.sdstate.edu/american-indian-student-center/smudging-policy or University of Montana’s smudging/pipe ceremony policy at http://www.umt.edu/policies/browse/facilities-security/smudging-pipe-ceremonies.

Institutions of higher education must make efforts to meet Indigenous students where they are.

Institutions of higher education must de-velop policies that are flexible and work to honor the needs of Indigenous students as they relate to family and home.


recognizes Indigenous peoples as the original inhabitants and stewards of the land. Institutions must also create poli-cies that provide guidance on when and where land acknowledgements should be included (e.g. official university events, meetings, in class syllabi, etc.) and explicitly state the purpose of land acknowledgements. These practices not only honor Indigenous peoples but serve to create awareness about Indigenous histories and recognize colonialism as an ongoing project.

• Support Indigenous student centers. In-digenous student centers serve to cre-ate safe spaces for Indigenous students and tie to Indigenous values of place. Tachine et al. (2016) asserted that such centers provide important space for In-digenous students and help to create a sense of belonging.

• Create Indigenous places of learning on campus. Indigenous communities, in-cluding students, faculty, community members, and elders, should be con-sulted in the process of creating Indig-enous places of learning on campus. Such learning spaces should privilege Indigenous knowledge systems and in-corporate Indigenous pedagogies. This practice could involve taking students outside of traditional classroom settings. For instance, at the University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Ka Papa Lo‘i o Kanewai pro-vides a space for students and commu-nity members to participate in traditional kalo cultivation practices. This practice aligns with the Hawaiian saying, “Ma ka hana ka ‘ike,” which means, “through doing, one learns.”

Provide Students with More Culturally Rel-evant Curricular and Co-Curricular Experi-encesCurriculum that connects to Indigenous students’ lives, communities, and values of reciprocity is an effective approach for educating Indigenous students (Lee, 2009). In providing more culturally relevant cur-ricular experiences, institutions should:

• Honor Indigenous knowledge systems.

Lipe (2016) contended that, when we engage different ways of knowing, par-ticularly Indigenous ways of knowing, students feel validated. Honoring In-digenous knowledge systems involves privileging Indigenous knowledge in courses, including reading Indigenous scholarship, connecting learning to an-cestral knowledge, and acknowledging that Indigenous knowledge takes vari-ous forms (e.g. traditional stories, sacred histories, songs, chants, hula, etc.) that expand beyond what is traditionally rec-ognized as knowledge in colonial educa-tion systems (i.e. written scholarship). In this process, institutions should involve elders and community members in cur-ricular activities.

• Create internships and service learning opportunities that connect student learn-ing to Indigenous communities. Unfortu-nately, although giving back can be an important, positive force in the college experiences of Indigenous students, In-digenous college students and graduates sometimes face discouragement in their desires and efforts to give back. Cech and associates (2014), for instance, found a mismatch between Indigenous college freshmen’s communal work goals and individual work goals that largely charac-terize Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. This mis-match led students to question whether or not they belonged in STEM, to lack motivation, and to believe that they were not performing well academically. These findings suggest that an overemphasis on individual work goals in STEM may con-tribute to underrepresentation in STEM fields among Indigenous peoples (Cech et al., 2014). Indigenous college gradu-ates may also struggle to actualize their

Institutions should review their cur-rent policies to assess how they might hinder or better support cultural practices for Indigenous students on campus.


goals to give back as they are sometimes met with distrust upon returning to their home communities after graduating from college (Guillory, 2008). Such distrust, however, may stem from the historical use of education as a tool forcing assimi-lation (Wright, 1991). If Indigenous stu-dents are more supported in maintain-ing ties with their home communities, they will be better prepared to apply the knowledge, skills, and networks they de-velop in college toward the betterment of their communities. Thus, meeting the goals of giving back and nation building. In addition, they may be empowered to maintain long-term relationships that can help to allay issues of trust that come as the result of leaving home to attend col-lege.

• Support Indigenous Studies programs. Indigenous Studies programs can con-tribute greatly to Indigenous students’ cultural and academic well-being. First, Indigenous Studies programs often pro-vide students with a home-away-from home, where they are able to connect in a comfortable social environment and meeting space and connect with other Indigenous students, faculty, and staff (Kupo, 2010; Lee, 2009; Wright, 2003). Second, Indigenous Studies programs provide Indigenous students with a chance for self-discovery, where they are able to connect historical and social issues to the experiences of their own families and communities (Lee, 2009; Wright, 2003). And finally, the empha-sis of collective rights and responsibili-ties in the context of nationhood at the center of Indigenous Studies programs connects to Indigenous students’ values of reciprocity and goals of serving Indig-enous issues, people, and communities (Lee, 2009; Wright, 2003). Indigenous Studies programs should be recognized as important and necessary academic units and institutions should support these academic programs with adequate funding, resources, and faculty.

Train Faculty and Staff to be Culturally Com-petentWhile it is important for Indigenous students

to connect with Indigenous faculty and staff, it is also vital that non-Indigenous faculty and staff take active roles in understanding and supporting Indigenous students. This is especially important since Indigenous peo-ple are underrepresented among university faculty and staff (McFarland et al., 2017). As previously indicated, Indigenous students often encounter misconceptions and ste-reotypes in the form of microaggressions (Shotton, 2017; Tachine et al., 2017). These experiences are not limited to interactions with peers and often include negative ex-periences with faculty and staff (Shotton, 2017). Because they play a critical role in the experiences of Indigenous students, it is im-portant that non-Indigenous faculty and staff are trained to serve Indigenous students in culturally competent ways. To this end, we suggest the following:

• Seek support from professional orga-nizations. Waterman & Harrison (2017) suggest that professional organizations can provide a space to integrate Indig-enous ways of knowing into student af-fairs practices. Professional organizations can also provide opportunities for staff to think about their responsibilities to engage in culturally competent ways and can provide resources for professional development.

• Provide diversity trainings for faculty and staff. Diversity trainings can pro-vide faculty and staff with opportunities to reflect upon their own biases and to recognize others’ perspectives. Through such reflection, faculty and staff can de-velop communication and other skills through which they can better support Indigenous students. Because of issues with invisibility, non-Indigenous faculty and staff often lack knowledge about the

Institutions should work to understand the history of the land on which they are located and the Indigenous peoples historically and currently connected to that land.


unique status of Indigenous people and their histories. Thus, trainings should ad-dress issues of sovereignty and colonial-ism in the context of higher education.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH

While the body of research on Indigenous students is growing, our understanding of Indigenous students remains incomplete. The fact that Indigenous students continue to face multiple inequities in higher education, including low enrollment and graduation rates, is telling. Research efforts must seek to develop a more complete picture of In-digenous students, explore emerging trends, and ultimately inform efforts to address per-sistent inequities in educational attainment for Indigenous students and communities. We make the following recommendations for future research.

Explore Gender Differences in College En-rollment and Attainment among Indigenous StudentsOver the past 30 years there has been a shift in representation of Indigenous men and women in higher education. More specifi-cally, there has been a four-fold increase in the number of Indigenous women earning degrees at all levels of postsecondary edu-cation (Devoe, Darling-Churchill, & Snyder, 2008). Indigenous women are now entering college at a higher rate than Indigenous men and make up about 60% of the total Indig-enous student population (Musu-Gillette et

al., 2016). The shift in enrollment for Indig-enous men and women has not been fully explored and is important to understanding future trends in Indigenous student college enrollment. Some scholars have addressed the experiences of Indigenous women in postsecondary education (Castagno, 2005; Shotton, 2008, 2017, 2018; Waterman & Lindley, 2013), but our understanding of the experiences of Indigenous males remains incomplete. Thus, further research should seek to better understand enrollment pat-terns for Indigenous males and seek to an-swer the following:

• What are the pathways to college for In-digenous males? What barriers to higher education do Indigenous males encoun-ter? What facilitates their access to higher education?

• What influences the decisions of Indig-enous males to not pursue college de-grees?

• How do Indigenous males navigate post-secondary education systems? What fac-tors contribute to their persistence and graduation?

Explore Complexities of Identity among In-digenous Students Identity for Indigenous students is nuanced and complex. Much of the scholarship on Indigenous student identity focuses on cul-tural identity (Horse, 2005; 2012; Huffman, 2001, 2011). However, Indigenous students come to college with multiple identities (e.g. cultural, tribal, geographic, gender, and sex-ual) that intersect in various ways to shape their unique experiences. The scholarship has yet to fully explore this. Furthermore, the scholarship is virtually silent on issues of gender identity and expression and sex-ual orientation among Indigenous students. Indigenous students as a whole are mar-

If Indigenous students are more supported in maintaining ties with their home communities, they will be better prepared to apply the knowledge, skills, and networks they develop in college toward the betterment of their communities.

It is also vital that non-Indige-nous faculty and staff take active roles in understanding and supporting Indigenous students.


ginalized and rendered invisible in higher education; this is magnified for Indigenous LGBTQ students. Research is needed that explores the intersections of identity for In-digenous students. In particular, research should address the experiences and needs of Indigenous LGBTQ students.

Assess Campus Climates for Indigenous Stu-dentsIn institutions of higher education, knowl-edge and understanding of Indigenous peoples is generally limited. Furthermore, institutions of higher education have a com-plex history with Indigenous people that is rooted in colonization, imperialism, and the ongoing project of settler colonialism. This is exemplified by the fact that institutions of higher education reside on occupied Indig-enous lands. This frames how Indigenous students encounter U.S. higher education today.

The literature suggests that Indigenous stu-dents often encounter racism and micro-aggressions on college campuses and that experiences with racism lead them to feel that they do not belong in college (Tachine et al., 2017). In light of this, future research needs to further assess campus climates for Indigenous students. This should be done both at institutional and national levels. At the national level, we need to examine cam-pus climate for Indigenous students that may not be fully captured in large national data sets that often masks the diversity of Indigenous students.

Explore Diverse Pathways in Higher Educa-tion for Indigenous StudentsDiscussions of access and progression through higher education often employ the term pipeline, but critics argue that the pipeline metaphor does not adequately de-scribe the experiences of Indigenous stu-dents (Waterman, et al., 2018). The term pipeline denotes a single access point and a linear path through higher education; how-ever, scholarship demonstrates that this is not the case for many underserved popula-tions, including Indigenous students. Water-man et al. (2018) proposed using the term

pathways to more accurately capture the di-verse journeys Indigenous students take in higher education. The pathways of Indige-nous students in higher education are varied and may involve periods of stopping out, transfer among multiple institutions, and re-verse transfer (Waterman, 2007; Waterman & Sands, 2016). More extensive research is needed to explore the various pathways that Indigenous students take in higher educa-tion. Future research should address how Indigenous students and communities create pathways to higher education. Additionally, research should explore issues of transfer, reverse transfer, and stop-out for Indigenous students.

Explore Higher Education and Nation Build-ingResearch in higher education tends to fo-cus on enrollment, persistence, and gradua-tion as measures of success. Unfortunately, a focus only on these measures can paint a picture of failure for Indigenous students. As we have noted above, statistics point to a number of disparities that Indigenous stu-dents face in higher education.

While enrollment, persistence, and gradua-tion figures are important, it is also impor-tant for researchers to gain a better under-standing of how Indigenous students and communities define successful outcomes of higher education. Thus, further research

The scholarship is virtually silent on issues of gender identity and expression and sexual orientation among Indigenous students.

While enrollment, persistence, and graduation figures are important, it is also important for researchers to gain a better understanding of how Indigenous students and communities define suc-cessful outcomes of higher education.


should be done that relates to the following questions:

• What are the needs of tribal nations and Hawaiian communities with regard to higher education? How do these relate to Indigenous peoples’ higher education values and goals?

• How do institutions of higher education help or hinder Indigenous populations in meeting their higher education goals?

• How do Native college students, gradu-ates, faculty, and staff engage in nation building?

CLOSING THOUGHTS

Our aims in writing this report have been to bring visibility to Indigenous students and communities when they are often otherwise invisible in higher education. In doing so, we hope to inform policymakers, research-ers, and practitioners about the current state of Indigenous students in higher education and the critical issues they face. The litera-ture reviewed provides important insight into the experiences of Indigenous college students. We provide critical recommenda-tions for policy, practice, and research that are based in the existing scholarship and our own knowledge and experience as In-digenous scholars. More importantly, the recommendations provided require that we acknowledge and honor our responsibilities to Indigenous students and communities as the original inhabitants of this land.

The recommendations provided require that we acknowledge and honor our responsibili-ties to Indigenous students and communities as the original inhabitants of this land.

Inequities in higher education persist for Indigenous students, and the fact remains

that as long as Indigenous peoples remain invisible to policymakers, educational prac-titioners, and researchers, this trend will continue. As Brayboy and colleagues (2012) reminded us, we cannot “ignore statistics and reports that continue to inform us that Indigenous students are not well served by mainstream institutions of higher education” (p. 2). We urge policy makers to take up these issues and address the needs and in-terests of Indigenous peoples in higher edu-cation.

Future research should address how Indigenous students and communities create pathways to higher education.


REFERENCES

Aud, S., Fox, M. A., & Kewal Ramani, A. (2010). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences.

Bosse, S. A., Duncan, K., Gapp, S. C., & Newland, L. A. (2011). Supporting American Indian students in the transition to postsecondary education. Journal of The First-Year Experience & Students in Tran sition, 23(2), 33-Year Experience & Students in Transition, 2011, Vol.23(2), p.33-51.

Brayboy, B. M. J. (2004). Hiding in the Ivy: American Indian students and visibility in elite educational settings. Harvard Educational Review, 74(2), 125-152.

Brayboy, B. M. J. (2005). Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. The Urban Review, 37(5), 425- 446.

Brayboy, B. M. J., Fann, A. J., Castagno, A. E., & Solyom, J. A. (2012). Postsecondary education for American Indian and Alaska Natives: Higher education for nation building and self-determination: ASHE Higher Educa- tion Report 37: 5. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cabrera, A. F., & LaNasa, S. N. (2000). Understanding the college-choice process. New Directions for Insti- tutional Research, 107, 5-22.

Castagno, A. E. (2005). Extending the bounds of race and racism: Indigenous women and the persistence of the Black-White paradigm of race. The Urban Review, 37(5), 447-468.

Cech, E. Huntoon, M., Metz, A., Moyer, C., Smith, J. L. (2014). Giving back or giving up: Native ameri can student experiences in science and engineering. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(3), 413-429.

College Board. (2017). Class of 2017 SAT results. Retrieved from https://reports.collegeboard.org/sat- suite-program-results/class-2017-results.

College Board. (2018). National summary report of AP program participation and performance data 2018. Retrieved from https://research.collegeboard.org/programs/ap/data/participation/ap- 2018.

Covarrubias, P. O., & Windchief, S. R. (2009). Silences in stewardship: Some American Indian college students examples. Howard Journal Of Communications, 20(4), 333-352.

Deloria Jr., V. & Lytle, C. M. (1983). American Indians American justice. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Deloria, V., Jr., & Wildcat, D. R. (2001). Power and place: Indian education in America. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing.

Devoe, J. F., & Darling-Churchill, K. E., & Snyder, T. D. (2008). Status and trends in the education of Ameri- can Indians and Alaska Natives: 2008 (NCES 2008-08). Washington, DC: National Center for Edu- cation Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.


Deyhle, D., & Swisher, K. (1997). Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From as- similation to self-determination. Review of Research in Education, 22, 113-94.

Drywater-Whitekiller, V. (2010). Cultural resilience: Voices of Native American students in college retention. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 30(1), 1-19.

Faircloth, S. C., Alcantar, C. M., & Stage, F. K. (2015). Use of large-scale data sets to study educational pathways of American Indian and Alaska Native students. New Directions for Institutional Research, 163, 5-24.

Fann, A. (2005). Forgotten students: American Indian high school student narratives on college access, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (UMI No. 32083430).

Federal Register. (2018, July 23). 83 (141), 2018-15679.

Garland, J. L. (2007). [Review of the book Serving Native American Students. New Directions for Stu- dent Services.] Journal of College Student Development, 48, 612-614.

Gloria, A. M., & Kurpius, S. E. R. (2001). Influences of self-beliefs, social support, and comfort in the university environment on the academic non-persistence decisions of American Indian under- graduates.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(1), 88.

Goodyear-Ka‘opua, N., Kauai, W., Maioho, K., & Winchester, I. (2008). Teaching amid U.S. occupa- tion: Sovereignty, survival, and social studies in a Native Hawaiian charter school. Hulili: Multi- disciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 5, 155-201.

Greene, J. P., & Forster, G. (2003, September). Public high school graduation and college readiness rates in the United States. Education working paper no. 3. New York, NY: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research.

Guillory, J. P. (2008). Diverse pathways of “giving back” to tribal community: Perceptions of Native American college graduates (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://www.dissertations.wsu.edu/Disserta tions/Spring2008/j_guillory_042408.pdf

Guillory, R. M. (2009). American Indian/Alaska Native college student retention strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 33(2), 12–38.

Guillory, R. M., & Wolverton, M. (2008). It’s about family: Native American student persistence in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 79(1), 58–87.

HeavyRunner, I., & DeCelles, R. (2002). Family education model: Meeting the student retention chal- lenge. Journal of American Indian Education, 41(2), 29–37.

Hexter, A. (2016). SAT score release: What does higher ed need to know? Retrieved from https://www.colleg eboard.org/membership/all-access/counseling-admissions-academic/sat-score-release-what-does- higher-ed-need-know.

Hixson, L., Hepler, B. B., & Kim, M. O. (2012, May). The Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander Popula- tion: 2010 (2010 Census Briefs C2010BR-12). Washington, DC: United States Census Bureau.

Hokoana, L. K. (2010). Native hawaiians and college success: Does culture matter? Available from Pro Quest Dissertations & Theses Global. (847197604).


Horse, P. G. (2005). Native American identity. New Directions for Student Services, 61-68.

Horse, P. G. (2012). Twenty-first century Native American consciousness: A thematic model of Indian identity. In C. L. Wijeyeshinghe & B. W. Jackson (Eds.) New perspectives on racial identity 2nd edition (pp. 108-120). New York, NY: New York University Press.

Huffman, T. (2001). Resistance theory and the transculturation hypothesis as explanations of college attrition and persistence among culturally traditional American Indian students. Journal of American Indian Education, 40(3), 1-23.

Huffman, T. E. (2011). Plans to live on a reservation following college among American Indian students: An examination of transculturation theory. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 26(3), 1-13.

Jackson, A. P., & Smith, S. A. (2001). Postsecondary transitions among Navajo Indians. Journal of Ameri- can Indian Education, 40(2), 28–47.

Joseph, D. H. & Windchief, S. (2015). The act of claiming higher education as Indigenous space: Ameri- can Indian/Alaska Native examples. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 9:4, 267-283.

Kalt, J. P. (2007). The role of constitutions in Native nation building: Laying a firm foundation. In Jorgensen, M. (Ed.). Rebuilding Native nations: Strategies for governance and development. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Kame‘eleihiwa, L. (1992). Native land and foreign desires: Pehea la e pono ai? Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Press.

Kealoha, C. (2012). Going to college : Experiences of Native Hawaiian students. (Doctoral Dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global. (847197604).

Keene, A. J. (2014). “College Pride, Native Pride” and education for Native nation building: Portraits of Native students navigating freshman year (Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database(UM No. 3662070).

Keene, A. J. (2016). College pride, Native pride: A portrait of a culturally grounded precollege access program for American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian students. Harvard Educational Review 86(1), 72-97.

Keene, A. J. (2018). Tough conversations and “giving back”: Native freshmen perspectives on the college application process. In S. J. Waterman, S. C. Lowe, & H. J. Shotton (Eds.), Beyond access: Indi- genizing programs for Native American student success (pp. 33-45). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Kamehameha Schools. (2014). Ka Huaka‘i: 2014 Native Hawaiian Educational Assessment. Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha Publishing.

Kupo, V. L. (2010). What is Hawaiian?: Explorations and understandings of Native Hawaiian college women’s identities (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3417205)

Lavelle, B., Larsen, M. D., & Gunderson, C. (2009). Research synthesis: Strategies for surveys of Ameri- can Indians. Public Opinion Quarterly, 73(2), 385-403.

Lee, J., Donlan, W., & Brown, E. F. (2010). American Indian/Alaskan Native undergraduate retention at


predominantly white institutions: An elaboration of Tinto’s theory of college student departure. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 12(3), 257–276.

Lee, T. S. (2009). Building Native nations through Native students’ commitment to their communities. Journal of American Indian Education, 48(1), 19-36.

Lipe, K. (2016). Mo’olelo for transformative leadership: Lessons from engaged practice. In K. A. R. Oliveira & E. K. Wright (Eds.), Kanaka ‘Oiwi methodologies: Mo’olelo and metaphor (pp. 53-71). Hono- lulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

Lopez, J. D. (2018). Factors influencing American Indian and Alaska Native postsecondary persistence: AI/AN millennium falcon persistence model. Research in Higher Education, 59(6), 792-811.

Lundberg, C., & Lowe, S. (2016). Faculty as contributors to learning for Native American students. Jour- nal of College Student Development, 57(1), 3-17.

McFarland, J., Hussar, B., de Brey, C., Snyder, T., Wang, X., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Gebrekristos, S., Zhang, J., Rathbun, A., Barmer, A., Bullock Mann, F., and Hinz, S., The Condition of Education 2017 (NCES 2017-144): Characteristics of Postsecondary Faculty. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pub search/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017144.

Makomenaw, M. (2014). Goals, family, and community: What drives Tribal College transfer student success. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 51(4), 380-391.

Minthorn, R. S. (2014). Accommodating the spiritual and cultural practices of Native American college and university students. Journal of College and University Student Housing, 41(1), 154-163.

Minthorn, R. S. & Shotton, H. J. (2015). Native American students in higher education. In P.A. Sasso & J.L. DeVitis (Eds.). Today’s College Students (pp. 31-43). NY: Peter Lang Publishing.

Musu-Gillette,L., Robinson, J., McFarland, J., Kewal-Ramani, A., Zhang, A., and Wilkinson-Flicker, S. (2016). Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 2016. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https:// nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016007.pdf

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2010). National Indian Education Study 2009: Part II (NCES 2010-463). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/studies/2010463. asp

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2017a). National Indian Education Study 2015: American Indian and Alaska Native Students at Grades 4 and 8 (NCES 2017-161). Retrieved from https://nces. ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017161

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2017b), Higher education general information survey (HEGIS), “Fall enrollment in colleges and universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980; Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment Survey” (IPEDS-EF:90); and IPEDS Spring 2001 through Spring 2017, Fall Enrollment component. Retrieved from https:// nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/tables/dt16_306.30.asp

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)(2017c), Table 104.20.Percentage of persons 25 to 29 years old with selected levels of educational attainment, by race/ethnicity and sex: Selected years, 1920 through 2017. Re


trieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_104.20.asp?current=yes

National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). (2016). Tribal nations and the United States: An introduction. Retrieved from http://www.ncai.org/about-tribes.

Nelson, C. A. (2018). The intersection of paying for college and tribal sovereignty: Exploring Native college student experiences with tribal financial aid. In R. S. Minthorn & H. J. Shotton (Eds.), Re- claiming indigenous research in higher education (pp. 146-161). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Nelson, C. A., & Tachine, A. R. (2018). Native student financial aid as Native nation building: History, politics, and realities. In S. J. Waterman, S. C. Lowe, & H. J. Shotton (Eds.), Beyond access: Indigeniz- ing programs for Native American student success (pp. 65-82). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Norris, T., Vines, P. L., Hoeffel, E. M. (2012). The American Indian and Alaskan Native Population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs.

Perkins, U. (2006). Teaching land and sovereignty: A revised view. Hawaiian Journal of Law & Politics, 2, 97-111.

Perna, L. W. (2008). High school students’ perceptions of local, national, and institutional scholarships. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 37(2), 4-16.

Perna, L. W. (2010). Toward a more complete understanding of the role of financial aid in promoting college enrollment: The importance of context. In J. C. Smart (Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 129-179). Memphis, TN: Springer Science.

Pewewardy, C. D. (1994). Native American mascots, nicknames, imagery, and the tomahawk chop as cultural violence. Multicultural Review, 3(3), 104-106.

Pierce, C. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In C. V. Wil- lie, P. P. Rieker, B. M. Kramer, & B. S. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism, and sexism (pp. 277- 293). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Salis Reyes, N. A. (2014). The multiplicity and intersectionality of Indigenous identities. In D. Mitchell, Jr. (Ed.), Intersectionality & higher education: Theory, research, & praxis (pp. 45-54). New York, NY: Peter Lang.

Salis Reyes, N. A. (2018). A space for survivance: Locating Kanaka Maoli through the resonance and dissonance of critical race theory. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(6), 739-756.

Salis Reyes, N. A. (forthcoming). “What am I doing to be a good ancestor?” An Indigenized phenom- enology of giving back among Native college graduates. American Educational Research Journal.

Shield, R. W. (2009). Identifying and understanding Indigenous cultural and spiritual strengths in the higher education experiences of Indigenous women. Wicazo Sa Review, 24(1), 47-63.

Shotton, H. J. (2008). Pathway to the Ph.D.: Experiences of high-achieving American Indian females. ProQuest Dis- sertations and Theses (UMI No. 3304231).

Shotton, H. J. (2016). Beyond reservations: Exploring diverse backgrounds and tribal citizenship among Native college students. Commissioned by the Racial Heterogeneity Project: National Commis-


sion on Asian American & Pacific Islander Research in Education. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA In- stitute for Immigration, Globalization, and Education.

Shotton, H. J. (2017) “I thought you’d call her white feather”: Native women and racial microaggressions in doctoral education. Journal of American Indian Education, 56(1), 32-54.

Shotton, H. J. (2018). Reciprocity and nation building in Native women’s doctoral education. American Indian Quarterly. 42(4), 488-507.

Shotton, H. J., Lowe, S. C., & Waterman, S. J. (2013). Introduction. In H. J. Shotton, S. C. Lowe, & S. J. Waterman (Eds.), Beyond the asterisk: Understanding Native students in higher education (pp. 1-24). Ster- ling, VA: Stylus.

Shotton, H. J., Oosahwe, E. S., & Cintron, R. (2007). Stories of success: experiences of American Indian students in a peer-mentoring retention program. Review of higher education, 31(1), 81-107.

Shotton, H. J., Oosahwee, E. S., & Cintron, R. (2010). Island of sanctuary: The role of an American Indian cultural center. In L. Patton (Ed.) Culture centers in higher education: Perspectives on identity, theory and practice (pp. 49-62). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Singson, J. M., Tachine, A.R., Davidson, C. E., & Waterman, S. J. (2016). A second home: Indigenous considerations for campus housing. Journal of College and University Student Housing, 42(2), 110-125.

Smith, L. T. (1999). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. New York, NY: Zed Books Ltd.

Stannard, D. (1989). Before the horror: The population of Hawai‘i on the eve of Western contact. Ho- nolulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i Press.

Stetster, M. C., & Stillwell, R. (2014). Public high school four-year on-time graduation rates and event dropout rates: School years 2010-11 and 2011-12: First look (NCES Report 2014-391). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544798.pdf

Tachine, A. R., Cabrera, N. L., & Yellow Bird, E. (2017). Home away from home: Native American students’ sense of belonging during their first year in college. The Journal of Higher Education, 88(5), 785-807.

Trask, H.-K. (1999). From a Native daughter: Colonialism and sovereignty in Hawai‘i (Rev. Ed.). Hono- lulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i Press.

Trask, H.-K. (2000). Native social capital: The case of Hawaiian sovereignty and Ka Lahui Hawaii. Policy Sciences, 33(3/4) 149-159.

University of Hawai‘i, Manoa Institutional Research Office. (2017). Common data set 2017-2018. Ho- nolulu, HI: Author.

U. S. Census Bureau. (2015a). Selected population profile in the United States, American Community Survey 1-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/produc tview.xhtml?src=bkmk.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2015b). Selected population profile in the United States, American Community Survey 1-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/produc tview.xhtml?src=CF.


U. S. Census Bureau. (2017a). Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander educational attainment: 2005-2015. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/2017/comm/cb17- ff07_nhopi.html

U. S. Census Bureau. (2017b). Quick facts: United States. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quick facts/fact/table/US/EDU685216#viewtop

Waterman, S. J. (2007). A complex path to Haudenosaunee degree completion. Journal of American Indian Education, 46(1), 20–40.

Waterman, S. J. (2012). Home-going as a strategy for success among Haudenosaunee college and university students. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 49(2), 193–209.

Waterman, S. J., & Lindley, L. S. (2013). Cultural strengths to persevere: Native American women in higher education. NASPA Journal About Women in Higher Education, 6(2), 139-165.

Waterman, S. J., Lowe, S. C., & Shotton, H. J. (2018). Beyond access: Indigenizing programs for Native American student success. Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Waterman, S. J. & Sands, T. L. (2016). A pathway to college success: Reverse transfer as a means to move forward among the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). Journal of American Indian Education, 55(2), 51-74.

Willmott, K. E.; Sands, T. L., Raucci, M. & Waterman, S. J. (2015) “Native American College Students: A Group Forgotten,” Journal of Critical Scholarship on Higher Education and Student Affairs 2(1), 79-104.

Wright, B. (1991). The ‘untamable savage spirit’: American Indians in colonial colleges. The Review of Higher Education, 14(4), 429-452.

Wright, E. K. (2003). “Education for the Nation”: Forging Indigenous Hawaiian identity in higher education (Doc- toral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3121160)

Center for Postsecondary Research1900 East Tenth Street Suite 419| Bloomington, IN [email protected] | www.nite.indiana.edu

National Institute for Transformation and Equity

The Association for the Study of Higher Education4505 S Maryland Parkway Box 453068 | Las Vegas, NV [email protected] | www.ashe.ws

Lumina Foundation30 S Meridian St., Suite 700 | Indianapolis, IN 46204www.luminafoundation.org

Please e-mail any questions or feedback to reyesn4@hawaii.

edu or [email protected]

bringing visibility to the needs and interests of indigenous students… · 2020-01-21 ·...

Documents