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BritishColumbiaKindergarten‐12

FirstNationsLanguagesCurriculumBuildingGuide

ByDr.MarianneIgnace

Forthe

FirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee

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TABLEOFCONTENTSABOUTTHISDOCUMENTINTRODUCTIONORGANIZATIONOFTHISREPORTAboutFNESCFirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearningPARTONE:THECONTEXT1.1TheStateofFirstNationsLanguagesInBC1.2ReasonsForDecline1.3TheImportanceOfStemmingtheTideofLanguageLoss1.4ACriticalTime1.5TheRoleOfK‐12SchoolingInFirstNationsLanguageEducation1.6TheLegalPicture–OfficialLanguagesandAboriginalLanguages1.7BCLanguageProtectionLawsandPolicies

1.7.1 TheBCMinistryofEducationPoliciesPARTTWO:FUNDAMENTALSOFLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNING2.1TheUrgentNeedForFluentSpeakers2.2ThinkingOutsideTheBox:CreatingProficiencyinFirstNationsLanguages

2.2.1HowManyWordsAreNeededForProficiency?2.2.2WhatIsGrammarandHowIsItBestTaught?2.2.3Phonology–CorrectAccentandPronunciation2.2.4TheCultureintheLanguage2.2.5HowManyHoursorYearsDoesItTake?

2.3TypesOfLanguageProgramsandTheLanguageEducationTheyProvide2.3.1SecondLanguageorAdditionalLanguagePrograms2.3.2FirstNationsLanguageImmersionPrograms2.4.3PartialImmersionorBilingualPrograms2.4.4IntensiveFrench

2.4LanguageTeachingMethodsInK–12Curriculum2.4.1The“BerlitzMethod”(InteractiveQuestion/Answer)2.4.2TotalPhysicalResponse2.4.3TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling2.4.4Aim–AccelerativeIntegratedMethod2.4.5“WhereAreYourKeys?”

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2.4.6OtherConceptualPedagogicalApproachesPARTTHREE:LANGUAGE‐SPECIFICCURRICULUMFRAMEWORKS3.1TheNeedForCurriculumFrameworksAndPlans3.2ExistingCurriculumFrameworksForFirstNationsLanguagesInCanada

3.2.1TheWesternCanadianProtocolCommonCurriculumFramework3.2.2BCIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)andLanguagesTemplate

3.3ExamplesFromElsewhere3.3.1TheAustralianDraftFramework3.3.2TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceForLanguages3.3.3WhakamātauriaTōReoMāori(NationalMaoriLanguageProficiencyExams)

3.4AdditionalLanguageBenchmarkAndStandardsDocuments3.4.1AmericanCouncilOntheTeachingOfForeignLanguages3.4.2CLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarks3.4.3FNLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarks3.4.4FirstNationsLanguageEssentials3.4.5PerceptionsofProficiency

3.5StudentAssessment3.5.1AssessingEmergingLanguageProficiency

PARTFOUR:DESIGNINGCONTENTCURRICULUM4.1BeyondCurriculumFrameworks:theNeedForContentInCurriculumDesign4.2AssemblingorConsolidatingYourTeam4.3StartingWithaNeedsAssessment

4.3.1DeterminingTheTypeofProgramandStartingPoint4.4.HumanResourcesNowandInTheFuture4.5TypesOfCurriculumDesign

4.5.1GrandorForwardDesign4.5.2Practice‐DrivenCentralDesign4.5.3“BackwardsDesign”–StartingWithCompetencyLevels

4.6MakingACaseFor“ScriptedCurriculum”4.7TheRoleofLiteracyInK‐12Education4.8AccommodatingDifferentDialects4.9CommunicativeTopicsorThemes4.10DevelopingCurriculumBindersandBreakingtheYearIntoUnits

4.10.1UnitDevelopmentAsaWeb4.10.2DevelopingContentForUnits4.10.3LessonPlanningFromUnits

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4.11IssuesRelatedtoCopyrightandIntellectualPropertyRightsCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES APPENDIX1COMMUNICATIVEOBJECTIVESANDGRAMMATICALCONCEPTSAPPENDIX2LANGUAGEBENCHMARKS:FIRSTNATIONSLANGUAGEESSENTIALSAPPENDIX3LISTOFTHEMEDTOPICSFORLANGUAGEUNITSANDLESSONAPPENDIX4SAMPLESYLLABIANDORGANIZATIONALCHARTSAPPENDIX5ASIMPLEASSESSMENTTEST(CHIEFMATTHEWSSCHOOL)

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ABOUTTHISDOCUMENTThisdocumentwasdevelopedattherequestoftheFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee(FNESC).RecognizingthediversityandwealthofFirstNationslanguagesandculturesinBritishColumbia(BC)andtheircriticallyendangeredstate,thispaperisintendedtoassistFirstNationslanguageteachers,membersofFirstNationslanguagecommunities,educationalstaffinFirstNationsandpublicschools,andpolicymakersastheyconsiderFirstNationslanguageandcultureframeworksattheK‐12level,asinformedbyexistingandemergingresearchandapproaches.Inaddition,itisalsomeanttoserveasaguidefordesigninglanguageandcultureK‐12curriculumthatwillprovidepracticaltoolsforFirstNationslanguagegroups,curriculumdevelopersandteachers.ThisdocumentbuildsonapriordraftdocumentdevelopedforFNESC,TheBreathofOurAncestors(2012),partsofwhichareincludedinAppendixFourofthisdocument.TheauthorandFNESCverymuchappreciatetheworkoftheteamthatwrotethatearlierpaper.ThisprojectalsofollowsaseriesofFNESC‐sponsoredworkshopsledbyDr.MarianneIgnacein2013.Atthoseworkshops,thetopicsincludedinthisguidewerepresentedfordiscussion,andtheinputandfeedbackfromtheworkshopparticipantsisgratefullyacknowledged.ThehelpandsupportofDeborahJeffrey,JenniferWhiteandJanHaugenwiththeworkshopsisalsomuchappreciated.Inthefinalstagesofwritingandeditingthisdocument,commentsandsuggestionsfromtheFNESCFirstNationsLanguagesSubcommittee,andespeciallyfromJesseFairley,FNESCManagerofLanguagesandCulture,providedgreatsupporttowardsitscompletion.Yiri7reskukwstsétselp,háw’aa,t’ooyaxsut’nuusm,maasicho,maasiandmythanksalsointhemanyotherlanguageswehaveandareworkingtomaintain.MarianneIgnace,PhD

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INTRODUCTIONInthisdocument,FirstNationsculturesandlanguagesareviewedasinseparableandintertwined.TheRoyalCommissiononAboriginalPeoples(RCAP,1996)expressedtheroleandfunctionoflanguageinthetransmissionofcultureasfollows:

Languageistheprincipalinstrumentbywhichcultureistransmittedfromonegenerationtoanother,bywhichmembersofaculturecommunicatemeaningandmakesenseoftheirsharedexperience.Becauselanguagedefinestheworldandexperienceinculturalterms,itliterallyshapesourwayofperceiving–ourworldview.

Knowledgesystemsandrelationswiththeland,peopleandeverythinginnatureareexpressedthroughthelanguage,whichguidesthewayinwhichcultureisexperiencedandshouldbeunderstood.Giventhisimportance,coupledwiththeprecariousstateoflanguages,itisvitallyimportantthatFirstNationslanguagesare(re)vitalized,used,practiced,andinstilledinyoungergenerations,thusbreathingnewlifeintoFirstNations’culturesandinvaluableheritage.OrganizationofthisDocumentThisdocumentisorganizedintofourparts.Part1:ThisdocumentbeginswithadiscussionoftheprecariousstateofFirstNationslanguagesinBC,thereasonsfortheirdecliningstate,andthevalueofmaintainingandrevitalizingFirstNationslanguagesbasedontheirreplaceableconnectionstheyhavewithculturalknowledgeandlearningandwithFirstNations’uniquewaysofperceivingtheworld.Knowingone’slanguageisconnectedtoone’ssenseofself,self‐worthandidentity,andbeyondthathelpstosupportcognitiveandintellectualdevelopment.Recognizingthatimportance,thisreportdescribestherolethatschoollanguageprogramscanplayasakeycomponentofthedauntingtaskoflanguagerevitalization.Inparticular,theprosandconsofdifferenttypesoflanguageprogrammingattheK‐12levelarereviewed.Part2:Thesecondpartofthisdocumentdescribessomekeyconceptsthatprovidethecontextforcurriculumdevelopment,includingwhatisneededforlanguageproficiency,typesoflanguageprograms,andfundamentalaspectsoflanguageprogramming.Part3:GiventheneedforaneffectiveframeworkthatcanenhanceK‐12FirstNationslanguageeducationinthisprovince,Part3ofthisdocumenthighlightsexistinglanguage

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andculturecurriculum,includingthemuchneglectedbutveryusefulCommonCurriculumFramework–AboriginalLanguageandCulturePrograms–WesternCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinBasicEducation.TheBCLanguagesTemplateisdescribed,which–althoughnotspecificallydesignedforFirstNationslanguages–forsometimehasguidedIntegratedResourcePackage(IRP)developmentforlanguagesinBC.Finally,thepaperreviewscurriculumframeworksthatsetstandardsandbenchmarksacrosslanguages,whicharenowincreasinglybeingusedforlanguageeducationinCanada.Part4:Inthefinalpartofthisdocument,wereviewtheissueofcurriculumdesignanddevelopmentforparticularFirstNationslanguages.Thispartisintendedtoprovidepracticaltoolsforlanguagecurriculumdevelopers,includingoutliningsomegeneralprinciplesandchallengesassociatedwithlanguagecurriculumdesign–andwithFirstNationslanguagedesigninparticular.AboutFNESCFNESCisanindependentsocietyledbyrepresentativesofFirstNationsacrosstheprovince.WithamandatetofacilitatediscussionabouteducationmattersaffectingFirstNationsinBCbydisseminatinginformationandsolicitinginputfromFirstNations,FNESChasworkedtopromotetheprioritiesofBCFirstNationstothefederalandprovincialgovernmentsandtosupportFirstNationscommunitiesinworkingtogethertoadvanceeducationissues.Amongitsmanyactivities,FNESCconductsresearchtosupportFirstNationseducationinitiatives(includingFirstNationslanguageprograms),andservesasaclearinghouseforresourcesandmodelsforFirstNationseducationactivities.FNESCisguidedbythebeliefthatBCFirstNations,foralltheirrichdiversity,sharesomesignificantcommonexperiences,priorities,andbeliefs,aswellasacharacteristicFirstNationsapproachestoteachingandlearningthatcanbeexpressedasasetofprinciples.OriginallyidentifiedfortheEnglish12FirstPeoplescurriculum,the“FirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearning”articulatethesharedwisdomofEldersandeducatorswithinBC’sFirstNations.FirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearning Learningultimatelysupportsthewell‐beingoftheself,thefamily,thecommunity,the

land,thespirits,andtheancestors. Learningisholistic,reflexive,reflective,experiential,andrelational(focusedon

connectedness,onreciprocalrelationships,andasenseofplace). Learninginvolvesrecognizingtheconsequencesofone’sactions. Learninginvolvesgenerationalrolesandresponsibilities. Learningrecognizestheroleofindigenousknowledge.

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Learningisembeddedinmemory,history,andstory. Learninginvolvespatienceandtime. Learningrequiresexplorationofone’sidentity. Learninginvolvesrecognizingthatsomeknowledgeissacredandonlysharedwith

permissionand/orincertainsituations.MoreinformationaboutFNESCcanbefoundatwww.fnesc.ca.

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PARTONE:THECONTEXT1.1 TheStateofFirstNationsLanguagesinBCBritishColumbiaishometoabout32‐34FirstNationslanguages,manywithtwoormoredialects.AllFirstNationslanguagesareinaprecariousstate,somehangingbyathread.ThecurrentstateofFirstNationslanguagesispartofaglobalprocessoflanguageshiftanddecline,reflectingthehistoricalforcesthathaveledtothedeathanddeclineofmanyIndigenouslanguagesworldwide,aswellasthecurrentandfuturedangeroflosingthosethatremain.Infact,ofthemorethan6,000languagesonearth,90%areendangered.AccordingtoanassessmentbytheBCFirstPeoplesHeritage,LanguageandCultureCouncil(FPHLCC(nowFirstPeoplesCulturalCouncil),2010),in2010only5.1percentoftheprovince’sFirstNationspopulationwasfluentintheirlanguage.“Semispeakers,”or“less‐than‐fluent”adultswhoacquiredtheirFirstNationslanguageinearlylife,aswellassecondlanguagelearnersofvariousages,madeupanadditional8.2percentofthepopulation.Inaddition,thevastmajorityofspeakerswereelderly.Afollow‐upstudy(FPHLCC,2014)showedthatby2014,thenumberoffluentspeakershaddeclinedtoabout4percent,althoughthenumberof“semi‐speakers”hadincreasedto9.32percent,whichwasconsidereda“promisingtrend”as“itindicatesthatrevitalizationeffortsarepayingoff.”FirstNationlanguagelearnersrepresentedonly9.14percentoftheFirstNationspopulationin2014(FPHLCC,2014).Inotherwords,ninetenthsofFirstNationspeopleinBCwerenotlearningorre‐learningtheirlanguages.Ingeneral,althoughyouthandchildrenrepresentmorethanhalfoftheFirstNationspopulationinBC,itseemsthatalargenumberofFirstNationschildrenandyouthdonothaveaccesstoeducationintheirFirstNationsancestrallanguage.Additionally,thereisanincreasedtrendinmigrationoffreservesandtourbanareas,andFirstNationschildrenandyouthwholiveawayfromtheirancestralcommunitiesoftenareespeciallydeprivedofopportunitiestolearntheirancestrallanguages.

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Source:MapofBCAboriginalLanguages.1.2 ReasonsfortheDeclineThedeclineofFirstNationslanguagesinBCandtherestofCanadaiscloselyconnectedtothiscountry’shistoryofcolonizationandoppression.Betweenthelate1700sandthe1860s,traumaticpopulationlossesthatresultedfromsmallpoxepidemicsandotherdiseasescausedadevastatingdeclineinthenumberofpeopleofallgenerationswhocommunicatedandtransmittedstoriesintheirlanguages,anddramaticallyreducedthewealthofknowledgeaboutthesocial,moralandphysicalworldencodedinthoselanguages.InBC,severallanguagesdiedoutduringthistime,includingNicola,TsetsautandPentlatch.

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ThegenocideprecipitatedbyinfectiousdiseaseswasfollowedbycalculatedpoliciesoftheCanadianStateto“killtheIndianinthechild,”includingtheestablishmentandcompulsoryattendanceofFirstNationchildrenatIndianResidentialSchools.Forthreegenerationsormore,theseschoolsdisruptedanddestroyedtheintergenerationaltransmissionofAboriginallanguagesbyremovingchildrenfromtheircommunities,relativesandElders,whilemoreoverinflictingphysicalpunishment,shameandhumiliationfortheuseofFirstNationslanguages.Inotherwords:

Itwasthroughlanguagethatchildrenreceivedtheirculturalheritagefromparentsandcommunity.Itwasthevitalconnectionthatcivilizersknewhadtobecutifprogresswastobemade(RCAP,1996).

SurvivorsofResidentialSchoolshavegiveneloquentandheart‐breakingtestimonyabouttheharmdonetothempersonally,andtothesocialandculturalfabricoftheirfamilies,communitiesandnations,whentheirlanguagewastakenfromthemintheseschools(see,forexample,Haig‐Brown1988,RCAP1996,TRC2015).WhattherecentreportoftheTruthandReconciliationCommissionandCanada’sChiefSupremeCourtJusticeBeverleyMacLachlinhavecalledculturalgenocideatthehandsofResidentialSchoolshassubstantiallyincludedlinguicide:thecalculatedsilencingandstigmatizingofAboriginallanguageswithinandacrossgenerations.1Further,theemotionalburdenoflossandgriefnowextendstoindividualswhowerenotraisedwiththeirhomelanguageasaresultofResidentialSchools,butwereinsteaddeprivedoftheirlanguageduetotheexperienceofparentsandgrandparentswhohadbeensubjecttobeatingsandemotionalabusesforspeakingtheirlanguageandwhosubsequentlyraisedtheirchildrenspeakingEnglish.BythetimemostoftheResidentialSchoolswereclosedinthe1970s,publicschoolinginBCemphasizedEnglishlanguageeducationonly,asopposedtobilingualeducationwithFirstNationslanguages.OtherfactorsalsocontributedtothelossanddeclineofFirstNationslanguages.Forexample,throughoutthe1950sto1970s,Englishincreasingly

1Beyondlife‐longemotionalstigmaofhavingone’slanguagesilenced,thelossoflanguageinindividualswasunevenandtoagooddegreedependedontheageatwhichchildrenweretakenawayfromindigenouslanguagesocializationinthehome:thereisacorrelationbetweenwhatlinguistsknowas1“languageacquisitionphases”andthedegreetowhichpresenteldersandadultsretainedtheirlanguageaftertheResidentialSchoolexperience:Thosewhoweresenttoschoolataveryyoungage(5‐6yearsold)hadacquiredtheirAboriginallanguagetoalesserdegreethanthosewhohadbeensentatage10‐11,bywhichtimeachild’slanguageacquisitionofgrammarandthesoundsystemisnearlycomplete.

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becamethelanguageoftheworkplaceforFirstNationspeopleworkingoffreserve,andintergenerationallanguagetransmissioncontinuedtodecline.Inaddition,accordingtothelateKwakwa’ka’wakwJudgeAlfredScow,outlawingthepotlatch“preventedthepassingdownofourvalues,oforalhistories,etc.allofwhichwereintheAboriginallanguage”(RCAP,1996).1.3 TheImportanceofStemmingtheTideofLanguageLossFirstNationsElders,languageeducatorsandactivists,supportedbyacademicstudiesundertakenbybothIndigenousandnon‐Indigenousscholars,havepointedouttheimportantreasonsforrevitalizingandmaintainingFirstNationslanguages.AsidefrombeingahumanrightandanAboriginalright(seeSection1.7below),languagerevitalizationandmaintenanceareconnectedtoculturalsurvival,culturalresilience,andaccesstointellectualworldsandknowledgethatareuniquelyembeddedinlanguages.Contemporaryresearchinlinguisticsandcognitivepsychologyhasresultedinnewunderstandingsaboutthewaysinwhichlanguagesshapethewaywethink,perceiveandorganizetheworldinculturallymeaningfulways,andBCFirstNationslanguagesprovideirreplaceablewaysoforganizingthesocialandnaturalworld,basedontheancient,cumulativehumanexperienceofFirstPeoples.Infact,astheworldisfacingenvironmentalchangeandlossofbiodiversity,therehasbeenagrowingresearchfocusontheconnection,oratleasttheparallels,betweenbiodiversityandlinguisticdiversity.PreservingIndigenouslanguagesmeanspreservingthevaluablelocalecologicalknowledgeencodedinthem,whichincombinationwithtraditionalresourcestewardshippracticescancontributegreatlytothesustainablemanagementoflandsandresources(Maffi,2001).Inrecentyears,numerousstudieshaveidentifiedastrongconnectionbetweenFirstNationslanguagemaintenanceandseveralfactorsthataffectpersonalandcollectivehealthandwell‐being.ResearchersChandlerandLalonde,forexample,foundthatyouthsuicideratesweresignificantlylowerwhereinstitutionsthatenabledculturalcontinuityexisted.Hallettet.al.(2007)alsodeterminedthatratesofsuicideweresignificantlylowerinFirstNationscommunitieswithhigherlevelsoflanguageknowledgeanduse,andtheauthorsconcludedthatthecontinuedexistenceanduseofaFirstNationslanguage“isastrongpredictorofhealthandwellbeinginCanada’sAboriginalcommunities.”CreelanguageeducatorMcIvor,alongwithA.NapoleonandK.Dickie(2009),alsopointtothepositiveimpactonhealth–inacomprehensive,holisticsense–ofFirstNationslanguageuseandrevitalization.

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Researchfromtheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,basedonpoorempiricaldataandresearchmethods,madethepointthatearlybilingualismandmultilingualism(learningtwoormorelanguagesearlyinlife)weredetrimentaltochildren’scognitivedevelopment,notingthe“handicappinginfluenceofbilingualism”andpointingoutthatbilingualsperformedworseonIQtests,althoughtheadministrationofthesetestswasskewed.Unfortunatelythecommonperceptionaboutbilingualismthatcameoutofsuchmisguidedstudies,combinedwiththeCanadiangovernment’sintenttoassimilateAboriginalchildrenawayfromtheirlanguagesandcultures,ledtoeducatorstellingAboriginalparentsthattheirchildrenwouldbekeptbackiftheywereraisedintheirAboriginallanguage.Sincethe1960s,studieshaveincreasinglypointedtothepositiveimpactsofbilingualism.EllenBialystokandherresearchteam(1991,2004),havecarriedoutconvincingempiricalresearchformorethantwentyyearsthatpointstothepositiveconnectionbetweenbilingualism‐(includingbilingualismthatinvolvesindigenouslanguage(s))‐cognitivedevelopmentandcognitiveabilities.Bialystok’sresearchhasshownseveralwaysinwhichbilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinverbalandnon‐verbalcognitivetasks:

Bilingualchildrendevelopmetalinguisticawarenessearlierandtoahigherdegreethanmonolinguals.Metalinguisticawareness,inturn,supportsreflectiononlanguageandonthefunctionoflanguage,aswellasearlierandhighersensitivitytolanguagestructureandlanguageprocessing;

Giventheheightenedmetalinguisticawarenessofbilinguals,theyaremorecreativeinproblemsolvingthanmonolingualchildren

Bilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinreadingability.BetterreadingskillsintheirL1(e.g.English)weredemonstratedwithaslittleasonehouraweekofL2(otherlanguage)learning(BialystokandLuk).

Bilingualsdevelopadvantagesinexecutivefunctionsofthebrain,suchasproblemsolving,mentalflexibility,attentioncontrol,inhibitorycontrol,taskswitching–i.e.stayingfocusedontasks.Theseadvantagesarenotonlyverbalfunctions,butinvolvenon‐verbalfunctions:Bilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinsuchtasksasprovidinghigherselectiveattention(filteringoutdistractions),higherworkingmemory,abilitytoshiftattentionquickly,andthecoordinationofallofthesetasks.Althoughmoreresearchneedstobedonetoclarifythese,Bialystokconcludesthatbilingualscouldpossiblybebetteratmulti‐taskingthanmonolinguals.

Recentresearch(Bialystok,Moreno,Hermanto2011)hasalsoshownthatchildrenwhoparticipateinimmersionprograms,tovaryingdegrees,showedthesametendenciestowardsdevelopingexecutivebrainfunctionsandmetalinguisticabilitiesthathadbeenreportedforchildrenwhowereraisedbilinguallyinthe

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home.Moreover,theirresearch,usingexperimentaltestsandMRIimaging,showedthatcognitiveadvantagesofearlybilingualismpersistintoyoungadulthood.

Finally,theirresearchshowed(2010)thatagingbilinguals“outperformmonolingualsonnon‐verbalexecutivecontroltasks,”andthat,indeed,bilingualismcanslowtheonsetofdementiainAlzheimer’spatientsforaslongasfiveyears,constitutinga“cognitivereserve”thatdelaystheonsetofsignsofdementiainAlzheimerpatients.

Thus,researchhasprovidedconvincingevidenceofthepositiveconnectionbetweenbilingualismandcognitivedevelopmentandabilities.StudiesofanInuttitutimmersionprogramintheKativikSchoolDistrictinNunavik/Quebec(Wright,TaylorandRuggiero,1996)furthersupportthecognitiveandpsychologicaladvantagesoflanguageeducationinachild’smothertongue,whilealsodemonstratingpositiveself‐esteembenefitsforchildren.Otheranecdotalevidenceandachievementtestsadministeredtostudentsinlong‐termlanguageimmersionprogramsverifythatstudentswhoreceiveintensivelanguageexposureandinstructiontendtofarebetteracademicallyandsociallythanpeerswhoarenotexposedtotheirlanguage(Greymorning1997,BrandtandAyoungman1993).1.4 ACriticalTimeAsdescribedabove,inspiteoftheirimportance,mostFirstNationslanguagesarehangingbyathreadandarefacingcontinuousdecline,asEldersageandinevitablypasson.ThegraphbelowfromtheReportontheStatusofBCFirstNationsLanguages(FPHLCC,2010)–producedin2010butpredictinginformationfor2010‐15–showsthesoberingandsadcontinuinglossoflanguages.2

2Asthegraphshows,the2010datapredictaround2%remainingfluentspeakersin2014,althoughthe2014editionshows4%fluentspeakersremaining.However,asthereportauthorsindicate,the2014editionincludesdatafrom15speechcommunitiesnotrepresentedinthe2010report.Hence,thetwodatasetsarenotfullycomparable.

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Yetthegraphabove,soberingasitis,alsoprovideshope.Withanadequateinvestmentoffundsandhardwork,thefateofFirstNationslanguagescanbeturnedaroundbycreatingnewgenerationsofadultandyoungproficientspeakers.ThroughoutBC,

vibranteffortsandinitiativesexistthathavecontributedtostemmingthetideoflanguageloss.TheseincludeagrowingnumberofLanguageNestsmodeledontheMaoriTeKoangaReoandHawaiianPunanaLeomovements,sponsoredinlargepartwithfundsfromthe

FirstPeoples’CulturalCouncil(FPCC).Infact,theFPCCestimatesthatapproximately15‐20languagenestsarecurrentlyinoperationinthisprovince.Languageeducatorsandactivists

McIvor(2005),Michel(2005,2012)andChambers(2014)havereportedontheseinitiativesandgiveusoptimismforthefutureofFirstNationslanguages.

Inaddition,arisingfrom,orincombinationwith,locallanguagenests,asmallnumberofprimaryandelementarylevelimmersionschoolshaveshownthesuccessesandpotentialofFirstNationslanguageimmersioneducation,eveninthefaceoflimitedfundingandhumanresources(McIvor2005;Chambers2014;Michel,2005and2012).AdditionalrecentstudiesbyagrowingandimportantnumberofIndigenouslanguageeducators,includingMcIvor(2013),Johnson(2013),Thompson(2012),Rosborough(2012),Hinton(2011),Michel(2011),andPitawanakwat(2009),showtheexperiencesandpotentialofFirstNationslanguagerevitalizationinthecontextofdiverseBClanguages.Theyalsoshowthehardworkahead.1.5 TheRoleofSchoolinginFirstNationsLanguageRevitalizationEffortsMorethanthirtyyearsago,IrishlanguageactivistFennel(1980)remindedus:

ashrinkinglanguageminoritycannotbesavedbytheactionsofwell‐wisherswhodonotbelongtotheminorityinquestion.Inparticular,itsshrinkingcannotbehaltedbytheaction,howeverbenevolentandintelligent,ofamoderncentralisedstate.Itcanbesavedonlybyitself:andthenonlyifitsmembersacquirethewilltostopitshrinking,acquiretheinstitutionsandfinancialmeanstotakeappropriatemeasures,andtakethem.

Infact,languagerevitalizationcannotbeachievedwithoutthedeepspiritualandpracticalcommitmentofpeoplewhocareandarewillingtoputinenormous,long‐termeffortinlearning,teaching,recording,anddevelopingmaterials.Allsuccessfullanguagerevitalizationpractitionerssharestoriesofworkinglonghours,experiencingtheinterminablesadnessoverthepassingoffluentElders,andcarryingouttheirworkwithinthereallivingconditionsofFirstNationscommunitiesstillmarkedbythefall‐outofthetraumahistoricallyinflictedonthem.

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Reflectingthesignificanteffortneededtomakepositivechange,numerousFirstNationslanguagepractitionersandeducatorshavestressedthatlanguagerevitalizationcannotbelefttoschoolsalone;itisacommunityandNation,aswellasafamilyandhomeissue.However,giventhetremendousscopeofeffortneeded,schoolsdohaveavitalroletoplay.AsHinton(inHintonandHale2001,pg.7)hasobserved,“anhouraday[ofIndigenouslanguageinstruction],iftaughtwithappropriatemethodology,canbringchildrenalongwaytowardfluency.”Thus,educationsystemscanplayavitalroleinfacilitatingaccesstoFirstNationslanguagelearningamongchildrenandyouth.Theycanalsomeaningfullysupportcommunitylanguagerevivalandmaintenanceefforts.Whatisneededislanguageeducationinschoolsconnectedtolargereffortstoimprovethestatusanduseoflanguagesincommunities,witheveryonecollectively“takingownership”ofthelanguageinapractical,spiritual,emotionalandsocialsense.Butlanguageeducationinschools–inparticularpublicschools–isnotwithoutconstraints,includingarangeofpoliciesandlawsthatprivilegeEnglishoverFirstNationslanguages,andthatrepresentacontinuedpartofacolonialstructure.Generally,publicschoolsfavour“core”subjectslikemath,languagearts,scienceandsocialstudies,allofwhicharebetterresourcedandmuchbettersupportedwithrelevantcurriculummaterials.FirstNationslanguageeducationisoftenperceivedashavingtocompeteagainst“academic”subjects,ratherthanmorerightlybeingseenasofferingitsownsolutionsforcognitivedevelopment,literacy,self‐esteemandculturalconnection–asisstronglysuggestedbyawealthofresearch.Despitethosechallenges,a2009reportbytheCanadianCouncilonLearningtitledtheStateofAboriginalLearninginCanada:AHolisticApproachtoMeasuringSuccess,emphasizestheimportanceofAboriginallanguageeducationinimprovingandenhancingtheeducationalexperiencesofAboriginalyouth.Itdescribeshow“knowledgeofancestrallanguagesiskeytohowAboriginalpeopleviewlearning—aprocessthatislifelongandextendswellbeyondtheclassroom.”Asthereportpointsout,ancestrallanguagesareconsideredakeysourceofknowledgeforlearners,astheyhelp“transmitknowledgeandvaluesfromonegenerationtoanother.”Alloftheseissuesaredescribedinmoredetailbelow.1.6 TheLegalPicture–OfficialLanguagesandAboriginalLanguagesAtatimewhentheverysurvivalofFirstNationslanguageshangsbyathread,Canadacontinuestomaintainitsnationalpolicy–ormyth‐oftwo“foundinglanguages,”andthecrucialrole(orevenexistence)ofthe59ormoreAboriginallanguagesofthecountryisnotacknowledgedinCanadianlaw.3

3Bycontrast,invariousinternationaljurisdictions,Indigenousminoritylanguageshavelegalrecognitionasofficiallanguages‐e.g.MaoriinNewZealand/Aotearea,andHawaiianintheU.S.

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Canada’sAboriginal(FirstNation,Métis,Inuit)languagesarenotmentionedintheBritishNorthAmericaAct(1867),intheIndianAct,norintheCharterofRightsandFreedoms(1982).Section35ofthe1982ConstitutionActdoesnotmentionAboriginallanguages,butdealswithundefinedAboriginalrights,stating,“TheexistingaboriginalandtreatyrightsoftheaboriginalpeoplesofCanadaareherebyrecognizedandaffirmed.”ThequestionofwhetherAboriginallanguagerights(individually,collectively,orboth)legallyqualifyas“existingaboriginalrights”hasnotbeentestedincourt.Canada’sOfficialLanguagesAct,initiallypassedin1969andamendedinlightoftheCharterofRightsandFreedomsin1988,acknowledgesEnglishandFrenchasthetwoofficiallanguagesofthecountry,andguaranteesminoritylanguagerightsforEnglishandFrenchspeakers,includingaccesstoservicesintherespectivelanguagesandtolanguageeducation.However,theActissilentonAboriginallanguages.Basedonabilateralagreement(2009‐2013,andrecentlyreneweduntil2018)betweentheProvinceofBCandtheFederalDepartmentofCanadianHeritage,federalfundssupportK‐12Frenchprogramminginschools(core,immersion,andintensiveFrench)anduniversities,andprovidegrantsforlearningresources,teacherprofessionaldevelopment,culturalactivities,studentandteacherexchanges,andotheractivities(www.bced.gov.bc.ca).The2009‐2013protocolbetweenthefederalgovernmentandBCprovides$64.4million(approximately$16.1millionannually)infederalfundingforFrenchminoritylanguageandsecondlanguageeducationbasedonaformulaofupto50percentofthefundscontributedbythefederalgovernment,withtheremaindercontributedbyBC.Althoughthe2003‐2005nationalTaskForceonAboriginalLanguagesandCultures(TFALC)stronglyrecommendedthe“legislativerecognition,protectionandpromotionofFirstNation,InuitandMetislanguagesastheFirstLanguagesofCanada”(Canada,2005),suchlegalrecognitionatthenationalleveloratanyprovinciallevelhasnotbeenrealizedtodate.Infact,the1988CanadianMulticulturalismActandthesubsequentCanadianHeritageLanguagesInstituteAct(1990)classifiedAboriginallanguagesas“heritagelanguages,”puttingtheminthesamecategoryasimmigrantlanguages.TwoterritorieshaveaccordedofficiallanguagestatustotheirAboriginallanguages.

StateofHawaii.Othercountriesalsohaveameasureofprotectionandsupportforregionalorminoritylanguages(e.g.the1992EuropeanCharterforRegionalandMinorityLanguages).

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TheNorthwestTerritories(NWT)nowrecognizesChipewyan,Cree,Dogrib,English,French,Gwich'in,InuktitutandSlaveyasofficiallanguagesoftheterritory.

ThelegislatureofNunavutunanimouslypassedaterritorialOfficialLanguagesActin2008,recognizingtworelatedInuitlanguages–InuktitutandInnuinaqtun,aswellasEnglishandFrench,asofficiallanguages.Importantly,theOfficialLanguagesActwasaccompaniedbytheInuitLanguageProtectionAct,“theonlyActinCanadathataimstoprotectandrevitalizeafirstpeoples’language”(langcom.nu.ca).ThetwoactshaveenabledInuitinNunavuttosettargetsandstandardsforincreasinglanguageproficiencyinInuktitut/Innuinaqtun,topromotetheuseofthelanguages,andtoquicklyexpandInuitlanguageeducationasaright,includingcreatinglanguagenests,earlyimmersioneducation,andInuktitut/Innuinaqtuneducationacrossallgrades,withtheeducationalresourcesrequiredtodoso.

Since2007,theUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(UNDRIP)hasrepresentedanimportantadditionalvoiceforIndigenouslanguageprotection.TheUNDRIPwasadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyin2007,andaimstoestablishlegalandhumanrightsstandardsfortheplanet’s370millionIndigenouspeople.CanadafinallyendorsedtheUNDRIPinNovember2010,statingthatitsupporteditin“spirit”andasan“aspirational”document.Asitexistsnow,theUNDRIPfunctionsasaUNDeclaration,butdoesnothavetheforceoflawintheinternationalorCanadiansetting.TheUNDRIPaddressesIndigenouslandandenvironmentalrightsandrightstohealth,culturalandintellectualpropertyandculturalexpression,andmoreoverincludesseveralArticlesthatspecificallyaddresslanguagerights. Article13.1.states:“Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttorevitalize,use,developand

transmittofuturegenerationstheirhistories,languages,oraltraditions,philosophies,writingsystemsandliteratures,andtodesignateandretaintheirownnamesforcommunities,placesandpersons.”

Article14.1states:“Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablishandcontroltheireducationintheirownlanguages,inamannerappropriatetotheirculturalmethodsofteachingandlearning.”

Article14.3.states:“Statesshall,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,takeeffectivemeasures,inorderforindigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,includingthoselivingoutsidetheircommunities,tohaveaccess,whenpossible,toaneducationintheirowncultureandprovidedintheirownlanguage.”

Article16addressestherightofindigenouspeopletoestablishtheirownmediaintheirownlanguages.

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1.7 BCLanguageProtectionLawsandPoliciesAlthoughBChasnoofficiallanguagerecognitionorprotectionforitsmorethan30Indigenouslanguages,4ithasdevelopedlimitedpoliciesandprogramstoprotectFirstNationslanguages.In1996,BCpassedtheFirstPeoplesHeritage,LanguageandCultureActaspartofitsFirstPeoples’Heritageinitiative,andcreatedaCrownCorporationwiththepurposeof:providingoperatingandcapitalfundsforthe“creation,maintenanceandadministrationofNativeculturalcentresandprogramsthroughoutBC”(Section6);supportingthegovernmentonwaystopreserveandfoster“nativelanguagesandotheraspectsofculturaldevelopmentofNativepeoplesthroughoutBC;”andactinginanadvisorycapacitytotheBCgovernmentonsuchmatters.ThisActprovidesthefoundationfortheBCFirstPeoples’CulturalCouncil(FPCC).Since1990,theFPCChasallocatedmorethan$20millioningrants–includingfederalAboriginalLanguagesInitiativeandprovincialBCLanguagesInitiativegrants‐toFirstNationsorganizationstoenablelocallanguagerevitalizationanddocumentationprojects.Italsohasproducedanumberofusefulguidebooksonavarietyoftopics,includinglanguageimmersioncamps,languagenests,mentor/master‐apprenticelearningprograms,andlanguagepolicyandplanning(allavailableatwww.fpcc.ca).1.7.1 TheBCMinistryofEducationPoliciesTheBCMinistryofEducationLanguageEducationPolicyregulatestheteachingofEnglishandFrenchasofficiallanguages,aswellasforeign,immigrantlanguagesandAboriginallanguagesintheK‐12schoolsystem.ThispolicystipulatesthatallBCstudentsmusttakeasecondlanguageaspartofthecurriculuminGrades5‐8(exceptthoseexemptedasspecialneedsstudents,thosereceivingEnglishLanguageLearnerservices,orthoseenrolledinlateFrenchimmersion).WhilenotlegallymandatingAboriginallanguageeducation,theMinistrysupportsAboriginallanguageeducationasanoption,noting(www2.gov.bc.ca):

Allstudents,especiallythoseofAboriginalancestry,shouldhaveopportunitiestolearnanAboriginallanguage.…TheBoardofEducationandthelocalAboriginalpeopleshouldcollaboratetodevelopAboriginallanguagecurriculumandresources.

4AgoodoverviewofAboriginallanguagerecognitionmeasuresinCanadaisprovidedinwww.slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=native_legal(retrievedOct.1,2014).NeithertheNisga’aFinalAgreementAct(1999),theSecheltIndianBandSelf‐GovernmentAct,northeBCTreatyCommissionActincludeslanguageprovisions.The2010TsawwassenFirstNationFinalAgreementnotesthat“CanadaandBCacknowledgetheaspirationofTsawwassenFirstNationtopreserve,promoteanddeveloptheculture,heritage,languageandeconomyofTsawwassenFirstNation”(p.2).

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TheMinistry’spolicystipulatesthatitisuptoSchoolBoardstodecidewhichsecondlanguageswillbeoffered.CoreFrenchisofferedbydefaultifaschooldistrictdoesnotofferanalternativelanguage.OnlylanguageswithcurriculalistedintheMinistryofEducation’sEducationalProgramGuideOrderareeligibletomeetthesecondlanguagerequirementforGrades5‐8.InthecaseofFirstNationslanguages,thisincludesonlylanguageswithaprovinciallyapprovedIntegratedResourcePackage(IRP)basedontheMinistry’sLanguagesTemplate(see2.1below).Alternately,SchoolBoardscandeveloptheirownsecondlanguagecurriculaforelectiveoradditionallanguagestudiesaspermittedundertheBoardAuthorizedCourseOrder.BoardscanapplytotheMinistrytohavetheirlocallydevelopedsecondlanguagecurriculagivenprovincialapproval.Boardapprovedcoursescanbeusedtowardsgraduation,buttherearenoguaranteesthatthosecourseswillmeetpost‐secondaryentrancerequirementsforlanguagelearning.Therefore,ratherthanprovidingmandatoryFirstNationslanguageeducation,theBCSecondLanguagePolicyprovidesoptionsfordeliveringFirstNationslanguagesforGrades5‐12.Althoughearlysecond/additionallanguageeducationiswellsupportedbyresearchandadvocacygroups,thepolicymakesnoprovisionsforGradesK‐4languageeducation,(althoughsomeschooldistrictsincludesomemeasureofprimarylevelandearlyintermediatelanguageeducation).OtherchallengesforFirstNationslanguageeducationinBCpublicschoolsalsoexist.TheMinistry’spolicyguidelinesfortheamountoflanguageeducationperweekstipulate90to120minutesattheGrades5‐7level.InGrades8through12,FirstNationslanguageeducationispartofthesystemofrotatingblocks,usuallyabout115minutesinlength,inmostschoolsbasedonasemestersystem.Asprovidedwithinasemestersystem,manyschoolsareunabletooffersecondarylanguageeducationthroughouttheyear,andinstead,basedonschoolscheduling,astudentmayhaveablockofFirstNationslanguageinSemester1,notinSemester2,followedbyasummerbreak,andthenagaininSemester1ofthefollowingyear,orbasedonschedulingperhapsnotuntilSemester2ofthefollowingyear.Suchgapsinschedulingarenotconducivetoincrementallanguagelearning,whichbestoccursincontinuouslessonsthroughouttheyear.5

5IndependentSchools–includingFirstNationsschoolsthatareaccreditedasCategoryIorIIIndependentSchools–offersomeflexibilityregardingcurriculumandFirstNationslanguageeducation,butgenerallyfollowprovincialcurriculumguidelinesassetoutintheBCSchoolActandMinistryofEducationpolicies.FirstNationsschoolsnotaccreditedasIndependentSchoolsatpresentoffergreaterflexibilityinestablishingprogramsoutsideofthenormsofpolicyand

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Inlightofdemographics,Aboriginallanguageeducationalsofacesadisproportionateshortageofresourcesincomparisontoheritageorimmigrantlanguages.Finally,althoughtheBCSchoolActprovidesthatalanguageotherthanEnglishorFrenchcanbethelanguageofinstruction,thustechnicallyenablingFirstNationslanguageimmersioneducation,noschooldistricthasyetmadeuseofthisprovision,andFirstNationseducatorswhowerehopingtoimplementimmersionschoolingthroughschooldistrictshaveexpresseddisappointmentabouttheseeminglyinsurmountableobstaclestoestablishingFirstNationlanguageimmersionschoolsinthepublicsystem.

legislation,includingimmersionprogrammingorpartialimmersion.TheinclusionoflanguageteachinginFirstNationsschoolsisdiscussedinmoredetaillaterinthisdocument.

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PARTTWO:FUNDAMENTALSOFLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNINGAsdescribedinPart1,giventheuniqueimportanceofFirstNationslanguagesandthelimitedhumanandfinancialresourcesavailabletosupportthem,schoollanguageeducationprogramsrepresentavitalcomponentofthedauntingtaskoflanguagerevitalization.Byaddressingseveralkeyconcepts,schoolprogrammingcanmeaningfullycontributetoeffortstobreathenewlifeintolanguages.2.1TheUrgentNeedForFluentSpeakers:InconsideringthevitalroleofFirstNationslanguagesinFirstNationseducationgenerally,aswellasthedecliningnumberoffluentfirst‐languagespeakers–especiallyinBC–thereisanurgentneedtocreateandsupporthighlyproficientsecond‐languagespeakersofFirstNationslanguageswhocanfilltheroleoflanguageteachersinhighqualitysecondlanguage,immersionandadulteducationprograms,aswellaslanguagenests.Infact,ittakestremendoustimeandefforttobecomefullyproficientinalanguage,andduetoavarietyoffactors,therearefewhighlycompetentsecond‐languagespeakersofFirstNationslanguages.Contributingfactors,asexpressedbyadultlanguagelearnersandteachers,includethefollowing. Therearefewerandfeweropportunitiesforcontemporarylearnerstoimmerse

themselvesinsituationswhereonlytheFirstNationslanguageisused.Withthecriticaldeclineinthenumberoffluentfirst‐languagespeakers(seePart1),manylearnersstruggletofindopportunitiestopracticethelanguageoutsideoftheclassroom.

Thereisalackofintensivelanguagetrainingopportunitiesandincentivesbeyondintroductorylevelcoursesandbeginnercompetencies.

Itisdifficulttofindfunding,individuallyoringroups,forthesustainedandintensiveworkneededtodevelophighproficiency(althoughinrecentyears,someinitiativeslikeMentor(Master)‐Apprenticetraininghavecreatedsmallnumbersofhighlymotivatedlearnerswhohavebeenabletoacceleratetheirskills(FPCC,2014).

Workresponsibilitiesandpersonalstressesmakeitimpossibleformanyindividualstodedicatethemselvestointensivelanguagelearning.

ThedegreeofdifficultyofFirstNationslanguages,combinedwithfarfewerlearningresources(especiallyuser‐friendlymaterialsbeyondthebeginnerlevel)isaseriouschallenge.Infact,thestructureofFirstNationslanguagesmakestheminherentlymorechallengingtolearn,andmakesitimpossibletosimplyadaptortranslateEnglishlanguage‐basedcurriculummaterials.

ThelegacyofResidentialSchoolingcontinuestonegativelyimpactmanyspeakersandlearners.

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Butthesechallengesmustbeovercome,astoday’ssecond‐languagelearnerswillbecometheteachersofthelanguageintothenextgeneration.Further,adultswhobecomethenew(andfuture)generationsofFirstNationslanguageteachersmusthavetheopportunitytodevelopstrongproficiencyandcompetenceintheirlanguage,orthelanguageitselfwillatrophyandchangeasitistaughttochildrenintheK‐12educationsystem.AsHinton(1999,pg.75)hasobserved,“anyincompletelearning(accent,grammatical,orlexicaldeficiencies,etc.)willbecomepartofthefutureofthelanguageitself,”anddiminishedcompetencecanalsoleadtotensionsoverwhichwaysofsayingthingsare“correct”oracceptable.2.2CreatingProficiencyinFirstNationsLanguagesThroughK‐12EducationInconsideringhowtopromotelanguageprograms,itisusefultobeginbyconsideringwhatisknownaboutproducing“fluent”orproficientspeakerswhodemonstratealevelofeffortless,fluidcommunicationineverydaytopics.Tobegin,theultimategoalshouldbecommunicativecompetence–beingabletotakepartinconversation,narrateevents,andengageinculturallygroundedandmeaningfulinteractions.Becausepresentandfuturesecond‐languagelearnerswillbethetorch‐bearersofthelanguage,atleastsomeofthemwillneedtoacquireadvancedcompetence–meaningtheabilitytounderstanddetailsofwhatisbeingsaidratherthanjustthe“generalgist,”andtheabilitytoexpressoneselfwithfluidityandaccuracy,creativelyusingthelanguageratherthanmerelyrepeatingpreviouslyheardsentences.Competentorproficientspeakerscancommunicateinthelanguagetosuchadegreethattheycanfunctioninall,ornearlyall,communicativesituationswithout“gettingstuck”orhavingtoswitchtoEnglish.ForFirstNationslanguages,oralproficiencyisobviouslyneededinorderforlearnersto(re)builddomainsofuseinthehome,family,andpublicsettings.Wherecommunicationinvolveswrittenmedia(books,otherprintmaterials,andsocialmedia,etc.),alevelofaccurateandfluidexpressioninreadingandwritingisalsoimportant.Itisgenerallyagreedthatthislevelofproficiencyrequiresthattheindividual:1. acquiredthelanguageinearlychildhood;2. hasintuitiveknowledgeofthelanguage;3. isabletoproducefluent,spontaneousdiscourse;4. iscompetentincommunication;5. identifieswithorisidentifiedbyalanguagecommunity;and6. doesnothaveaforeignaccent(seewikipedia.org/wiki/First_language).

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Inaddition,FirstNationsspeakersusuallyconsiderindicatorsofnative‐likefluencyandhighproficiencytoinclude: intuitivelyaccuratepronunciationandaccent(phonemesorsounds,wordstress,

prosodyorsentencemelody,pitch‐tone); intuitivelyaccurateuseofgrammar; asufficientrangeofvocabulary; anabilitytoengageinword‐play;and anabilitytoperformculturallyimportantprotocols(prayer,speech,story,ceremony).2.2.1HowManyWordsAreNeededforProficiency?Howmanywords,orwhatamountofvocabulary,makesacompetentspeaker?OnewaytoanswerthatquestionistoconsiderthenumberofwordslistedindictionariesofFirstNationslanguages.The2012DictionaryoftheSquamishLanguagecontainsabout8,000headwordentries,thecurrentSecwepemcDictionarycontains6,000,andtheAlaskanHaidaDictionarycontains5,500headwordentries.ForFirstNationslanguages,itisnotalwayseasytodeterminewhatisa“word”andwhatisa“phrase”,giventheirproductivegrammarsystemstobuildcomplexconceptsoutofsmallerbuildingblocks.6However,thenumberofwordsusedineverydaycommunicationisactuallyfarlessthanthenumberofheadworddictionariesinexistingFirstNationslanguagedictionaries,consideringthatineverydaycommunication,inalllanguages,speakerstendtorelytoagooddegreeonhigh‐frequencywords,andonlytoaverysmalldegreeonunusual,specializedandrarewords.FortheEnglishlanguage,theGeneralServiceList,recentlyupdatedtotheNewGeneralServiceListshowsthatinvariousoralcommunicationmodes(everydayspeech,radio,TV)90%ofwordsusedarefromarepertoireofbetween822and1,388words.95%ofwordsusedconsistofarepertoireofbetween1,849to2,855words.Basedonresearchwithacorpusof273millionwords,researcherscompiledanoveralllistof2,818highfrequencywords(theNewGeneralServiceList)thatcover90%ofspeechproduction.Tomovetothe95%inthe95%range,itconsistsof6,828words–morethandouble!Corpus 90% 95%SpokenEnglish 822 1,849Radio 1,348 2,766TV 1,388 2,855WholeNewGeneralServiceList 2,818 6,828Source:http://www.newgeneralservicelist.org6Seebelow,pg.26,alsoKell2014foranon‐technicalexplanationofpolysyntheticlanguages.PolysyntheticlanguagesarelanguagesinwhichwordsarestrungtogethercomposedofmanypartsthatgiveinformationaboutWho?What?Inwhatway?When?Beyond

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Forindigenouslanguagelearning,theNewGeneralServiceListgivesustwoimportantlessons:

Excellentlisteningandspeakingskillsrequirecommandoveraratherfiniteamountofwords–notexceedingaround2,800words

Focusshouldbeonhigh‐frequency,commonwords Theamountofvocabularyrequiredofproficientspeakersmovingfromwhatwould

beanintermediatetoanadvancedlevel(seeabovep.24)risesexponentially!Regardingtheamountofvocabularythatshouldbeincludedincurriculuminordertoprovidecompetenceinalanguage,aschoolprogramthatisofferedattheGrades5‐12levelwouldneedtoprovidelearnerswithsome250vocabularyitemsperyearover8yearstobewithinthe95percentileforspokenlanguage.Itisalsoimportanttofocusonhighfrequencywordsinaconcreteandauthenticcontextofuse,whichwillgreatlyassistinthedevelopmentofgoodlisteningandspeakingskillsfromtheonset.Learnersdifferinhowquicklyandefficientlytheyareabletomemorizenewwordsandtransferthemfromshort‐termintolong‐termmemory.Asidefrommemorizingwordswiththehelpofflash‐cards,learnersneedtobeexposedtonewwordsindifferentsituationsandcontexts,throughdifferentmedia,andwithmuchrepetitioninordertoretaintheminlong‐termmemory.Hinton(2001)reportsthatanewvocabularyitemmustbeheardandpracticedapproximately20differenttimesineachof20differentsituations(foratotalof400times)beforealearnerwillmasterit.CreatingNewWordsForsometime,FirstNationslanguageteachers,speakersandlearnershaverealizedtheneedtocreateoradaptnewwordsinordertonamenewlyintroduceditemsthatareusedandtalkedaboutineverydaylife.Inthepast,speakersofalllanguagesdidthisbasedonwhatanobjectremindedthemof,wasusedfor,oritsshape,consistency,kindortype.Forexample,whentheyfirstexperiencedtelevision,Secwepemctsin(Shuswap)speakerscoinedthetermmelkwék’wye7tenforatelevisionset,derivedfromtherootmelk’w‐for“shadow,”towhichaninstrumentalsuffix–tenwasadded.Thiswasinthedaysofgrainy,oftenshadowyblack‐and‐whiteTVreceptioninthe1950sand60s.Sm’algyaxspeakerscoinedthetermxbiismgwiniitskfortelevision,whichliterallymeans“boxforlookingat.”AnotherwaytomakenewwordsistoborrowtheEnglishrootword,andthenmodifyitaccordingtotheword‐buildingprocessesoftheFirstNationslanguage.Itisusefultoteachstudentsaboutwordcreationandborrowing;notonlydoesitshowthatthelanguageisflexibleandinventive;italsoprovidesfascinatinginsightsintothewaypastandpresentspeakersperceive(d)introducedobjectsandconcepts(seeKell,2014forfurtherdiscussion).

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Astheyexpandandre‐awakentheiruseofthelanguage,languageteachers,fluentspeakersandlearnersareconstantlydevisingnewwords–insomecasesthroughtheirlanguageauthorities,inothercasesonthespotorthroughtheprocessofdevelopingcurriculum.InFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,childrenoftenaskthewordsforthingsthathavenotyetbeennamed.Manylanguageteachers,speakersandlearnershavethereforeexpressedtheneedformoreopportunitiestodevelop,discussandauthorizenewwords.2.2.2WhatisGrammarandHowIsItBestTaught?Itiswellknownthatmemorizingadictionarydoesnotmakeaproficientspeaker.Whenwespeakalanguage,wecombinewordsintolargerchunksofmeaning.Weusethetermgrammartodescribethewaysinwhichwords,withtheadditionofparticlewordsoraffixes,arecombinedtomakenewwordsorevencomplexstringsofmeaningthatamounttophrases,sentencesandlargernarratives.OneofthereasonsthatBritishColumbiaindigenouslanguagesaredifficulttolearnandtakemoretimetolearnisthefactthattheirgrammarisverydifferentfromEnglish,whatKell(2014)hasreferredtoaspolysyntheticlanguagestructures.7Forexample,inAthapaskanlanguages,aswellasTlingitandHaida,theverbofasentenceembedsnotonlytheactionitself,butincludeswithinitawealthofinformationthatincludeshowtheactioniscarriedout,whatistheshapeandkindoftheobjectactedupon,theduration,statusofcompletionandtimeoftheaction,andthemodalityandstatusofevidenceaboutwhathappened(real,inferredorhear‐say,always,neverorfromtimetotime,realorpotential,etc.).Someonewholearnsanylanguageasachildintuitivelylearnsitsgrammarwithoutbeingabletodescribehowsentenceswork.Asfluentspeakers,theyproducesentencesthatare“correct”oracceptabletoothers,andtheyarealsoabletointuitivelytellwhetherutterancesproducedbyothersareacceptableorgrammatical.8

7Linguistsdefinepolysyntheticlanguagesaslanguagesinwhichwordsarecomposedofmanymorphemes(wordsorwordpartsthatcanstandindependentlyorneedtobeattachedtootherparticlewords),sothatwhatisawholesentenceinEnglishisrepresentedbyalongword,oftenfocusedaroundaverb,whichincorporatesandencodesreferencestosubject,object,qualities,duration,modeofaction,time,etc.Whiletheterm“polysynthetic”isusefultoaddresstheverydifferentwayinwhichideasconceptsareexpressedinindigenouslanguagesthataredifferentfromEnglishorotherIndo‐Europeanlanguages,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthemanyindigenouslanguagesfoundinBCbehaveverydifferentlyfromoneanotherinexpressingsuchideasandconcepts,andnotallareequallypolysynthetic.8Linguistswhostudythegrammarofalanguagespecializeindeterminingthe“rules”thatunderlietheproductionofgrammaticalsentences.MostFirstNationslanguagesinBChavegrammarsproducedbylinguists,whichlayouttherulesforthegrammaticalconstructionofwordsandsentences.Linguisticgrammarstendtobeverytechnical,eventheoretical,andareinmostcasesverydifficultforthelaypersonornon‐linguisttodecipher;inotherwords,theyareeverythingbut

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Intermsofteachinggrammar,intheearlierdecadesofthetwentiethcenturygrammarwastaughtasanobjectinitself,withafocusongrammarrulesandlearnersproducingaccuratespeechatthesentencelevel.Later,theemphasisswitchedtocommunicativecompetenceandstrictgrammarteachingbecamechastised.Inrecentyears,however,languageteachershaveacknowledgedthatacommunicativeapproachalonedoesnotensuregrammaticallyaccuratespeech,andthatinstillingsomeconsciousawarenessofgrammarisuseful,oftenreferredtoasfocusonform.Infact,asHale(2001andHinton(2001)pointedout,awarenessofgrammarisespeciallyusefulforteachers,asitwillguidetheminleadinglearnerstocorrectspeech.MembersoftheIndigenousLanguagesInstituteintheUnitedStatesdeclared:“Wecannotteachlanguagesimplybecausewearespeakersofthatlanguage.Wemustknowwhatourlanguageislike–itsstructureandfunctionineverydayexistence”(citedinWatahomigieandYamamoto,1992).WilliamO’Grady,alinguistandlanguageacquisitionspecialistfromtheUniversityofHawai’iatManoawroteaninsightfulpaperonthistopic.Hisimportantpointwasthatlearnersofcriticallyendangered[Indigenous]languagesneedtobeledtoproduceaccuratespeechsimilartowhatthegenerationsbeforethemproduced,lestthelanguagetheyhavelearnedundergotremendousattritionandlossasaresultofsecondlearners’reducedproficiency(O’Grady2013).Therealpointliesinhowgrammarpracticeiscarriedout.Tomakeitmeaningfulandusefulforlearners,itshouldnotinvolvelearningrules,butinsteadshouldinvolveinteractivegamesandvariedactivitiesinoralandwrittenform.Forexample,inafewinstanceslinguistshaveworkedwithfluentspeakersandlanguageteacherstoproducepedagogicalorteachinggrammarsofFirstNationslanguages.OneexampleisVisibleGrammar:Ts’msyenSm’algyaxGrammarResources–TwentyUser‐FriendlyModulesonKeyTs’msyenSm’algyaxStructurescreatedbyM.AndersonandM.Ignace,incooperationwithmanyfluentspeakersofSm’algyax(2008).Thatresourcecolour‐codesSm’algyaxsentencepartsandallowsthelearnertoliterally“build”Sm’algyaxsentencesbyassemblingtime‐words,verbs,subjects,objects,andtheiridentifyingconnectivesinthecorrectorder.Learnerscanalsodothiswithmagnetstripsofmanyexamplewordsandgrammarparticles,whichtheycanassembleintocorrectsentences.Understandingandusinggrammarcanbeinductive,inthatstudentscanbeledtoself‐discoverthemeaningsbehindforms(particlewords,endings)astheyheartheminavarietyofcontexts.Inductiveteachingofgrammarshouldinvolvethefollowing.1. Presentation:theteacherleadsstudentstoperceiveastructure(likeapronoun

“user‐friendly”andindeedareoftenfrustratingforlearners.

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ending)informandmeaning.Thiscanbedonebyemphasizingitaloneandbystayinginthelanguage.Studentscanbepresentedwithasetofsentences(likeashortstory,toldinthe“I‐form”)wherethe“I‐form”(firstpersonsingular)isemphasizedandstressedbytheteachereachtimeitoccurs.Intheelementaryclassroom,theteacher’spresentationofgrammarstructuresandtheirmeaningcanbeflaggedas“focus‐on‐form”teachingandlearningactivities(seesection4.5.1formoredetails).

2. Isolationandexplanation:mostteacherszeroinongrammaticalforminEnglishby

wayofanexplanation.However,itispossibletodothiswhilestayinginthelanguagebywayofaskingyes/nooreither/orquestionsaboutwhichendingneedstobeadded.IntheAIMmethod(seesection2.5.4formoreinformation)languagestudentsarepresentedwithbasicgrammarrulesthroughjazz‐chants!

3. Practice:exercisesdoneintheclassroomandasfurtherhomeworkpracticehelp

learnerstofullyabsorbthestructureandtotransferitsusefromshort‐termtolong‐termmemory.Practiceshouldincludeoralandwrittenexercises,whole‐class,groupandindividualwork,games,TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)andTotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling(TPR‐S)activities(describedfurtherinPart4),and,ifthewrittenlanguageistaught,itcaninvolveworkandpractice‐sheets.9

HowdoweidentifywhatgrammarstructuresexistforFirstNationslanguages?Onewayisbystudying(andmaking“user‐friendly”)theexistinglinguisticgrammaroftheFirstNationslanguage,includingidentifyingitstopics.Anotherwayistoconsiderasetofgrammaticalfunctionsthatthelearnerofanylanguageneedstobeabletounderstand(andread)anduseinspeaking(andwriting).Thefollowingaresomeuniversalgrammartopics(althoughnotaninclusivelist)thatareexpressedinavarietyofformsindifferentFirstNationslanguages. Simplesentencesthatdescribethecharacteristics,stateofbeing,qualityofapersonor

athing(thecatisbig;mygrandmotheristired;etc.).NotethatthesecanfunctioninverydifferentwaysthaninEnglish.

Yes‐noquestions(Isthehouseblue?Isyourgrandmotherwell?). Informationquestionsor“wh”questions(Who?Where?What?When?). PronounsthatexpressI,you,he/she,we,youfolks,theyasthe“doer”orsubjectofa

sentence(notethatthesemaybeorganizeddifferentlythaninEnglish). Sentenceswitha“doer”(subjectoragent)andapersonwhoreceivestheaction(object

9ExamplesofinteractiveGrammarTeachingresourcesincludeSchessler,Eric,EnglishGrammarThroughActions(1997);Schessler,Eric,(n.d.)HowtoTeachGrammarUsingTPR Ur,GrammarPracticeActivities;TheGrammarPracticeBookfromtheOxfordLanguageLearningSeries.

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orpatient). Pronounsthatexpressobjects(tome,toyou,tohimorher,tous,toyoufolks,tothem). Reflexivepronouns(doingsomethingtooneself). Negation(sentenceswithNOT). Modals(can,might,should,alwaysdoes,usedtodo).Thesemightbeparticlewords

insideverbsoraddedtoverbs. Demonstratives(this,that,thatwayoverthere,etc.). Adverbsoftime,tenseandaspect.(Istheactiondescribedinasentencetakingplace

now,isitcompleted,diditstartatsomepointinthepastandisitstillongoing,isitexpectedtohappeninthefuture?)

Therelativelocationofthingsandpeople. Singulars,pluralsofnounsandactions. Wordorderindifferentkindsofsentences. Complexsentences.(If….then;when….then,firstxhappens/happened,theny).Inorganizinggrammartopics,especiallyforthebeginninglearner,Michel(2009)sharesanimportantwordofcaution,basedonmanyyearsofteachingprimaryandelementarylevelchildreninanimmersionprogram:

…Ageneralruletokeepinmindisthattheprocessofteachingandacquiringanynewpronounform,tense,orgrammaticalstructuretakesuptoonemonthandsometimeslonger.Duringthepilotstagesofthecurriculum,teachersshouldmakecarefulnotesonwhethertheformisreadilyunderstoodoracquiredbytheirstudents.Giveampletimetoteachandpracticeeachformbeforeintroducinganynewones.Often,youwillfindthattheintroductionofcertainlanguageskillsareoutofsequencewithwhatstudentsarereadytolearn.Itisimportanttonotethatlanguagelearningcannotbeforcednorspedup.Itismucheasier(andlessstressful)forallinvolvedtojustdelaythatteachingforanotherunit,oreven,toalatergrade.Onefeatureofsecondlanguageacquisitiontokeepinmindis,themoreaskillparallelsthestudent'sfirstlanguage,thegreaterchancetheywillacquireit.Theoppositeisalsotrue,so,regardlessofhowimportantorintegraltheskillistothelanguage,resistintroducingcomplexandconfusingstructuresuntilyouknowthestudentshaveenoughcompetencytocomprehendit,oreventonoticeit.

ForSecwepemctsin,Sm’algyaxandUpperSt’at’imcets,curriculumdevelopmentteamshavedevelopedCommunicativeandGrammaticalScopeandSequencecharts(seeAppendix1foranexample).Thesechartsmapoutandlistthegrammaticaltopicsthatmatterforthe

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specificlanguageaccordingtoseveralsub‐topicsorareas.Withinacommunicativelearningframeworkthatdoesnotaimtoteachgrammarasanobject,itispossibletomatchupatwhatgradelevelconceptsareinitiallyusedbytheteacher,withoutexpectationthatlearnerswillbeawareoforbeabletousethemwithaccuracy.Atsubsequentgradelevels,suchconceptsarethenintroduced,practiced,andideallymastered.AsKell(2014)hassuggested,communicativeandgrammaticalscopeandsequencechartscanalsoperformdoubledutybybeingadaptedasrubricsforemergentgrammaticalcompetenceinlearners.2.2.3Phonology–CorrectAccentandPronunciationIngeneral,mostsecond‐languagelearnerswhobeginlearningatayoungagedonotrequirespecificexplanationandscaffoldingtohelpthemwithgoodpronunciation,accentandsentencemelody.Aslongastheyreceiveanadequateamountofexposuretothelanguagefromateacherwhohasaccuratespeech,alongwithampleopportunitiesforspeakingthelanguage,theywillintuitivelydevelopgoodpronunciation.However,especiallyadultlearnersmaybenefitfrompracticethattargetsthesoundsystemofthelanguage,focusinginparticularondifficulttoproducesoundsthatareunlikeEnglish.Thesecouldincludesounddiscriminationexercises,wherethelearnerhastoidentifyandproducethecorrectsoundinasetofwordsthathavesoundsthataredifficulttodistinguishforearsattunedtotheEnglishlanguage.Forexample,XaadKilorHaidahasaseriesofconsonantsdifficulttodistinguishforlearners:Thewordk’aad(witha“pinched”or“glottalized”kmeansdeer,whereasthewordk’aad,withapinchedorglottalizedthroat‐ksoundmeansdog‐fish.Anothergoodwaytopracticedifficulttopronounceanddifficulttodistinguishsoundsisthroughtonguetwisters,chantsetc.Manylanguageteachersfindthatsongswithrepetitiouslyricshelplearnerspickupdifficultsounds.2.2.4TheCultureintheLanguageAfurtheraspectofgainingcompetenceinaFirstNationslanguageinvolvesmindingculturalprotocolsinone’sspeech,andrespectfullyinteractingwithotherspeakersaccordingtothewayspeoplemutuallyreinforceandsupportoneanother’sstatementsandstories.Fluentspeakersoftencommentontheimportanceofnot“thinkinginEnglish”butfromwithinthecategoriesofspeechandculturalprotocolsofspeechoftheindigenouslanguage.CulturallyinappropriateorinaccuratespeechmostoftenoccurswhenlearnersapproachwhattheywanttosayfromEnglishandthentrytotranslateitintotheFirstNationslanguage.Amuchmoreauthenticandfeasible(butharder!)wayistoapproachcontentfromwithinthechoicesofwords,grammar,protocolsofspeechandculturalwaysofperceivingandorganizingtheworldthatareembeddedinthelanguage..Itisimportanttopointoutthataslanguagesbecomecriticallyendangered,someofthespeakerswhoareleftmayhavespecificknowledgeofsomespecializeddomainsand

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registers(e.g.hunting,fishing,ceremony,placenames,storytelling,oratory),butnotofothers.SomeindividualsalsomayhavereceivedsomewhatlimitedexposureandsocializationintheFirstNationlanguage,resultinginagoodgraspofbasicbutnotallcomplexstructures.Thesedifferencesareconnectedtothelifeexperiencesofindividuals,theamountofcommunicativeexposuretothelanguagetheyhadaschildren,andtheparticularteachingsorlanguagesocializationtheyreceivedfromtheirownElders.2.2.5HowManyHoursorYearsDoesItTake?Variousfactorsdeterminehowquicklyfluencylevelsarereached.Inaddition,“ifsecondlanguageacquisitionbeginsattheageof5itfollowsadifferentpatternthanwhensecondlanguageacquisitionbeginsatage25oratage15”(Archibaldetal.,2006).Thisisnottosaythatlanguagelearningcanonlybesuccessfulifsomeonestartsataveryyoungage:itjustmeansthatthepath,methods,milestonesandoutcomeswillbedifferent.Infact,whilesomeresearchersarguethatthereisa“criticalperiod”betweenearlychildhoodandaround15yearsofage–anoptimalperiodnotonlyfortheacquisitionofafirstlanguage,butalsofortheacquisitionofasecondlanguage,otherresearchhasshownthatolderyouthandadultscanstillgainverygoodfluencyiftheybeginlearninglaterinlife(althoughthemostdifficultthingtoacquireisanear‐nativepronunciationoraccent).RegardingtheamountoftimeittakestolearnaFirstNationslanguage,Hinton(1994)notesthatoneneedsabout500hoursofregularandwell‐structuredinstructiontoreachbasicproficiency.ReferringtoteachingtheArapaholanguage,Greymorning(1997)estimatesthat600‐700hours,withasmuchas6hoursadayofinstruction,isneededtoproduceproficiency.However,indescribingherownandheryoungadultcolleagues’pathtomid‐intermediatelevelproficiencyinNsilxcen(Okanagan),Johnson(2013,2014)estimatesthatittakesatleast1,000guidedteachinghourstoreachthatlevelofproficiencyinNsilxcen.TheU.S.ForeignServiceInstituteandtheAssociationofLanguageTestersofEurope(ALTE)haveprovidedestimatesregardingthenumberof“guidedteachinghours”requiredtoreachnotonlybeginnerandmid‐intermediatelevelproficiency,buttoreachadvancedlevelproficiency.Theirestimatesarebasedontheexperiencethatsomelanguagesareeasiertolearnthanothers,withproficiencyinthemoredifficultlanguagesrequiringfarmoretime.FSIandALTE’sestimatesdistinguishbetweenfourtofivecategoriesofdifficultyforEnglishspeakersamongwidelyspokenworldlanguages:Thus,languageslikeItalian,SpanishandDutchinCategory1,andlanguageslikeArabic,Mandarin,JapaneseandKoreaninthemostdifficultcategory(IV)which,accordingtothesescales,requires1,000to1,200hourstohighintermediateproficiency,and2,400to2,760hourstohighadvanced

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proficiency!10Amonglearnersandlinguistsalike,FirstNationslanguagesarecommonlyperceivedtofallwithinthatmostdifficultcategory,Thischallengeisfurtherexacerbatedbyfactorssuchasrelativelyfewerlearningresources,limitedlanguageteachertraining,andthelimitedabilityto“soakoneself”inthelanguagebybeingsurroundedbyradio,TV,socialnetworks,andspeakerswhoarewillingandabletoremaininthelanguage.Otherfactorsthataffectthespeedofattaininglanguageproficiencyaredescribedbelow. Personalability/aptitudecharacteristics,suchastheabilitytofocusorprior

experienceinlanguagelearning,canbeimportant(althoughasdescribedabove,researchshowsthatsecondlanguagelearningisitselfbeneficialforcognitivedevelopment,problemsolving,mentalflexibility,attentioncontrol,etc.).Studentswithlearningdisabilitiesandbehaviouraldisabilitiesmayhaveahardertimelearningasecondlanguage.

Learnermotivationandattitudescanbepositiveinfluences.Forexamplethedesiretoconnecttoone’sculture,knowledgeandworldviewcaninspirelearning,andamonganincreasingnumberoflearnersandFirstNationslanguageactivists,thedeterminationandresolvetoprovidealifelinetolanguagesurvivalisasignificantmotivationalfactorandcatalyst.However,attitudescanalsomakelanguagelearningdifficult.Forexample,thelingeringtraumaresultingfromResidentialSchoolscontinuestorepresentseriouschallengesformanyindividualsacrossgenerations.

Lowanxietylevelsarecrucial,andremovingthreat(indifferingforms)fromtheclassroomwillkeepstudentsopentocognitivegrowth(Gaffney1999).

Teacherswhoareproficientenoughtousethelanguageforallcommunicationintheclassroombetterpromotefluency(asopposedtoteacherswhouseEnglishforinstructionwhileteachingisolatedwordsintheFirstNationslanguage).Also,teacherswhoarewellversedineffectivelanguagelearningmethodsarecrucial.

Effectivecurriculumandcurricularresourcesthatallowforincrementalandsequentiallearningofalanguage,supportedbyavarietyoflearningresources,arebeneficial.

Moderntechnology(digitalmedia,audio‐files,languageapps,smart‐boards)canplayapositivesupportingrole.

ThetimerequirementsassociatedwithdifficultlanguageshaveimportantimplicationsforK‐12FirstNationslanguageeducation.IfthegoalofFirstNationslanguageprogramsisproficiencybuildingthat,atleastforsomestudents,willleadtoconversationalcompetenceandtherevitalizeduseofthelanguage,itisimportanttoprovideenoughtimeforlearning.Overall,manylanguageeducatorsobjecttothelackoftimeprovidedinschoolstoenable

10Section4.1belowprovidesmoreinformationaboutproficiencylevelsinthecontextoflearnerassessmentandlanguagelearningbenchmarks.

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oralproficiencydevelopment.Infact,thenewdraftcurriculumforCoreFrench(Grades5‐12)doesnotevensetadvancedproficiencyasatarget;instead,ittargetsthedevelopmentofintermediateor“independentuser”proficiency,whichcanbereachedforalanguagelikeFrenchin560‐650hours.ForaFirstNationslanguage,some1,000hourswouldberequiredtoreach“independentuser”proficiency.ThisnumberofhoursisnotreflectedintheBCSecondLanguagesPolicy,norinthemajorityofK‐12FirstNationslanguageprograms–exceptforimmersionprogramsofferedbyafewFirstNations‐operatedschools.BelowaresomecalculationsforthenumberofguidedlearninghoursthatcurrentlyexistinFirstNationlanguageprogramsofvariouskindsthroughoutBC.Grades5‐12languagelearningsupportedbyBCLanguagePolicy(basedon90‐120minutesofinstructionperweekGrades5‐12):BCGrades5‐12 456‐608hours OtherExamples:SchoolDistrict52GradesK‐12Sm’algyax11Kindergarten 58‐97hours(varieswithschool)Grades1‐4(total) 156hoursGrade5 59hoursGrades6,7,8(total) 312hoursGrades9‐12(total) 500hoursTotal: ca.1,084‐1,123hoursBellaBellaCommunitySchool12GradesK‐12 ca.1,521hrs@3hrs/week(someofthisincludessinging,drumming,artetc.taughtpartiallyinEnglish)ChiefAtahmSchool(SecwepemclanguageImmersionSchoolGradesK‐9)13GradesK‐3:fullimmersion 3,600hrs.Grades4‐9:2hrs/week) 456hrs.Total: 4,000+Generally,mostschoolprogramsdonotprovideenoughhoursforlowindependentuser(earlyintermediate)languageproficiency,althoughasreportedbylanguageteachers,someindividualstudentscanreachsuchagoaldependingontheamountofpracticeandexposuretheyareprovided,andtheirpersonalmotivationandinterestlevel.AnOptionforMoreGuidedTeachingHours–Hinton’s“HouraDay”inPracticeIntermsoftheireffectivenessinenablingchildrentobecomeproficientthroughtheguidedteachinghourstheyprovide,immersionprogramsarebyfarthebestoption(seeSection

11InformationprovidedbySchoolDistrict52AboriginalEducationServicesSm’algyaxCommittee.12InformationprovidedbyMs.BrendaHumchitt,BellaBellaCommunitySchool.13InformationprovidedbyDr.KathrynMichel,ChiefAtahmSchool.

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2.3.2below).Yetgiventheinitiativeandhumanresourcesrequiredforimmersionprograms,theyarerarelybeingimplementedinBC.Fortunately,Hinton’s(1004)recommended“houraday”practicefortheK‐12yearsasameanstoachievingcompetencemaybeanoptionwithintheexistingpoliciesandpracticesoftheBCpubliceducationsystem.Byruleofthumb,inelementaryschooling,schooldistrictsallow20percentofthecurriculumtobedesignatedaslocalcurriculum–translatingintoaboutoneof5hoursperday.Hereishowthiscouldwork…K–Grade7–1hour/dayx175days approx.1,520hoursGrades8‐12@125hrs/year approx.625hours Total: approx.2,145hoursK–Grade7–45minutes/day approx.1,050hoursGrades8‐12@95hrs/year approx.475hoursTotal: approx.1,525hoursInthissection,wehavediscussedthecomponentsoflanguageteachingandlearningthatneedtobeaddressedinthelanguageclassroomtoproduceproficiencyamonglearners.Nexttointroducingagoodamountofvocabulary,modelingandinstillingaccuratepronunciationandembeddingwhatislearnedinculturalconnections,acrucialareais“user‐friendly”andcommunicativegrammarlearning,whichinturnrequiresadequateteachingmethodsandresources.Beyondthat,itisofutmostimportancethatinordertoleadtoresults,i.e.learnerproficiency,FirstNationslanguageprogramsmustallocatetheamountoftimelearnersneedtoreachproficiency.

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2.3TypesofLanguageProgramsandtheLanguageEducationTheyProvideInCanada,varioustypesofschoolprogramsthatofferinstructioninaFirstNationslanguagehavebeenimplementedforsometime,andatleastoneadditionaltypeofprogramcurrentlyofferedforFrenchinsomeschooldistrictsmayhavepotentialforFirstNationslanguages.Thoseprogramsarebrieflydescribedbelow,includingaconsiderationoftheamountofguidedteachinghourstheyoffer.2.3.1SecondLanguageorAdditionalLanguageProgramsInsecondlanguageprograms,thelanguageistaughtasoneamongasetofsubjectcourses(alongwithmath,science,etc.).FirstNationssecondlanguagecoursesareoftenbasedonthematicunitsconnectedtotraditionalseasonalroundsandsubsistenceactivities.Mostsecondlanguageprogramsofferedattheprimary/elementarylevelfocusonorallanguageasopposedtoliteracyskills(readingandwriting).Atthehighergrades,theyusuallyincludeliteracyandvariouskindsofpractice(grammar,pronunciation,vocabularybuilding)aimedatinstillingoralcommunication.Insomeinstances,theprogramsincludecross‐curricularconnectionstoothersubjects;forexample,ifthesocialsunitexplorestraditionaltravelbycanoe,vocabularyandactionsofcanoebuildingandtravelmaybethetopicofthelanguageunit.(FirstNationssecondlanguageprogramsthatteachcontentinthelanguage(e.g.mathproblems,scienceobservations,culturalactivities,physicalactivities,art,crafts,songanddrumming)withadequatetimeallocationcanbeconsideredonacontinuumwithpartialimmersion(seebelow)).FirstNationssecondlanguageprogramsexistinvariousformsinBC.SomeexistatthefullK‐12graderange;othersexistonlyattheelementaryorsecondarylevels.WhiletheseprogramsexisttosomedegreeinmostFirstNationschools,notallschooldistrictsinBCofferFirstNationslanguageprograms,andthosethatdohavewidelyvaryingtimeallocations.Insomesettingstheyarewellsupportedbycurriculum;inothersettingstheyarenot(yet).Intermsofthenumberofguidedteachinghourstheyarecurrentlyabletooffer,secondlanguageprogramsfallwellshortofthenumberofhoursrequiredtocreateanewgenerationofproficientspeakersorevenintermediatelevelspeakers.Thisshortageintimeallocationdoesnotdenythefactthatmanywelltrainedandcompetentlanguageteachersworktirelesslyinsecondlanguageprogramstohelpchildrenandyouthlearntheirancestrallanguage,butitdoeshighlighttheenormouschallengestheyface.

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2.3.2FirstNationsLanguageImmersionPrograms.Theterm“immersion”isoftenusedtorefertolanguageprogramsinwhichtheteacherandlearnersattemptto“stay”inthelanguage,ratherthanusingEnglishtoteachFirstNationslanguagewordsandphrases.Inotherwords,inimmersioneducation,alsocalledContent‐BasedLanguageTeaching(CBLT),allsubjectmatter(literacy,numeracyandmath,socials,science,physicaleducation,etc.)istaughtthroughandinthe“targetlanguage.”FrenchimmersionprogramshavebeeninexistencethroughoutCanadasincethe1970sandaresupportedbyCanada’s“officialbilingualism”policy,discussedearlier.TheacademicbenefitsofFrenchimmersionandearlybilingualismhavebeenwellstudied(Genesee,1987).ForFrenchimmersion,early(K)andlate(Grade5/6)entrymodelsexist,withearlyentrythemostcommoninBC.Earlyimmersionfollowsanaturalpathoflanguageacquisitionthatmirrorsthepathoffirst‐languageacquisition.EarlyimmersionFrenchtypicallystartswith100%instructionofprimarycurriculuminFrench,andreducesFrenchlanguage‐basedinstructionto50percentbythemiddleschoolyearsandsome30percentbyseniorsecondary.Basedonresearch,today’simmersionprogramsusuallyincludefocus‐on‐formpracticethatmodelsandreinforcescorrectspeech.ComparedtostudentswholearnFrenchasasecondlanguageorasaschoolsubjectforseveralyears,Frenchimmersionstudentsdevelopmuchhigherlanguagecommunicationskills.Frenchimmersionprogramsresultinadvanced“functionalproficiency”bytheendofhighschool,withlisteningandreadingabilitiesbeingnative‐speaker‐like(aheadofspeakingandwritingability,whichinmoststudentswillnotbenative‐speaker‐like).Numerousstudieshavealsoshownthatimmersioneducationdoesnot“holdback”studentsintheiracademicdevelopment.Infact,Frenchimmersionstudents’performancemeetsorevenexceedstheperformanceofEnglish‐onlystudentsinmathandsciences.Initially,immersionstudentsmaylagbehindnon‐immersionstudentsintheirEnglishliteracyskills,buttheycatchupwithinabouttwoyears.Studentswhodevelopliteracyandnumeracyskillsthroughlanguageimmersiongenerallytransfertheseskills,andimmersionstudentshavebeenshowntobenefitfromthecognitiveadvantagesofbilingualism(describedabove).SeveralFirstNationslanguageimmersionprogramshavebeeninspiredbyMaoriandHawaiianmovements,whichfolloweduponearlychildhood“languagenests”bycontinuingtheimmersionexperienceintotheK‐12schoolsystem.AboriginallanguageimmersioninCanadawaspioneeredbytheMohawkinKahnawake,andimmersion

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programsnowexistforAnishinabe,Cree,Peigan,Mi’kmaq,Oneida,Inuktitut,Innuttitut,andsomeotherlanguages.14InBC,asmallnumberofimmersionprogramsalsoexist. Ts’elcéwtqenClleq’mél’ten(ChiefAtahmSchool):TheSecwepemctsin(Shuswap

language)immersionprogramatChiefAtahmSchoolnearChase,BCgrewoutofalanguagenestandhasofferedimmersioneducationsincetheearly1990s.ItcurrentlyoperatesasafullimmersionprogramattheK‐3levels,followedbybilingualeducationattheGrades4‐9levelsthatincludes2hours/weekofSecwepemctsininstruction.

Clao7alhcwImmersionProgramatXit’olacwCommunitySchool,MountCurrie(Lil’wat)isacohort‐basedprimary/elementaryimmersionclasswithinthelargerschool.TheschooloffersasecondlanguageprogramintheremainderofitsK‐12school,whichisattendedbysome250students.

WSANECSchoolBoardoffersaSENCOŦENlanguageimmersionprogramatthePreschool/KLevelatLENONETSCUL,AUTWSurvivalSchool.

NkmaplqsISnmamayatnklSqilxwtetisanOkanaganlanguage(N’syilxcen)immersionprogramoperatedbytheHead‐of‐the‐LakeBand,whichwascreatedin2006(Cohen2010;Michel2012).

NoFirstNationslanguageimmersionprogramscurrentlyexistinBCpublicschools.Overall,despitetheiradvantages,developingimmersionprogramsrequiresrisk‐taking,conviction,passion,hardworkandhighenergyamongteachers,familiesandcommunities,oratleastgroupsoffamilieswithincommunities.Inaddition,theyrequirefluentadultswhoarealsotrainedandexperiencedclassroomteachers,althoughprogramslikeChiefAtahmSchoolhavesuccessfullymetthischallengethroughteamteachingbyfluentEldersandlanguageapprenticeswhoaretrainedasteachers.2.3.3PartialImmersionorBilingualPrograms“Partialimmersion”programsusuallyteachabout50percentofthesubjectmatterinthetargetlanguage,althoughinsomesettingsitmaybeless.ItisunclearwhatnumberofFirstNationspartiallanguageimmersionprogramsexistinBC.Itappearsthatfewprogramsoffer50percentor2.5hoursofdailyFirstNationslanguageinstruction,althoughprogramsthatoffer45minutesto1.5hoursperday,witha

14GoodsourcesonAboriginallanguageschoolimmersionprogramsincludeMorcom,Lindsay,(n.c.);Kipp,Darrell(2009),McIvor,Onowa(2005),Michel,Kathryn(2004).TheCARLA‐CenterforAdvancedResearchonLanguageAcquisition(UniversityofMinnesota)–websitealsoprovidesadetailedlistofsourcesonIndigenousimmersionprograms:www.carla.umn.edu/immersion/bibs/results

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combinationoflanguage‐andcontent‐focusedinstruction,doexist.TahayghenElementarySchoolinMassetBC,forexample,beganin2011/2012withanall‐dayKclassthatincludedXaadKil(Haidalanguage)instructiontwoafternoonseachweek.2.3.4IntensiveFrenchAnotheroptionhasbeendevelopedasanalternativetoFrenchimmersion,andisnowofferedinmostprovinces,includingBC.ThismodeldoesnotcurrentlyexistforanyFirstNationslanguage,butitmightprovideinspirationforaFirstNationsintensivelanguageprogramthatisacompromisebetweenfullimmersionandasecondlanguageprogram.IntensiveFrenchisusuallyofferedattheGrade6level.Inthefirsthalfoftheyear,80percentofclasstimeistaughtinFrench,with20percent(mathwithoutreductionandEnglishreducedbyhalf)taughtinEnglish.Duringthefirsthalfoftheyear,studentsreceivehigh‐intensity,concentratedexposuretoandinstructioninFrench,whichquicklybuildscompetence.Curricularcontent(geography,history,health,etc.)isthenintegratedasstudents’languageskillsimprove.Languageinstructionishighlyinteractiveandcommunication‐based,whilealsoincludingreadingandwritingandproblem‐solvinggroupworkinthelanguage.DuringthesecondhalfoftheGrade6year,studentsreceive20percentofinstructioninFrenchand80percentinEnglish.IntheFrench‐intensivefirsthalfoftheyear,thecurriculumisstrippedofallbutbarebones;inthesecond,English‐intensivehalfoftheyear,theregularGrade6curriculumis“compacted”tomeetlearningoutcomesfortheyear.TheprogramcontinueswithstrongFrenchinstructioninthefollowingyears(usuallyonehourperday),called“enhancedFrench.”AssessmentsofstudentswhohavecompletedintensiveFrenchhaveshownthat,followingtheGrade6year,studentshadoralcompetencecomparabletocoreFrenchGrade9,10oreven11students,andtheyhadwrittencommunicationskillssimilartoGrade3‐4Francophonestudents.TheirFrenchlanguageskillsatthesecondaryschoollevelweresimilartothelanguageskillsofFrenchimmersionstudents.Datahasindicatedthatthe“compacting”ofcorecurriculumhashadnolong‐termimpactsonoverallstudentachievementlevels.ProvidingthatintensiveFrenchstudentsreceive“enhanced”FrenchinGrades7‐12,bythetimetheygraduatefromsecondaryschool,theirFrenchskillsareonparwithFrenchimmersiongraduates.Intensivelanguageprogrammingis,inprinciple,enabledbytheBCMinistryofEducation’slanguageeducationpolicy.Supportedbyafluentspeaker(orthroughateam‐teachingapproach)andwithcurricularresourcesfocusedonfast‐pacedintensiveteaching,itcouldoffercohortgrade5or6levelprogramsforparticularFirstNationslanguagesthataresupportedbyfluentandwelltrainedteachers,motivatedlearners,familiesandElders.Ifproperlyresourced(instruction,curriculum,andhumanresources)itcouldleadto

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advancedlevelproficiencythatwouldbecomparabletotheresultsofafullimmersionprogram.

2.4LanguageTeachingMethodsinK–12BelowisalistingofteachingmethodsembracedbylanguageteachersinBCandteachersofIndigenouslanguagesworldwide.ThesemethodsareconsistentwithbestpracticesandmeaningfulFirstNationslanguageteachingactivities.2.4.1The“BerlitzMethod”(Interactivequestion/answer)Attheheartofthisapproacharetwoprinciples. Onlythetargetlanguageisusedintheclassroom,withtheteacherleavingEnglish

outsideandcarryingoutallteaching,studentprompts,andcommunicationswithstudentsinthelanguage.

Theuseofquestion‐and‐answerexchangesbetweenteachersandstudentsisattheheartoftheBerlitzMethod.Throughquestioningtechniques,learnersinteractwiththeteacherandeachotherusingthelanguage,andthusenhancetheircommunicativeabilities.Question/answersetsareorganizedaroundasetoftechniquesandprinciples.

TheexamplesbelowareadaptedfromBerlitz(2000).Technique1:Demonstration

SalientFeature:Askaquestionwhileactingoutorpointingatanobjectorpicture. LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,

straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice

Example:Teacher: (holdingupapictureofasalmon)‐isthisasalmon?Student: yes.Teacher: Yes,it’sasalmon.Teacher: (actingoutwritingontheblackboard)AmIwritingontheboard?Student: Yes,youare(writingontheboard).Technique#2:Elimination

SalientFeature:Asktwoormorequestionsuntilthestudentgivesthecorrectresponse.

LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice

Example:Teacheractsasthoughreadingabook.Teacher: AmIdrinkingjuice?Student: No,youarenot(drinkingjuice).Teacher: WhatamIdoing?

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Student: Youarereading(abook).Technique#3:Substitution

SalientFeature:Asktwoquestions,withthesecondquestionhavingthesamemeaningoranswerasthefirst.Affirmtheresponse.


Example:Teacher: Isthemanglad?Isthemanhappy?Student: Yes,heishappy.Teacher: Yes..Heisgladandheishappy.Technique#4:Contrast

SalientFeature:Askaquestionwhoseanswerisnotdepictedintheillustrationormime.


Example:Teacher: Isthemancooking?Student: No,heiseatingsalmon.(Thisrequiresuseofnegativephrases,whichcanbemuchmorecomplexinFirstNationslanguagesthanplaindeclarativesentences).Technique#5:Definition

SalientFeature:Providelead‐inquestionsgivingadditionalcluetothemeaningoranswerafterstudentshavelistenedtoadialogue,orlistenedtoashortstory.

LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice.

Example:Teacher: DidRichardcallSusanthismorning?Student: Yes,hecalled(Susanthismorning).Teacher: Didhetellherthathewouldvisithertonight?Student: Yes.(Hetoldherthathewouldvisithertonight).Teacher: Right.Hetoldherthathewouldvisitordropbyherhousetonight.Technique#6:Control

SalientFeature:Askquestionstocallonstudentstoreproducethesentencetheyhavejustbeenaskedtorepeat.

LinguisticFocus:Grammaticalstructurecoveredbytechniqueusedtointroducethenewlesson.

Example:Teacher: RichardcalledupSusanthismorning?Student: Yes.(HecalledupSusanthismorning).

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Teacher: Hewillvisithertonight?(Or:Hesaidhewouldvisithertonight?)Student: Yes.HecalledupSusanthismorningandsaidthathewouldvisithertonight.Technique#7:Question‐Answer

SalientFeature:Askquestionstopracticethelessonthathasbeenintroducedbywayofastoryordialogue.

LinguisticFocus:Yes/noquestions,orWh‐questions(Who?What?When?Where?)

Example:Teacher: IsMs.Taylorlookingforasuit?Student: Yes,sheis(lookingforasuit).Technique#8:QuestionfromStudent

SalientFeature:Askquestionstopracticethelessonthathasbeenintroduced. LinguisticFocus:Question‐answer‐questionpattern,answer‐questionpattern,indirect

questionpattern

Example:Teacher: Whatareyoudoing?Student: I'mlisteningtoyou.Teacher: WhatdidIask?Student: Whatareyoudoing?Suchexchanges(involvingcontentor“wh”,aswellasyes‐noquestions),andcontinuousreinforcementofvocabularyandgrammaticalformsthroughanswers,canbeintegralbuildingblocksofadditionallanguageteachingstrategies,includingthosediscussedbelow.2.4.2TotalPhysicalResponseTheTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)approach,developedbyDr.JamesAsherandothers,isaright‐brainapproachtosecondlanguagelearning,whichusescommandsinthetargetlanguagecombinedwithphysicalactionstoinstilllisteningskillsinstudents.Itisbasedontheconceptthatlanguagelearningcanbegreatlyacceleratedthroughtheuseofbodymovement,anditfocusesonnurturinglisteningcomprehensionbeforethestudentsareexpectedtoproducespeech,readorwrite.TPRcommandsetstypicallyinvolve: Themodelingofcommandswithavolunteerstudentorteacher’shelper Commandstotheclass,smallgroups,orindividuals Thecreativecombinationofpreviouslylearnedcommandsandnewwordsintonovel

commandsTPRbyitselfhasthreeseriouslimitations.

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1. Itismainlyintheimperative(command)mode,generallyexcludingtherestofthelanguage'ssentenceforms.However,withtrainingandbyusingextensionsbeyondbasicmotioncommands–likeaskinglearnerstorespondtowhattheyjustdidandwhattheywilldo,aswellasconvertingcommandsintofirst‐person,third‐person,and“we”sentences–thelimitationofcommandformscanbeovercome.

2. Itisoftenfocusedonshortphrasesorsingle‐itemvocabularywords,although“TPRroutines”asstories(seebelow)canbeproductivefollowup.

3. Itmightmainlyproduceonlypassive(listening)languageskills,unlessspeakingisintroducedrelativelyearlyon(after10hours)intheprocess.

Overall,languagelearnedthroughTPRalonerarelydevelopsintomeaningfulcommunication.Inaddition,TPRteachersandstudentseventuallygettiredofexecutingcommandsandtendtorunintotheproverbial"TPRWall."However,TPRisaveryusefulteachingmethodforphysicalactionverbs(run,jump,turnaround,dance,etc.)andforcreatingnounvocabularybycombiningnounwordswithactions(suchastouch,pointto,give,take,etc.).ShortdailyTPRcommandsegmentsof5‐10minutesareintegratedintolessonsthroughoutGrade3Sm’algyax,derivedfromB.Segal‐Cook’s(1987)TeachingEnglishThroughAction.OtherveryusefulresourcesaretheTPR1and2booksdevelopedbyChiefAtahmSchool(seeChiefAtahmSchoolwebsite).2.4.3TotalPhysicalResponseStorytellingTPRStory‐telling(TPRS)buildsonboththefast‐pacedquestion/answersetsoftheBerlitzMethodandthephysicalactioncommandsofTPR.Itprovidesfast‐paced,comprehensibleinputthroughaseriesofstepsthatleadtolearnersbeingabletotellastorywiththehelpofvisuals,afterhavinglearnedandpracticedtheneededvocabulary.ThestepsofTPR‐Sareasfollows.1. Thepre‐teachingofsetsof3‐4vocabularyitemsatatimethroughTPRcommands,

emphasizinggesturesandkinestheticmovements,aswellastheuseandhandlingofvisuals(flashcards,pictures,photos,propsandmodelsofitems).

2. TheincorporationofthisvocabularyintoPersonalizedQuestion‐Answersets(PQA’s),throughwhichtheteacherincorporatesthenewandpreviouslylearnedvocabularyintoyes/noquestionsand“wh”questions.

3. ThecreationofPersonalizedMiniSituations(PMS),whichcombinethenewandpreviouslylearnedvocabularyintoveryshortnarrativesofafewsentences.

4. Therepetitionof1‐3untilallvocabularyofthestoryisinternalized.5. Thetellingofastorythatinvolvespreviouslypracticedvocabulary,withthehelpof

visuals(aseriesofpictures)andfirstmodeledbytheteacherandthentoldbylearners.

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BecauseTPR‐Sismulti‐sensory,involvingauditoryinput(teacher’scommands,questions,answers,narration),visualimages(pictures,props,models),gesturesandkinetics,itmeetstheneedsofvariouslearningstyles.2.4.4AIM–AccelerativeIntegratedMethodTheAccelerativeIntegratedMethod(AIM)isalsoausefulapproachforlanguageinstruction(www.aimlanguagelearning.com).KeyaspectsofAIMareasfollows.1. Theuseofaspeciallyselectedvocabularytoacceleratelanguageacquisition:simplified,

high‐frequencyvocabulary(PDL‐Pared‐downlanguage).2. Theuseofaninnovativegesturetechnique,wherenotonlynounwordsbutalso

adjectives,pronouns,andgrammaticalelementsaregestured.3. Creativeuseofthelanguageinplays,song,dramaandstory.4. Promotionofproductiveandcooperativelearningandtransferofthelanguageskills

acquiredduringstructuredwhole‐classactivitiesinordertopromotespontaneityandauthenticconversationsthroughcreativecollaborativework.

5. Aninductiveapproachtoteachinggrammar(notteaching“rules,”buthavingstudentsdiscoverregularitiesthroughgames,repetition,modeling,gesturing,emphasis).

6. Incorporationofemotionallanguageandrhythm.7. Incorporationof“pleasantrepetition.”8. Limitonclassroomactivitiestointensive10‐minutewholeclassactivities.2.4.5“WhereAreYourKeys?”TheWhereAreYourKeys?(WAYK)methodisagame‐basedapproachthatusesgesturesandsignlanguagetofacilitateimmediatecommunicationinthelanguage.Thegameisbasedonrepeatedquestionsandanswers(anapproachderivedfromtheBerlitzMethod),andalsointegratesconceptsfromTPRandTPR‐S.LikeAIM,WAYKusesgesturesas“scaffolding”tohelpthelearnerunderstandwhatthespeakeristellinghim,andthelearneralsousesgesturestohelpconveymeaning.Eachshortlessonisorganizedasalanguage“game”thatbeginswithobjectsandthenquicklymovesintoadjectives(forexamplecontrastingsize,colour,qualities).Fromthere,ownership(mine,yours,his/hers),wishingorwantingsomething,verbs,singularvs.plural–alloftheseareeasilyexpressedinobviousways.AsinAIM,eachwordhasanAmericanSignLanguagehandsign,soiflearnersneedhelpclarifyingthemeaningofawordorphrase,theyandtheteachercanusesignlanguageandgesturetoconveymeaninginsteadofswitchingtoEnglish.Sincetherearehandsignsfor“slowdownyourspeech”and“faster,”thelearnerhasgoodcontrolofthelearningsituationinthe“game.”WAYKpromptslearnerstorespondincompletesentencesfromthebeginning,ratherthanspendingthefirstsetoflessonsphysicallyrespondingtocomprehensibleinput,aswith

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TPR.Stimulatingstudents’useofthelanguageinsentencesfromtheonsetinturnstimulatescommunicativecompetence.Seealsowww.whereareyourkeys.org,andseveralvideosshowingFirstNationslanguagelearningusingWAYKcanbefoundonlineonYouTube(Squamish,Karok,Yurok).2.4.6OtherConceptualPedagogicalApproachesInadditiontothewell‐recognizedlanguageteachingmethodsoutlinedabove,other“bestpractice”pedagogicalapproachesincludethefollowing.• Teachingthroughactiveengagementoflearners–e.g.basedontheconceptof

ImaginativeEducationdevelopedbyKieranEgan(https://www.sfu.ca/~egan/).• “Discoverylearning”approaches,whichsupportexperientialorhands‐onlearningon

theland–inthiscaseinvolvingElderandknowledgekeeperteachings(e.g.drummaking,tanning,traditionalfoodgathering,experiencingtraditionalvillagesitesandstories).Thismodelmaymeandealingwithchallengesrelatedtothelogisticsofarrangingfield‐tripsandfittingland‐basedlearningintoregularscheduledschoolhours.FirstNationsschoolstendtohavemoreflexibilityforimplementingsuchlearningexperiences.

• Indigenousapproachestolearning–learningbydoing,experientiallearning,andculturallyembeddedlearning.TheWesternCanadianProtocolLanguageandCultureCurriculumFrameworkdiscussedinSection3.2.1ofthisreportdescribesmethodsforthoughtfulintegrationofIndigenousapproaches.

Inaddition,forthepastsevenyears,theSm’algyaxCommitteehasintegratedaspectsoftheImaginativeEducationapproachintoitsK‐12languagecurriculumbindersasawaytosupportstudents’emotionalengagement,creativity,useofstory,metaphor,song,dramaandrhythm,orinotherwords:

awayofteachingandlearningthatisbasedonengaginglearners’(andteachers’)imaginations.Imaginationistheabilitytothinkofwhatmightbepossible;itisthe‘reachingout’featureofthemind,enablingthelearnertogobeyondwhatheorshehasmasteredsofar.Connectingthechild’simaginationwiththeworldisthekeytomuchsuccessfulteachingandlearning(www.ierg.net/LUCID/overview).

During2006‐09,severalschooldistrictsparticipatedinaLUCIDProject(LearningforUnderstandingThroughCulturallyInclusiveImaginativeDevelopment),includingworkshopsfocusedonhowImaginativeEducationconceptscouldbeusedintheFirstNationslanguageclassroom.ImaginativeEducationisbasedontheideathatchildren’s

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developmentofintellectualandcognitiveskillsissupportedthroughavarietyofapproachesthatappealtolearners’emotionsandphysicalsensesthroughrhythm,visualandverbalimagery,patterningtosupportlearning,humour,theuseofmimeandgesture,notionsofextremes,adventureanddrama. Emotions:Whatisemotionallyengagingaboutthistopic?Howcantheteacherconnect

itwiththestudent’sfeelings? Senses:Howcanthetopicengagethesenses?Howcanstudentsseeit,touchit,hearit,

smellitandeventasteit? RhythmandMusic:Howcanthetopicbeexploredthroughrhythms(seasonal,syllabic

anddailyrhythms)?Howcanmusicandsonggiveaccesstothetopic? Metaphor/Images:Whatimageormetaphorwillhelptoexplainthetopic? Patterns:Whatpatternscanbeusedtoexplorethetopic?(framesentences,repetition,

patternswithinsentenceorwordstructure=focus‐on‐form) Humour:Arethereanydoublemeanings?Howcanyouincorporatetheunexpected? ExploringLimitsofReality–ExtremesandCollections:Whatisthegreatestandthe

leastofthetopic,themostextreme?Howcanstudentsbecomeexpertsonthetopic?Howcantheyorganizeorlistit?

Gesture/Imitation:Howcanyoushowthetopicthroughgesture?Howcanyouuseyourbodytoexplainthetopic?Canthestudentslearnbyimitatingyourexample?

Fromtheperspectiveofbestpracticesandmethodologyinlanguageteachingandlearning,theaboveconceptscaneasilybetranslatedintosensibleandrewardingmethodologiesandapproachestolanguageteaching,asfollows.

Engagestudentsthroughhumour,interestingprops,stories,words,actionsandgames

thatwillcapturetheirattentionandcuriosity.Forexample,theteachercanintegrateImaginativeEducationconceptsintotheclassroombybringinginterestingobjectsintoclassthatfitintotheunit,hideobjectsintheclassroomorduringTPRlessons,and/orintroducesillyorunexpectedcommandsandphrases.

Uselotsofgestureandbodylanguageinteachingtoconveyandemphasizemeaning,andprovide“scaffolding”forstudentsinternalizingvocabularyandgrammar.TPRandTPR‐Sarebothbasedontheuseofactions(mainlythroughcommands)tosupporttheinternalizationofvocabulary.

Userhythmandmusic,aswellasrhythmicspeechthatmakesuseofthebeautifulintonationpatternofthelanguage.Also,songscanhelpyounglearnerslearnandusevocabularyandstructuresofthelanguageinafunandinterestingway.

Integratecollectionsofitems,counting,andcomparison.

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PARTTHREE:LANGUAGE‐SPECIFICCURRICULUMFRAMEWORKS3.1.TheNeedforCurriculumFrameworksandPlansThetermcurriculumisusedinthisdocumenttoreferto“theoverallplanordesignforacourseandhowthecontentforacourseistransformedintoablueprintforteachingandlearningwhichenablesthedesiredlearningoutcomestobeachieved”(WigginsandMcTighe,2006).Acurriculumisa“roadmap”orplanofwhatistaught,howitistaught,withwhatmaterials,andinordertoachievewhatintendedoutcomes.AFirstNationslanguagecurriculumdocumentusuallyincludesthefollowing. Broadgoalsandobjectivesandtheirrationale–Whyshouldthelanguagebetaught?

Curriculumframeworksareincreasinglyfocusedonsettingobjectivesintheformofstandardsandbenchmarksthatcanbeimplemented,assessedspecifictoalanguage,andalsocomparedacrosslanguages.

Theintendedoutcomes–WhatmightbetheoutcomesbasedonwhatweknowaboutthebenefitsofbilingualismandFirstNationslanguagemaintenance(seePart1)?AppreciationoftheFirstNationslanguageandculture?Competenceorproficiencyinthelanguage?Whatlevelofcompetence?

Theoverallapproachtothesubjectmatter–Whatassumptions,inthiscaseaboutlanguagelearningandlanguageacquisition,guidethecurriculum?Insteadofstressinglinguisticandgrammaticalcompetence(i.e.themechanicsofthelanguage),contemporaryapproachestolanguageteachingandlearningtendtofocusoncommunicativecompetence,authenticcommunicationinthelanguage,action‐orientedapproachestoteaching,andtheenhancementoflearningthroughengagingemotions.

Specificprescribedlearningoutcomes–Whatarelearnersexpectedtobeabletodowithinspecificincrementsofthecurriculum?Althoughintendedoutcomesstatedasprescribedlearningoutcomes(PLOs)werefordecadesthenormofcurriculumwriting(forexample,itisexpectedthatstudentswillbeableto…..),“cando”statementsarenowincreasinglyusedincurriculumframeworks(describedmorebelow).

Instructionalstrategies–Whatclassroomactivitieswillbeusedtodelivertheprogram?

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Learningresourcesandmaterials–Whatwillteachersuseandwhatdotheyneedtofacilitatelearners’progress?

Assessmentformats–Whatwill:enabletheteachertodetermineifandhowthe

learnerhasmetlearningoutcomes;guidethewaystudentsreflectontheirlearning;andallowtheteachertoreflectonwhatworkswell,andwhatperhapsdoesnotworkaswell,astheyteachsubjectmatterlaidoutincurriculum?

Formanyteachers,theirprogramdescriptions,courseplans,ortheyearplanstheydevelopfortheschoolprincipalconstitutetheircurriculum.Indeed,“whatstudentsarelikelytolearn”canoftenbeinferredfromateaching/instructionalplan.However,ateaching/instructionalplanusuallyonlyreflectstheapproachoftheteacherwhocreatedit–hisorherparticularteachingstyleandteachingcircumstances(i.e.,itassumesaparticularstudentpopulation,acertainbodyofpriorlearning,andtheavailabilityofparticularresources).Itoftenfocusesmoreonhowteachersintendtoguidestudentlearningthanonwhatstudentswilltakeawayfromtheprogram.Butwhatisdeliberatelytaughtisnotalwayswhatstudentsinfactlearn.Ontheotherhand,standardizedcurriculumplanscanlayoutapermanentsetofobjectives,outcomes,instructionalmethodsandassessmenttoolsthatextendbeyondtheindividualteacherwhoteachesthesubjectmatteratagiventime.Inotherwords,whilecurriculumframeworkscreatecommongoals,instructionalmethods,andassessmentformats,theyalsoserveasawaytostandardizewhatistaughtandhowandcanbeusedasawaytoaccrediteducationprograms.Recentcurriculumframeworksalsoaimtonotonlyprovidecommonstandardsbutalsotoestablishcommonandcomparableoutcomesoflanguageproficiency,usuallywithasetoflevelsandbenchmarksbasedondescriptorsoflearnercompetenceintheareasoflistening,reading,speaking(ininteractionandintelling),andwriting.3.2ExistingCurriculumFrameworksforFirstNationsLanguagesinCanadaSincethe1990s,variouscurriculumframeworksforFirstNationsLanguagesinCanadahavebeendeveloped.ThewebsiteoftheCanadianAssociationofSecondLanguageTeachers(www.caslt.org)includesalinktoFirstNationsLanguages,whichprovidesaccesstoprovinciallyandterritoriallydevelopedandapprovedcurriculumguidesforFirstNationslanguages.Forseveralprovinces(Alberta,Ontario,NovaScotia)language‐specificcurriculahavebeendeveloped,suchasCree/Nehiyawewin,Anishinabek,Mikmaw/Miigmao,andBlackfoot.Inaddition,OntarioandSaskatchewanhavedevelopedgeneralNative/AboriginallanguagecurriculumguidesforGrades1‐12.ForBC,onlytheMinistryofEducationLanguagesTemplate(discussedbelow)islisted.

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3.2.1TheWesternCanadianProtocolCommonCurriculumFrameworkAcurriculumframeworkofparticularinterestisoutlinedintheCommonCurriculumFramework–AboriginalLanguageandCulturePrograms–WesternCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinBasicEducation,publishedinJune2000(www.wncp.ca).ThisWesternCanadianProtocolforAboriginalLanguageandCulture(WCPALC)wasdevelopedin1997‐2000byaconsortiumofEldersandlanguageeducatorsfromthefourwesternprovinces(BC,Alberta,Saskatchewan,Manitoba),aswellasYukonandtheNWT.Itspurposeistocreateacommonvisionandlanguageforteachers,schoolrepresentatives,administratorsandtrusteestocommunicatetheobjectivesandgoalsofAboriginallanguageandcultureprograms.TheFrameworkviewslanguageandcultureasinseparable,withlanguageperceivedasvitaltounderstandinguniqueculturalperspectives.Inotherwords,languageisconsideredas“atoolthatstudentscanusetoexploreandexperiencetheirculturesandtheperspectivesembeddedintheircultures.”Withagoalofsupportingtherevitalizationandenhancementoflanguages,thedocumentrecognizesthatthecommunitymusttakeresponsibilityforrevitalizingitslanguageanditsculture,andnotes:

TheElderstellofthepowerofthelanguagetogeneratechangeandasenseofdirectionwithinthelearner.LearningtheFirstLanguagebecomesapowerfulsourceofone’spersonalcommitmenttobecomehealthyandtolearnthewaysofachievingahealthyenvironmentoncemore.

MuchoftheWCPALCconsistsoflearningoutcomesforcultureandlanguageaimedatbothfirst‐languageandsecond‐languagelearners(childrenwhosefirstlanguageisEnglish).AstheFrameworkauthorsacknowledge,thefirst‐languageoutcomesarealsosuitableforimmersionprogramsorpartialimmersion(“bilingual”)programs.Firstandsecondlanguageoutcomesaretiedtotheculturaloutcomesinvariousimplicitandexplicitways.TheculturalcontentisorganizedaroundAboriginal‘lawsofrelationship’,asarticulatedbytheconsultingElders–whoseadviceandknowledgewasviewedasfundamentaltotheWCPALC.Thelawsofrelationshipidentifiedintheframeworkincludethefollowing.

Apersonalcommitmenttothesacred(respectinrelationships) Protocol(conductinceremoniesandsocialinteraction) Medicine(personalhabitsandpracticeinrelationtohealthandspiritualgifts) Ceremonies(rolesandconduct) Copyright(earningtherighttoknowledge) Oraltradition(expressionofknowledge,itsformsandownership)

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IntheWCPALC,thelawsofrelationshipareorganizedintothreecurriculumorganizers–1.LawsofSacredLife,2.LawsofNature,and3.LawsofMutualSupport,withthreebroadcategoriesoflearningoutcomesforeach:CulturalOutcomes(culturalskillsandpersonaldevelopment),FirstLanguageOutcomes,andSecondLanguageOutcomes,allofwhicharearticulatedatsixlevels(K‐1,Grades2‐3,Grades4‐6,Grades7‐8,Grades9‐10andGrades11‐12).CulturaloutcomesarefurtherdividedintoCulturalUnderstandingsandCulturalSkills.ThetablesbelowaresampleexcerptsfromtheWCPALC,whichshowhowculturaloutcomesareorganizedandexpressed.

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Example1:CulturalOutcomes

Example2:SecondLanguageOutcomes

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IntheWCPLC,thesecondlanguageoutcomesstressthedevelopmentofcommunicativeproficiencyinlistening,reading,speakingandwriting.Levelsofcommunicativeproficiencyaredescribedintermsofcharacteristicssuchas:degreeofaccuracyinthecommunicationofmeaning;thevarietyoftopicsthatcanbedealtwith;andtheamountofspontaneityandabstractioninvolvedinvariouslanguage‐usesituations.Ataparticularlevelofproficiency,secondlanguageoutcomesareorganizedintofourtypes:languageusecontexts,strategiesforlanguagelearning,languagequality,andlanguagefunctions.

Intermsoflanguagequality(grammatical/phoneticaccuracy,fluencyoreaseofcommunication,coherency)theWCPLCnotes:

Whilethecommunicativeapproachtoteachingsecondlanguagesemphasizestheprimacyoffunctionoverform,thequalitativefeaturesoflanguageusemustnotbedismissednordelayedduringinstruction.Ignoringskillsintheseareastendstoleadtoafossilizationoflanguagedevelopmentregardlessofcontinuedinstructionorlanguageuse.Individualsareabletofunctionrelativelywellinthesecondlanguage,understandingandbeingunderstood,butareviewedbythelanguagecommunityashavinga‘broken’languageora‘pidgin’language.

TheFrameworkprovidesdetailedlearningoutcomesforeachofthefourareasofproficiency.BelowareexamplesoflearningoutcomesthatmeasureaccuracyforLevels1‐3(GradesK‐6)and4‐6(Grades7‐12).AsdescribedinPart4ofthisdocument,forspecificlanguagesitisusefultomapouttheparticulargrammaticalandphoneticconceptsthatunderlielearningoutcomesexpressingaccuracyandfluency.Itisalsousefultomapoutatwhatgradeorcompetencelevelsspecificconceptsareintroduced,practiced,knownbystudents,andexpectedtobemastered,atleasttosomedegree.

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Note:fromthepointofviewoflanguagequalityorlinguisticquality,“simplesentences”arethosewithasinglestatement;“complexsentences”aretwoormoresentencesthatarelinkedbyaconjunction(“hedidthisandthenhedidthat,”“shedidxbutyhappened,)orsentencesthatgivecauses(like“because,“dueto”,etc.).Complexsentencesaremoredifficultthansimplesentencesbecausetheyinvolvesignificantjugglingofdetail.

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Insummary,theWCPALCisathoughtfulanddetaileddocumentthatwasdevelopedwithparticipationfromlanguageeducators,Eldersandotherkeystakeholders.ItdetailsapproachesunderlyingFirstNationslanguageeducation,FirstNationapproachesandphilosophiesthatshouldbeembeddedinlanguageeducation,alongwithlearningoutcomesandassessmentmaterials,allofwhicharestillrelevantfifteenyearsafteritsinception.YetwhilethisresourcehasguidedAboriginallanguageeducationinotherjurisdictions,ithasnotbeenputtoproductiveuseinBC.3.2.2BCIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)andLanguagesTemplateAsdescribedinPart2ofthisdocument,inBCpublicschoolssecondlanguageinstruction,includingFirstNationslanguageeducation,isregulatedthroughtheBCSchoolActandthroughtheMinistry’sLanguageEducationPolicy,developedin1997.Asnotedabove,theBCMinistryofEducationLanguagePolicyencouragesAboriginallanguageeducationbynoting:“allstudents,especiallythoseofAboriginalancestry,shouldhaveopportunitiestolearnanAboriginallanguage.”Specifically,thelanguagespolicydeterminesthatallstudents“musttakeasecondlanguageaspartofthecurriculuminGrades5to8,”makingcertainexceptionsforstudentswithspecialneeds,studentswhoreceiveEnglishLanguageLearningservices,andstudentsinlateFrenchImmersion.SchooldistrictsthatofferlanguagesattheGrades5‐8levelusuallyofferthemforGrades9‐12,thusenablingstudentstocompleteGrade11and12inthelanguage–allowingthemtousethelanguageforacademiccredittowardsgraduationandmeetsecondlanguagerequirementsestablishedbyuniversities.Inordertosetstandardsforsecondlanguageeducationinschools,inthemid‐1990stheMinistrybegantodevelopIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)forallcoresubjects.IRPsprovideanoverviewoftheapproachandprinciplesusedinteachingthesubjectand,brokendownintocurriculumorganizers,layoutprescribedlearningoutcomesforspecificgradelevels.Theyalsolistprovinciallyapprovedcurricularresourcesandprovidestudentassessmentformatsandsamples.TheMinistryhasalsodevelopedaLanguagesTemplatedocument,lastupdatedin2003,whichprovidesanorganizationalframeworkandwordingforanIRPforanysecondlanguage–includingaFirstNationslanguage–forwhichlocalorganizationsseekprovincialapproval(www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/language_template).TheMinistrywebsiteprovidesalistofMinistry‐authorizedsecondlanguagesdevelopedthroughtheprovincialLanguagesTemplate,whichincludesfifteenFirstNationslanguageIRPsthatwerecompleteandprovinciallyapprovedasofAugust2014.

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Halq’eméylem(UpriverHalkomelem/Sto:lo)5‐12andIntroductory11 Heiltsuk5to12andIntroductoryHeiltsuk11 Hul’q’umi’num’(IslandHalkomelem)5to12andIntroductoryHul’q’umi’num’11 Kwak’wala5to12andIntroductoryKwak’wala11 Liqwala/Kwak’wala5to12andIntroductoryLiqwala/Kwakwala11 nsíylxcən(Okanaganlanguage)5to12andIntroductorynsíylxcən Nte?kepmxcin(Thompsonlanguage)5to12andIntroductory11 Nuu‐chah‐nulth5to12andIntroductoryNuu‐cha‐nulth11 Secwepemctsin(ShuswapLanguage)5to12andIntroductorySecwepemctsin11 SENĆOŦEN5to12andIntroductorySENĆOŦEN11 Shashishalhem(SecheltLanguage)5to12andIntroductoryShashishalhem11 Sim'algaxhlNisga'a5to12andIntroductorySim'algaxhlNisga'a11 Sm'algyax(CoastTsimshian)5to12andIntroductorySm'algyax11 Tsek'ene(Sekani)5to12andIntroductoryTsek'ene11 UpperSt’at’imcets(FraserRiverLillooet)5‐12andIntroductoryUpperSt’at’imcets11SeveraladditionalFirstNationslanguageIRPsarenowinpreparationorareawaitingMinistryapproval.UnlikeotherMinistry‐approvedIRPs,FirstNationslanguageIRPsarenotavailableontheMinistry’swebsite,astheircopyrightisinthenameoftheFirstNationsorganization/languageauthoritythatsponsoredtheIRPproductionincollaborationwithalocalschooldistrict.TheKwak’walaIRP,however,hasbeenmadeavailableonline,withpermissionfromtheFirstNationsorganizationthatproducedit(seemoreinpart4).WritinganIntegratedResourcePackageTheLanguagesTemplatedocument,availableasaread‐onlyPDFfileandasaMicrosoftWorddocumentthatcanbeoverwrittenandedited,includesdetailedinstructions.Thediagrambelow(fromtheBCLanguagesTemplate)showsthestepsinvolvedindevelopingaFirstNationslanguageIRP.

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AnIRPincludesthefollowingcomponents. Anintroduction,whichincludesanumberofsectionsbasedonMinistryofEducation

Policythatmustappearexactlyaswritteninthetemplate(e.g.sectionsonthecommunicative‐experientialapproachtolanguageteaching,prescribedlearningoutcomes,cross‐curricularintegration,suggestedinstructionalstrategies,exemptionsfromthelanguagepolicy,specialneedsstudents).TheonlysectionthatallowsFirstNationslanguagegroupstoexplaintheculturalandhistoricalcontextofthelanguageanditsuniquenatureistherationalesection.

ThecoreoftheIRP–includingfour“stronglyrecommended”curriculumorganizers:

(Communicating,AcquiringInformation,ExperiencingCreativeWorksandUnderstandingCulturalInfluences),whichforeachGradelevel(5‐12andIntroductoryGrade11)listprescribedlearningoutcomes,suggestedinstructionalstrategies,suggestedassessmentstrategies,andlearningresources.

Asetofappendices,whichpresentstheprescribedlearningoutcomesintables,

providesassessmentandevaluationsamples,andlistslearningresourcesavailableforthelanguageaccordingtogradelevel,alongwithinformationaboutsuppliers.

Constraints,ChallengesandAlternativesAtpresent,theBCLanguagesTemplaterepresentstheonlyoptionforhavingFirstNationslanguagesmeettheprovincialsecondlanguagerequirement.YetFirstNationsrepresentativeshavepointedoutvariousconstraintsrelatedtothetemplate.

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ItwasnotdesignedaccordingtotheparticularconditionsandcontextofAboriginal

languages.UnliketheWCPALCdiscussedabove,theBCLanguagesTemplateisperceivedasprimarilyaccommodatingheritageandimmigrantlanguages.

ThecurrentversionoftheLanguagesTemplate(2003)is11yearsold. IRPsonlyaddressFirstNationslanguageeducationattheGrades5‐12level.Despite

thefactthatsomeschooldistrictsandmostFirstNationsschoolsofferFirstNationslanguageeducationattheGradeK‐4level,todatenoprovincialIRPshavebeenapprovedforprimaryandearlyelementaryFirstNationslanguageeducation.AfewFirstNationslanguagegroupshaveproducedIRPsforGradesK‐4,butthesearenotaccommodatedwithinexistingMinistrypolicy.

DespitetheproductionofIRPs,FirstNationslanguageprograms(unlikeFrenchandforeignlanguageprograms)inmostcasesarenotcoveredbycoreschooldistrictfunds.

IRPshavenoprovisionsforimmersionorpartialimmersionprogramming,andinsteadareentirelyfocusedonsecondlanguagelearning.

FirstNationslanguageIRPsbasedontheBCLanguagesTemplatefunctionasauthorizingdocumentsfortheprovincialaccreditationofFirstNationslanguages,ratherthanprovidingpracticalguidance(letalonedetailedsubstance)forthepreparationofunitsandlessons,includinglanguagecontent.Accordingly,someFirstNationshaveengagedinIRPdevelopment,andinadditionhavedevelopedgrade‐specificbindersofcurricularcontentthatlistbroadlearningoutcomes,sampleinstructionalstrategiesandassessmentformats,anddetailedcontentintheFirstNationslanguagelaidoutinunitsandlessons–alldescribedinPart4below.

Despitetheseconstraints,participantsinconsultationworkshopsandFirstNationsEldersandlanguageteacherstendtosupportthedevelopmentofFirstNationslanguageIRPs,inlargepartduetotheimprovedstatusandrecognitionthatIRPsprovide,theincentiveofacademiccredittheyoffersecondarystudents,and–toalesserextent–thecurricularsupporttheyoffer.IRPshavebeencompletedandsubmittedtotheMinistryofEducationbycommunitiesandschoolsrepresentingjustoverhalfoftheFirstNationslanguagesinBC.3.3ExamplesfromElsewhere3.3.1TheAustralianDraftFrameworkTheAustralianCurriculum,AssessmentandReportingAuthority(www.australiancurriculum.edu.au)hasproducedadraftcurriculumframeworkforAustralia’smorethan200Indigenouslanguages.LiketheWCPALCdiscussedabove,theAustralianFrameworkprovidesthreelearnerpathways:

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L1–First‐LanguageLearnerPathwayforlanguagesthatarestilllearnedinthehome

asfirst‐languagesandthatstillhaveasubstantialcommunityofspeakersacrossgenerations.AkeyfeatureofthispathwayisthedevelopmentofwrittenliteracyandnumeracyskillsintheAboriginallanguage,valuingthelanguage,andbuildingtoolstoadaptthecapacityofthelanguageforcommunicationinallcontexts.

LR–LanguageRevivalLearnerPathwayprovidesstudentswiththeopportunityto

“studyalanguagethatisbeingrevived,revitalizedandremadebyitsowners,custodiansandcommunities,andtheyrangefromlanguagesthatareonlybeginningtoberevitalizedtolanguagessoadvancedintheirrevivalthatinitialgenerationsofnewfirst‐languagespeakersarebeginningtoemergeasparentsusethelanguageswiththeirchildren.”TheselearnerswillnotonlybecomelanguagerevitalizationpractitionerswhocancommunicateintheAboriginallanguage:theywillalsoacquire“techniquesoflinguisticpracticesthatapplytolanguagerevival,”andtechniquestoworkwithrecordedmaterials.

L2–SecondLanguageLearnerPathwayprovidesstudentsofallbackgroundswith

opportunitiestolearnanAboriginalorTorresStraitIslanderlanguagethatiswelldocumentedandstillspoken.L2studentsmaynotliveinthehomelandwherethelanguageisspoken.

TheACARAisorganizedaroundlearningoutcomesthatinstillculturalandlanguagecompetencieswithintwocurriculumorganizers–communicationandresearching–payingsignificantattentiontotherolethatlearnersofAboriginallanguageswillplayinlanguagerevitalization.3.3.2TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguagesTheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages(CEFR)isaninternationalstandardforsecondorforeignlanguagecompetence.DevelopedbytheCouncilofEuropein2001,itestablishesinternationalstandardsforlearning,teaching,andassessment,andrepresentsatoolfordescribingandcomparinglearners’communicativeabilityinalanguageasitemerges.TheCEFRisacommonreferenceforcurriculumguidelinesandresources,andinrecentyears,ithasalsobeenusedforsomeofEurope’s84regionalandminoritylanguages(www.coe.int/minlang),someofwhichareendangeredorevencriticallyendangered,andsomeofwhichareIndigenous.Inthepastdecade,theCEFRhasbeenimplementedworld‐wide.TheCEFRsetscommonstandardsandcriteriaforlevelsoflanguagelearningandproficiency,anditdescribesaGlobalScalethatcanbeusedwithvirtuallyanylanguage.

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A1andA2–BasicUser(Basic/Beginninglearner)B1andB2–IndependentUser(Intermediatelearner)C1andC2–ProficientUser(Advancedlearner)TheCEFRisorganizedaroundasetofstatements(whatsomeoneshouldbeabletodoateachlevel),eachwithdescriptors(waysinwhichthatcompetencyisshown).Inaddition,theCEFRhasturnedcompetencylevelsanddescriptorsintochartsof“cando”statements,whichlearnersthemselvescanusetochecktheircompetencyastheyarelearning–whetherinaformalschool,adulteducationsetting,orotherwise.TheCEFRprovidesaroadmapforlevelsofcompetencythatisbasedoncommunicativecompetenceineveryday,authenticsettingsandtheabilitytofunctioninthelanguage.Communicativecompetenceismappedoutaslistening,speaking(comprisingspokenconversationandspokenproduction),15readingandwritingskills.In2006,basedonacomparisonofvariousassessmentframeworksandbenchmarks,theCEFRwasrecommendedfordescribinglanguageproficiencyacrossCanada(Vandergrift,2006).Asof2011,theDepartmentofCanadianHeritagerecommendedtheimplementationoftheCERFfor“officiallanguages”acrossCanada,althoughthedocumentdoesnotmakementionofFirstNationslanguages.16MinistriesandDepartmentsofEducationacrossNorthAmericaareadoptingtheCEFRforguidingSecondLanguagetemplatesandIRPs,andtheCouncilofMinistersofEducationCanada(CMEC)hasreviewedandsupportstheapplicationoftheCEFRinCanadianschools.17Thecurrent(2011)BCDraftIRPforFrenchisbasedontheCEFRmodelandisorganizedaroundCEFR‐basedproficiencylevels,matchedupwithapproximategradelevels.AnimportanttoolthathasresultedfromtheCEFRistheEuropeanLanguagePortfolio.Ownedbylearnerswithinthecontextoflife‐longlearning,theportfoliodocumentsthelearners’emergingproficiencyinthelanguagestheyarelearning/havelearned.Itconsistsofthreecomponents: LanguagePassport–completedbyalearner’steacher(s)orschool,thisreportsonthe

learner’saccomplishments,levelofcompetenceattained,course(s)completed,andincludeslettersofrecommendation;

15Spokenconversationreferstoauthenticuseoflanguageinverbalexchanges(dialogue);spokenproductionincludesnarrating,makinganoralpresentation,presentingaverbalreportonatopic.16elpimplementation.ecml.at/IMPEL/Documents/Canada/ProposalofaCFRforCanada/tabid/122/language/fr‐FR/language/en‐GB/Defaul.asp17WorkingwiththeCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages(CEFR)intheCanadianContext:GuideforPolicy‐MakersandCurriculumDesigners.

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Biography–thisself‐assessmentbythelearnerprovidesareflectiononlanguagelearningchallengesandsuccesses,aswellasemerginglanguageskillsanduseofthelanguage(s)beinglearned;and

Dossier–aportfoliothatincludessamplesofthelearner’sworkatvariousstagesoflanguagelearning.

WithinCanada,Nunavuthasadaptedthelanguageportfolioconcepttoallowteachersandlearnerstoreportandreflectontheiremerginglanguagecompetence.Forweblinkstoelectroniclanguagepassportsamplesseewww.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/french.Anotherveryusefulexampleofastudentlanguageportfolio,aswellasateacher’sguideforitsuseandimplementation,wasdevelopedbyMaxwellforAIMLanguageLearning.ThisdocumentalsoincludesaLanguageAssessmentActivitiesPackagebasedontheCEFR(seewww.aimlanguagelearning.com).CEFRandFirstNationsLanguagesGiventheattentionthattheCEFRhasreceivedamonglanguageeducators,itisworthwhiletoconsiderwhetheraFirstNationsK‐12LanguageandCultureFrameworkcoulddrawinspirationfromtheCEFR.OnewelcomeaspectoftheCEFRisthefactthatitisbasedonstatementsofwhatlearners“cando”(notwhattheycan’tdooraredoingwrong).Inaddition:• TheCEFRislearner‐orientedandencouragesreflectiononlearning.• Ratherthanstipulating“mastery”ofasecondlanguage,theCEFRfocusesondeveloping

communicative,action‐basedrepertoireanduse.GiventhefactthatoftheK‐12studentsandadultswhohavebeguntolearntheirFirstNationslanguages,onlyafewindividualsarelikelytoachievehigh‐levelproficiency,suchanapproachmaybemostrealisticandfeasible.

• TheCEFRconsiderslanguagelearningasalife‐longtask.Similarly,forthosewhoarelearningtheirancestrallanguage,itwillbeimportanttosupporttheircontinuedlearningandlong‐termuseoftheirlanguageastheyhelptore‐builddomainsofuse.

• Sinceitsaimistosetcommonobjectives,outcomesandstandardsacrosslanguages,theCEFRdeliberatelydoesnotrefertoorincludegrammaticalstructure,amountandcontentofvocabulary,orcompetenceoverthephoneticsorsoundsystemoflanguages.Itisthecurriculaandtextbooksforspecificlanguages,whichareguidedbytheCEFR,thataddresslanguage‐specificcompetencyovervocabulary,grammar,phoneticsandculturalconnections.Inthisway,thiscurriculumframeworkleavesroomforlanguage‐specificcurriculaandcurricularresourcesinavarietyofformats(print,audio‐andvideomaterials,digitalapps).

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• TheCEFRpromotesplurilingualism,understoodascompetenceanduseof(tovaryingdegrees)twoormorelanguages.Giventhefactthatrevitalizingandre‐creatingcompetenceanduseofFirstNationslanguageswiththehelpofK‐12schoolingexistsandwillcontinuetoexistinadditiontoEnglishcompetence(ratherthanreplacinguseandcompetenceofEnglish)theconceptisrelevantforthiscontext.

Insummary,istheCEFR–whicharisesfromaninternationalforeignlanguagecontext–appropriate?Isitmeaningfulforlanguagesthathavealmostnofluentfirst‐languagespeakersleft?ThepointslistedabovemakeitworthconsideringwithinthecontextofFirstNationslanguages.AtleastitwouldmostdefinitelybeusefultoadaptanddevelopcompetencyassessmentsthatwillguidelearnersofFirstNationslanguages–whetheradultsoryouth–toaclearerunderstandingofwheretheyareonthepathtogainingcompetenceintheirlanguage.SuchaprocesswillalsoguideFirstNationslanguageauthoritiesthatarechargedwithdeterminingtheproficiencyofusersandspeakersofthelanguage(alldiscussedmoreinPart4ofthisdocument).3.3.3WHAKAMĀTAURIATŌREOMĀORI(NationalMaoriLanguageProficiencyExaminations)AnotherframeworkisofferedbyTeTauraWhiriiteReoMāori,theMaoriLanguageCommission.ItoffersfivelevelsofMaorilanguageproficiency:Level1)BasicRoutineLanguageLevel2)BasicConversationalProficiencyLevel3)ModerateProficiencyLevel4)HigherProficiencyLevel5)CompleteProficiencyTheselevelsaremeasuredbytheMaoriLanguageCommissionusingaLevelFinderExamination,whichmeasuresMaorilanguageknowledgeandactsasa“generalindicatoroflanguageability.”Itstestconsistsofvocabulary,grammar,dictationandself‐assessmenttasksreportedasoneofthefivelevelslistedabove.3.4AdditionalLanguageBenchmarkandStandardsDocumentsSeveralotherbenchmarksexistinNorthAmerica,manyofwhichhavebeeninfluencedbytheCEFR–especiallyitsuseof“cando”statements.SomeattemptsalsohavebeenmadetoapplythemtoIndigenouslanguageteachingandlearning.Thesearediscussedbelow.3.4.1AmericanCouncilontheTeachingofForeignLanguagesTheAmericanCouncilontheTeachingofForeignLanguages(ACTFL)proficiencyguidelines(www.actfl.org)arepresentedasdescriptionsofwhatindividualscandoin

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termsofspeaking,writing,listening,andreadinginreal‐worldsituationsinaspontaneousandnon‐rehearsedcontext.Foreachskill,theguidelinesidentifyfivemajorlevelsofproficiency:distinguished,superior,advanced,intermediate,andnovice.Theadvanced,intermediate,andnovicelevelsaresubdividedintohigh,mid,andlowsublevels.ThelevelsintheACTFLGuidelinesdescribeacontinuumofproficiencyfromhighlyarticulate,well‐educatedtolittleornofunctionalability.Criteriaforeachofthelevelsinclude: fluency(usewithouthesitation,pausing,switchingtoEnglish); range,depthandvarietyoftopicsthatcanbeaddressed; accuracyofuse(grammar,useofsimplevs.complexstructures,pronunciationand

accent,andthedegreetowhichuseofvocabulary,pronunciationandsyntaxareinfluencedbythelearner’sfirstlanguage);and

theabilitytorespondtounexpectedsituationsandunfamiliartopics,andtheabilitytousethelanguagecreatively,ratherthanrelyingonmemorizedwordsandphrases.

SimilartotheCEFRbenchmarksandCanDocharts,intheACTFLguidelines,independencefrommemorizedrepertoire,creativeuseoflanguage,andaccuracybeyondverybasicstructuresbegintooccurattheintermediatemid‐level.TheACTFLBenchmarkshavebeenusedbytheNorthwestIndianLanguageInstitute(NWILI)–agroupofOregonandWashingtonIndigenouslanguagespeakers,educators,learners,specialistsandlinguistshousedattheUniversityofOregon(www.uoregon.edu/nwili).Inasimplifiedformatandexpressedaslearningoutcomes,theNWILIbenchmarkslayoutproficiencylevels(listening,speaking,reading,writing)withafocusonaccuracyaroundincreasinglycomplextopicareasorthemesthathavebeenidentifiedbyspeakersandEldersasculturallyrelevantandimportant.TheACTFLproficiencylevelsrepresentedinthegraphbelowshowtheexponentialdegreetowhichlanguagecompetenceincreasesbetweenthenoviceandsuperiorlevels.

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ACTFLProficiencyLevels(www.actfl.org)

3.4.2CLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarksTheCanadianLanguageBenchmarks(CLB;www.language.ca)wereinitiallydevelopedin1992bytheGovernmentofCanadatoguideEnglishasaSecondLanguage(ESL)learningforadults(nowalsocommonlyreferredtoasEAL‐EnglishasanAdditionalLanguage).Thecurrent2012versionwasproducedincomparisonwithCEFRandACTFLguidelines,anditwastestedforvalidity,reliabilityandaccuracy.ItsintendedaudienceisNOTK‐12languageeducators,butratheradultESLteachers.LiketheCEFRandACTFLguidelines,theCLBstandardsfocusoncommunicativecompetenceinreal‐lifetasks.TheCLBstandardisadescriptivescaleofsuccessivelevelsofEnglishlanguageabilityamongESL/EALlearners.BasedondescriptorssimilartotheCEFRandACTFL,12benchmarksexistforlistening,reading,speakingandwritingskills,allorganizedintothreeLanguageAbilityStages: StageI(Benchmarks1‐4)expressesBasicLanguageAbility StageII(Benchmarks5‐8)expressesIntermediateLanguageAbility StageIII(Benchmarks9‐12)expressesAdvancedLanguageAbility

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TheCLBacknowledgesthatlearnersmaybeatdifferentbenchmarksinthefourskillsets(listening,reading,speakingandwriting).Ontheonehand,theCLBfocusesonlanguagecompetence,whichconsistsof: Grammaticalknowledge–practicalknowledgeofgrammarandvocabularyatthe

sentencelevel; Textualknowledge–cohesionandcoherenceinbuildingdiscourseandnarratives; Functionalknowledge–theabilitytoconveyandinterpretcommunicativecontent

gettingthingsdone,persuadingothers,learningandthinking,creationandenjoyment,andmakingrequests,threats,warnings,pleas;and

Sociolinguisticknowledge–rulesofpoliteness,register,dialect,appropriatenessofspeech,figurativelanguage,culturalknowledge,socialrelationships.

TheCLBalsoencompassesstrategiccompetence,whichensureseffectivenessincommunication(planningandassessingcommunication,repairingdifficultiesincommunication,copingwithbreakdown,usingaffectivedevices).TheCLBfunctionsasanassessmenttoolthatallowsstandardizedtestingofESL/EALlearnersbasedontheabilityoflearnerstocarryoutavarietyoflanguagetasks.Withtherecentdevelopmentof“CanDo”checklists,theCLBcanalsohelplearnerscarryoutself‐assessments.3.4.3FirstNationsLanguageBenchmarksMiller(2004)hasattemptedtoadapttheCanadianLanguageBenchmarkstodevelopaLanguageTeacher’sGuidetoAssessingFirstNationsLanguageProficiency,usingasimplifiedsetofthreestages(basic,intermediate,advanced),eachwiththreeproficiencylevels(developmental,progressive,andaccomplished).LiketheCLB,theseFirstNationsLanguageBenchmarks(FNLB)involvefourlanguageskills(listening,speaking,reading,writing).Thethree“competencyareas”aresocialinteraction,followingandgivinginstructions,andinformationsharing,althoughthechartsforthethreestagesdonotparticularlyreferencethesecompetencyareas.ItisuncleartowhatdegreetheFNLBchartshavebeenfield‐testedforspecificlanguages.Inaddition,languageteachersandlearnerswillbenefitfromtransferringthedescriptorsforproficiencylevelsintomoreconcreteexamplesofspeechproducedatrespectivelevelsintheparticularFirstNationslanguage.ItwouldbeusefultorevisitandexpandupontheFNLBinlightoftherecentimplementationoftheCEFRinadditional/secondlanguagelearning,andtodevelopassessmenttoolsforcompetencylevelsinparticularFirstNationslanguages,similartothedetailandmethodsemployedfortoolsrecentlydevelopedforFrench.

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3.4.4FirstNationsLanguageEssentialsAdditionally,averypracticalframeworkforbeginner‐levelFirstNationslanguagecurriculumisfoundinMichel’sFirstNationsLanguageEssentials(FNLE)project,developedfortheFirstNationsSchoolAssociation(FNSA),whichbuildslearninggoalsforthebeginningGradeK‐4learneraroundthreemaingoals:

Eachofthethreegoalareashasanaccompanyingsetofbasiclearningoutcomes.

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Finally,thecommunicativeobjectivesandlearningoutcomesconnecttoasetofLanguageBenchmarks.Thesebenchmarksfocusentirelyoncomprehensionskillsbasedonmemorizedrepertoireforthefirst150hours,withspeakingskillsalsobasedonmemorizedrepertoire,verysimpleutterances,interferencefromthelearner’sfirstlanguage(English),incompleteandfaultyutterances,alongwithimprecision(SeeAppendix2forFNLEBenchmarks).3.4.5PerceptionsofProficiencyAnotherwaytoorganizelevelsoflearnerproficiencyistoapplydescriptivetermsintheFirstNationslanguagetostagesandproficiencylevels.ThiswasdonebyN’syilxcen(Okanagan)languagelearnerandlanguageeducatorMicheleKayS7imla7xwJohnson(2012,2013),employingNsilxcentermsthatdescribesuccessivedevelopmentalacquisitionstagesduringtheprocessofadultN’syilxcenlanguagelearning,andthusprovideculturallyrelevantorientationforlearners.Itwasrewardingforagroupoflearnerswhocompletedabout1,000hoursoflanguagelearninginalanguagehousetobe

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consideredbyspeakerstobeatthenłeqwcin(“clearspeech”)stage,meaningtheirspeechwasstartingtobeheardandwasbecomingclearandaudibletoElders/speakers.Johnsonequatesthenłeqwcinstagewithmid‐intermediatelanguageproficiencyaccordingtoCLBbenchmarks.N’syilxcenAcquisitionStages(Johnson2012)

Secwepemctsin(ShuswapLanguage)CompetencyStagesAccordingtoSkeetchestnElders(2014)WhenaskedtothinkaboutstagesofSecwepemclanguageacquisitionbylearnerswhobeganwithlittleornopriorknowledge,theSkeetchestnEldersSecwepemcLanguageGroupspontaneouslyarrivedatsixsuccessivestagesoflanguagecompetency,beginningwithverybasic,difficulttounderstandspeech,andmovingtoclearspeechorwhatcouldbeunderstoodas“fluency”orhighproficiency.Indiscussingandcollectivelynamingthesestages,theeightElders–onlysomeofwhomwritethelanguage,althoughallconsiderthemselvesandoneanother“fluent”–focusedontheimportanceofspeakingabilityfromStage2onwards,asopposedtolistening,readingorwritingskills.

Stage1:estœelπéne–“you’relistening[asalearner]andyouareunderstandingalittlebit.”‐Alsousedwhensomeoneunderstandsyouandyoudidn’tthinktheycouldunderstandanything.Stage2:estπenllexwtsín–“it’scomingoutofhis/hermouth”Thelearnerisbeginningtouselanguageactivelyinverysimpleandincompleteways.Stage3:lexptsín–whenyourspeechisstartingtomakesense(lexép=havingarrivedattheprocessoflearning,internalizingandgettingsomewhere).Stage4:tsqixtsíñ–yourspeechisalittlebitoff,nottoobad,andsometimesyou’resayingitwrong.Stage5:xexewílc–startingtobecomesmart,improving.

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Stage6:tuxwtuxwtsín–straightenedout,correctspeech/Althoughfocusonthefourcompetencyareas–listening,speaking,readingandwriting–makessensewithinthewiderfieldofassessmentinsecond/additionallanguageacquisition,thereisanimportantpointtothefocusonspeakingabilityemphasizedbytheSkeetchestnEldersandtheNsyilxcenspeakers.AsnotedinPart1ofthisdocument,competentsecondlanguagespeakerswhocantransmitthelanguageintergenerationallyarethebesthopeforthefutureexistenceofFirstNationslanguages.Therefore,listening,readingorwritingcompetence,althoughimportantskillsets,donotservethepurposeofintergenerationallanguagetransmission.Onlyindividualswhohavegoodcompetenceinspeaking,andwhousethiscompetenceinday‐to‐daycommunication,canensurethesurvivalofFirstNationslanguages.3.5StudentAssessmentAssessmentisthesystematicprocessofgatheringinformationaboutstudents’learninginordertodescribewhattheyknow,whattheyareabletodo,andwhattheyareworkingtoward.Learnersbenefitwhenteachersassessstudents’learningandemergingabilitiesregularlyandonanongoingbasis.Ratherthancritiquingstudentsforthemistakestheyaremaking,assessmentsshouldpromotelearningbyshowingstudentstheirstrengthsandsuggestinghowtheycandeveloptheirlearningfurther.WithinK‐12education,assessmentiscriterion‐referenced,meaningassessmentformats(e.g.oralorwrittentests,teacherobservationsofstudentperformance,portfoliosofstudentwork)arebasedonthelearningoutcomessetoutfortheage,gradelevel,orparticularunit,measuringwhetherastudentisabletocarryoutthetaskssetoutinthelearningoutcomes.AccordingtoguidelinesfromtheBCMinistryofEducation,assessmentattheprimarylevelshouldfocusonthefollowingareas. Assessmentforlearningallowstheteachertoidentifythelearningneedsofstudents,

toselectandadaptmaterialstosuitthoseneeds,toprovidefeedbacktostudents,andtochooseteachingstrategiessuitedtothestudents.

Assessmentaslearningenablesstudentstobecomeconsciousoftheirlearningandto

improveandgainmasteryovertasksandskills.Assessmentaslearningmirrorsthenaturallearningthattakesplaceforchildrenoutsideofschool,wheretheyworkalongsidetheirparentsorEldersandareguidedastheycometomasterskillsandlearnhowtoemulatetheiroldersiblingsandfamilymembers.

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Assessmentoflearningallowstheteachertodeterminewhatstudentsareabletodoasaresultoflearningandhowtheycandemonstratewhattheyknow.

TheguidelinesoftheBCMinistryofEducationgiveparticularattentiontoassessmentforlearning,withtheSixBigAssessmentFORLearning(AFL)Strategies.1. Clarifylearningintentions2. Provideclearcriteriaforsuccess3. Provideregularcoachingfeedbackthatmoveslearningandlearnersforward4. Developclassroomdiscussion,questions,andlearningtasksthatgenerateevidenceof

learning5. Activatestudentsaslearning/teachingresourcesforeachotherusingselfandpeer

assessment(learnersusecriteriatoassesstheirownlearning)6. DeveloplearnersasownersoftheirownlearningRe‐ThinkingAssessmentwithPurposeinMind(WesternandNorthernCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinEducation;www.wncp.ca)

AssessmentforLearning Assessmentas Learning AssessmentofLearningFormativeassessmentisongoingintheclassroom Teacherassessment,studentself‐assessment,and/orstudentpeerassessment Criterion‐referenced–criteriabasedonPrescribedLearningOutcomesidentifiedintheprovincialcurriculum,reflectingperformanceinrelationtoaspecificlearningtask Involvesbothteacherandstudentintheprocessofcontinualreflectionandreviewaboutprogress Teachersadjusttheirplansandengageincorrectiveteachinginresponsetoformativeassessment

Formativeassessmentisongoingintheclassroom Self‐assessment Providesstudentswithinformationontheirownachievementandpromptsthemtoconsiderhowtheycancontinuetoimprovetheirlearning Student‐determinedcriteriabasedonpreviouslearningandpersonallearninggoals Studentsuseassessmentinformationtomakeadaptationstotheirlearningprocessandtodevelopnewunderstandings

Summativeassessmentoccursatendofyearoratkeystages Teacherassessment Maybeeithercriterion‐referenced(basedonPrescribedLearningOutcomes)ornorm‐referenced(comparingstudentachievementtothatofothers) Informationonstudentperformancecanbesharedwithparents/guardians,schoolanddistrictstaff,andothereducationprofessionals(e.g.forthepurposesofcurriculumdevelopment) Usedtomakejudgmentsaboutstudents’performanceinrelationtoprovincialstandards

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Ascurriculumbindersaredeveloped,assessmentasandforlearningshouldbeintegratedintotheverynatureofactivitiesandinstructionalstrategies.Itisusefulattheendofeachunit,inaseparatesection,toalsosupportassessmentforlearning.Thelanguageteacherandclassroomteachershouldprovidefeedbackonwhichactivitiesworkedwell,producingcommunicationandinteractions,and/orstimulatingstudentinterestandresponse.Teacherscanalsoprovidefeedbackabouttheeffectivenessoflearningresources,andlanguageteachersshouldbeencouragedtoreflectontheoverallandindividuallearningneedsofstudentsandhowclassroominstructionwasadaptedtomeetthoseneeds.Asdescribedabove,toencouragestudentstoengageinassessmentforandaslearningtasks,theCEFRadvocatesforandhasdevelopedstudentportfoliosor“LanguagePassports”thatinvitestudentstocommentontheirlearningofalanguage,todevelopa“biography”oftheirlanguagelearning,tolistandcommentonactivitiestheyenjoy,tokeeptrackoftheirlearningbylistingandshowingexamplesoftheirworkinthelanguage,andbyincluding“CanDo”checklists.Forrelevantexamples,seeDraftCoreFrenchCurriculum,2011,andMaxwell,LanguageAssessmentActivitiesPackageandStudentPortfoliobasedonthePrinciplesoftheCEFR,AIMLanguageLearning,2011.3.5.1AssessingEmergingLanguageProficiencyinRelationtoLevelsandBenchmarksAsnotedabove,thedevelopmentofcompetencelevelsconnectedtobenchmarks,alongwithlearningoutcomesforeachgradelevelandspecifictoeachunit,isconnectedtoassessmentformatsandstrategies.Tablesthatlistwhatskillslearnersshouldbeabletodoasevidencedbyatasktheyareabletoperform,andtheextenttowhichtheycanperformthistask(fully,tosomedegreeorwithhelp,notyet)arereferredtoasassessmentrubrics.Assessmentrubricsareusuallyintheshapeofagridortable.Variousexamplesofassessmentrubrics,accompaniedbyexamplesofmeasuringperformanceaccordingtorubrics,areincludedintheBCMinistryofEducationLanguagesTemplate.BelowisanexamplefromtheSm’algyaxGrades5‐12IRP.Thestudenttaskwastodevelopaposteronthetopic“Thisismyfamily”–nagyedgu,andtopresentthispostertotheclassasanoralpresentation.

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Rubricsshouldbeavailabletostudents.Basedonthecriteriaforwhatconstitutesperformancethatisoutstanding,good,satisfactory,orrequirementsnotmet,theteacher(orstudentsaspeers)canassessperformance.Beyondthat,inordertohelpstudentsimprovetheirlanguagelearning,itisveryusefultoprovidefeedbackaboutwhatthingsweredonewellandwhatthings(pronunciationofwords,useofvocabularyandchoiceofwords,grammaticalform)requireadditionalwork.Afurthercrucialassessmenttaskforlanguageteachersistomeasureandkeeptrackofstudents’abilitytoperformspecificlanguagetasksasmappedoutinlearningoutcomesforaunitoragradelevel.Forolderstudents,writtentests(vocabulary,grammar,translation,dictation,re‐tellingastory)areameaningfulmeasureofstudentabilitytoperformlanguagetasksthatwereintroducedandpracticedinagivenunit.Foryoungerstudents,orinordertomeasurecomprehensionandproduction,teacherscantakestudentsthroughasetoflanguagetasksandusecheckliststomeasureperformance.AsimpleoralassessmentexercisethattestsGrade1and2students’abilitytoidentify(listen)andsay(speak)wordsandphraseswasdevelopedbyChiefMatthewsSchool.The

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languageteachercarriesoutshorttestsforeachunit,providingfeedbackonwhatsimplelanguagetaskslearnersareabletodoafteraseriousoflessons,andprovidingarecordofstudents’abilitiesinthelanguage(SeeAppendix5forasample).Similarly,theFNLEsincludeprogressivelymoredifficultassessmentsofstudentperformanceoflanguagetasks.Theseinitiallyinvolvehavingstudentscarryoutasimplecommand(“walk,”“sitdown,”“gotothewindow,”etc.),withincreasingcomplexitygraduallyintroduced,suchas“drawafatpig,”“erasethepig,”orpromptslike“givetheappletome,”“giveMikethepen,”“grabtheboyfromthetableandgrowllikeabear!”Assessmentofspeakingskills,whichbeginsmanyhourslater,involvesquestionsaboutpicturesorprops(“Isthisamanorawoman?;”“Pretendtogiveafishtothefather,saygoodbyetothefather,andwalktoyourchairandsitdown.”)Studentperformanceismeasuredaccordingtothreeprogressindicators:1=beginning,2=developing,3=mastery.Suchsimpleassessmenttoolsprovideusefulmeasuresandindicatorsoflanguagetasksthatstudentsareabletodo,strugglewith,orarenotyetabletodoandrequirefurtherhelptoperform.Beyondassessingstudents’basicabilitytoperformlanguagetasks,anareathatFirstNationslanguageeducatorsmightdevelopistheassessmentofstudents’languageproficiencydevelopmentasitinvolvesmeasuringanddocumentingaccuracyinpronunciationandintheuseofgrammar.18VerylittleassessmentofthistypeiscurrentlytakingplaceinFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,althoughoneimportantexceptionistheCherokeeKindergartenImmersionLanguageAssessment(C‐KILA)andtheCherokeeLanguageImmersionLiteracyAssessment(C‐LILA),bothofwhichmeasurenotonlylanguagefunctions(beingabletoperformtasksinthelanguage),butalsostudents’useofforms(grammar).TheCherokeeassessmentteamisstilldevelopingmeasuresformanyofthepolysyntheticfeaturesofthelanguage.Gatheringinformationaboutcommonlearnererrorsandinaccuracieshasprovidedimportantfeedbackforteachersandcurriculumdevelopersaboutaddressingfocus‐on‐form(grammar)instructionintheclassroom.AsKell(2014:57)hassuggested,thetablesofgrammaticaltopicsthatmarkincreasedproficiencydevelopedbyIgnace(seeAppendix1)couldalsobeadaptedintorubricsandusedasassessmentchecklistsaccordingtoprogressindicators(4=exceedsexpectations,3=meetsexpectations,2=approachingexpectations,1=notyetmeetingexpectations).

18SonyaBirdfromtheUniversityofVictoriaiscurrentlycarryingoutresearchwithfourgenerationsofSENCOTENspeakersonpronunciationchange.MarianneIgnaceandagroupofHaidalearnersandspeakerhavebeengatheringandanalysingassessmentdataonlearners’useofgrammarandpronunciation.

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Overall,thedevelopmentofassessmenttoolsthatmeasureandanalyzestudents’emerginggrammaticalcompetenceintheFirstNationslanguagewillenhancethedevelopmentofcurriculumtoolsandteachingstrategies.

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PARTFOUR:DESIGNINGCONTENTCURRICULUMFORYOURCOMMUNITYOFLEARNERS4.1BeyondCurriculumFrameworks:TheNeedforContentinCurriculumDesignTheCurriculumFrameworksdiscussedinPart3ofthisreportallaimtoprovidecommonobjectives,standardsandbenchmarksforK‐12programsformultiplelanguages.Curriculumframeworksprovidemapsforachievingthe“outputs”ofdesiredstudentperformance,andsuggestlearningactivitiesandassessmentformatsthatmakeitmostlikelythatstudentswillachievethedesiredresults.Bycontrast,theterm“input”isusedtorefertothelanguage‐specificcontentofacourseorprogram(Richards,2013).InworkshopsorganizedbyFNESC,languageteachersandcurriculumdevelopersstronglyagreedthatbeyondframeworks,theeffectiveteachingandlearningofFirstNationslanguagesrequirescontent‐basedcurriculathatmapout,forspecificgradelevels,whatcontentwillbepresented.The2014ReportontheStatusofBCFirstNationsLanguagesunderscoresthisurgentneedforFirstNationslanguagecurriculum.Itemphasizesthatonly52percentofFirstNationscommunitieshadanykindofcurriculumforteachingtheirlanguagesinschools,andthatmanyoftheexistingcurricula“areverylimitedandhavenotbeendevelopedformanylevelsoflanguagelearners.”Thatreportalsonotes:“clearlythisisanareathatstillneedsattention.IfFirstNationslanguagesaretobetaughtaswellasanyotherlanguagetypicallytaughtinschool,curriculumisurgentlyneeded”(FPCC2014).Forteachers,thereareseveralimportantadvantagestohavingaccesstoasmuchdevelopedclassroomcontentaspossible. Curricularcontentinthelanguagefacilitatesmonthly,weeklyanddailyplanning,

helpingtoanswerkeyquestions:Whatvocabulary,phrases,sentencesandformswillstudentsbeexposedto?Whatarestudentsexpectedtobeabletodoafteracertainsetofactivitiesthathavethempracticewordsandsentences?Whatmethodsandclassroomactivitieswillbeused?Howwillstudentsbeassessed?Whathand‐outsandworksheetswillbeused?

EspeciallyiftheFirstNationslanguagegrouphasnotyetproducedtextbooks,workbooks,orotherprintordigitalmediaresources,contentor“input”basedcurriculumbinderscanfunctioninlieutheseresources.

Wheretheyhavebeendevelopedbyproficientspeakers/writersofthelanguage,curriculumdocumentsorbindersprovideauthorizedwaysofspellingwords,correct

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andappropriateuseofwords,correctsentencestructure,etc.,whichwillhelpthenoviceteacherdetermineworduse,correctandappropriategrammaticalconstruction,andspellings.

4.2AssemblingorConsolidatingYourTeamTobegin,itisnecessarytobringtogetheracurriculumdevelopmentteamtosupporttheeffortsahead.Dependingonthesituationandcircumstancesofeachcommunity,therearedifferentwaystoconvenesuchateam.Ofcrucialsignificance,fluentspeaker(s)mustberepresentedontheteam,astheycanguidethecontentdevelopmentandlendtheiradvice.Iftherearedialectsofthelanguage(eithermajordialectsor“microdialects”representingparticularvillagecommunities),italsowillbeimportanttoincluderepresentativesofeachtofullyaccountfortheirversionsofspeech.Additionally,FirstNationslanguagecurriculumdevelopmentteamsbenefitfromaresourcepersonwhohasabackgroundinlanguageteachingandlearningtheoryandmethod,andwhohasexpertiseinformulatinglearningoutcomes,assessmentformats,teachingstrategies,andclassroomactivities.Thispersonshouldhavestrongskillsinwritingthesecomponentsofcurriculum.Sometimesitworkswelltohaveanapprenticefromthecommunityassistingwiththisworkandreceivingmentorshipintheseimportantskillsfromtheseniorcurriculumdeveloper.Languagecurriculumdevelopmentteamsalsosometimesrelyonhelpfromalinguistwhohassuccessfullycollaboratedwithspeakersandhasthetrustofthecommunity.Thiscanbeespeciallyusefulwherethelinguisthasinterestandexpertiseinapplied,on‐the‐groundworkinlanguageteachingandlearning,andhasanassociatedskillset.Otherconsiderationsincludethefollowing: Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthegroupisintendedtodothepracticalworkof

languagecurriculumdevelopment,ratherthangettingboggeddowninpoliticaldecision‐making–orwhatCohen(2010)hasidentifiedasthe“politicsofdistraction.”Itisthusbesttohaveaclearmandatefromapoliticalbody(bandcouncil,boardofdirectors).

Aworkingcommitteeof6‐10individualsisaneffectivesizetodothenecessarywork. Animportantprincipleoflanguagecurriculumdevelopmentcommitteesisthespiritof

collaboration. Itisalsoimportantforthecurriculumcommitteetohavearoleineditingandrevising

thecurriculum,perhapscollaborativelywiththelocalLanguageAuthority. Whenformulatinggoalsandobjectivesforthelanguageprogram,orinusingthe

processofcurriculumdevelopmentasawaytoenhanceexistingcontent,itisimportant

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toconsidersomeoftheissuesraisedinPart1ofthisdocumentandtodeterminewhatkindofprogramisfeasibleanddesirable.Inconsideringtheseissues,rememberthatalanguageprograminwhichwordsintheFirstNationslanguagearetaughtwhiletheteachercommunicatesinEnglishwillnotinstillanylevelofcommunicativecompetence.Similarly,aprogramwithoutampleinstructionaltimeorwithnoprogressionoflearningwilllikelynotbesuccessfulinreachingcommunicativegoals.

4.3StartingWithaNeedsAssessmentOnevitalcomponentoflanguagecurriculumplanningisaneedsassessment,whichinvolvesgatheringinformationabouttheactualstateofthelanguageinthecommunityand/orNation,togetasenseofhowmanyspeakersofthelanguageareleftandwhoisabletoactivelysupportlanguageteachingandlearningand/orassistwithdevelopingcurriculumandproducingresourcematerialsinprint,audio,videoandotherforms.Agoodstartingpointmaybeinformationalreadycollectedbythespeechcommunityand/orneighbouringspeechcommunitiesaboutthenumberofspeakers,“silentspeakers,”learners,aswellasexistingschoolprogramsandlanguageresources.FormanyFirstNations,needsassessmentsalreadyexistintheformofonlineLanguageAssessmentsprovidedtotheFPCCthroughfundingapplications(seeFPCC2014).UndertakinganeedsassessmentmayinvolvehavingacommunitydiscussionandplanningmeetingswithElders,parents,teachers,languageactivists,leaders,andyouth.Itisimportanttohearcommunitymembers’hopesregardingpresentandfuturelanguagerevitalizationefforts,theirthoughtsaboutbestwaystolearnthelanguage,andapproachestheythinkhaveworkedathome.Anotherusefulcomponentofaneedsassessmentandplanningprocessmaybejointdiscussionof“promisingpractices,”aswellasopendiscussionofhowcuttingedgeandinnovativemeasures(immersion,adultmaster‐apprenticelearning,languagenests,language‐in‐the‐homeprojects,intensiveFirstNationassecondlanguageorbilingualprograms)couldbeimplementedlocally.Thisreviewmayleadtoadiscussionaboutwhatkindsofsustainedefforts,resources,organizationsand/orinstitutionsmightbeneededforthecriticalworkahead.Aspartoftheplanningprocess,Elders,adults,youth,educatorsandothercommunitymemberscanformulatepowerfulstatementsofwhyitisimportanttokeepthelanguage–inconnectionswiththeculture–alive.CommunitymembersmayalsoreflectonandarticulatetheroleofK‐12educationinregardtothefutureofthelanguage.Leadinguptosuchadiscussion,itcouldbeusefultoshowcommunitymemberstheresourcesforcommunitylanguageprogrammingthathavebeenproducedbyFPCC(www.fpcc.ca)andbyFNESC(www.fnesc.ca).Theseresourcesaddresscommunitylanguageplanning,

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languagenests,languagecamps,Master‐Apprenticeprograms,developingaLanguageAuthority,developinggoalswithinthecommunity,andmanyotherissues.Throughtheprocessofreviewingexistinginformation,engagingincommunityconsultations,anddiscussingbestpractices,itshouldbepossibletoformulateastatementthatcanbecomeapreambletoacurriculumdocument,whicharticulatestherationaleforrevitalizingthelanguage,aswellasthevision,goalsandobjectivesfortheprogram.4.3.1DeterminingtheTypeofProgramandStartingPointIntermsofdeterminingwhatisfeasibleandwhatkindoflanguageprogramthecommunitymemberswant,itmaybeusefultoconsiderthetypesofprogramsthatcurrentlyexistandwhatispossibleunderexistingpolicies.Theseconsiderationsmayaddressthefollowingquestions. Areyouconsideringafullimmersion,partialimmersion,orbilingualprogram?Atthe

primary,elementary,middle,and/orsecondarylevels? IfitisnotfeasibletodesigncurriculumforalanguageprogramatthefullK‐12range

(recognizingthatittakesatleastseveralmonthstodevelopayear’sworthofcontentcurriculum),wherewillyoubegin?

Ifaprogramforsomegradelevelsalreadyexists,whatisthemostfeasiblewaytoenhanceit?

Whatcommunicative,task,andactivity‐basedclassroomactivitiescanbeincorporated? Whatkindoflanguageteachertraining,shortandlongterm,isrequired? Perhapstryinganinnovativeapproach,woulditbepossibletoimplementanintensive

FirstNationslanguageprogramatthegrade5or6level,followedbyasemi‐intensive,hour‐a‐dayprogramthatcontinuesthroughtoGrade12?

Giventhatfewsolutionswillbeperfect,whatisyourshort‐termandlong‐termplan?Arethereanypossible“hybrid”waystoimprovethestatusofthelanguageintheschool?

Additionalconsiderationsincludethefollowing. PublicschoolprogramsmaybeconstrainedbytheBCMinistryofEducationSecond

LanguagesPolicy,discussedinParts2and3. Forprimaryorelementaryprograms,itmaybeusefultobeginattheearliestlevel

(NurseryorK)andprogresstowardhighergradelevels. Consideringtheimportanceoftimeallocation,itwillbeimportanttorevisitthenumber

ofhoursof“guidedinstruction”requiredtoreachintermediatelevelproficiency(seePart2).Inmostschools,timeallocationstendtobeapproximately1,000hours,butto

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developindependentuser(highintermediate)proficiency,moretimewouldbeuseful.SchoolprogramsthatfallundertheBCMinistry’sSecondLanguagepolicytypicallyoffer90‐120minutesofinstructionsperweek–oftenclosertothe90minutelevel.Thislevelofinstructionamountsto60hoursorlessperyear,andevenwith13yearsofcontinuousinstruction,studentswillhavelessthan1,000hoursofguidedinstructionfromGradesK‐12.Bycontrast,ifinstructionaltimecouldamounttoatleastanhour4timesperweek,studentscouldreceiveapproximately2,000hoursintotalbetweentheelementaryandsecondarylevels–enoughtoactuallyattainhighintermediatelevelproficiencyorevengreater.

Anadditionaloption,asexplainedinPart2,mightbepartialimmersion,withahighfocusonteachingcontentthroughthemediumoftheFirstNationslanguageattheprimarylevel,followedbyagradualreductionofinstructionalcontenttosome20‐30percentbythesecondaryschoollevel.

4.4HumanResourcesNowandInTheFutureNomatterhowwelldesigned,alanguageprogram’ssuccesshingesontheavailabilityofwell‐trainedspeakersandteachersofthelanguage.Thereforeanylanguageprogramdesignmustincludeathoughtfulconsiderationofthefollowingquestions. Whathumanresourcesareavailableforteaching? Whatnumberofqualifiedlanguageteacherswillweneedin5years;in10years? Whatinstitutionsprovidethekindoftrainingweneed(DevelopmentalStandardTerm

Certificate,fullteachereducationdegreesandprofessionalcertification,effectivetraininginFirstNationslanguageandlanguagerevitalization)?

4.5TypesofCurriculumDesignDevelopingcontent‐basedcurriculumforaFirstNationslanguagecanbeapproachedindifferentways.Forexample,itcanbeginwitha“grand”or“forward”designmapofanentirescopeandsequenceplanorsyllabusforaK‐12curriculum,itcanbeundertakenoneyearoroneunitatatimeoutofthepracticeofteaching–“centraldesign,”–oritcanuse“backwardsdesign”oflearner‐basedcommunicativeobjectives.

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4.5.1GrandorForwardDesign“Grand”or“forward”designbeginsfromscratch.Withthelanguageasthesubjectmatter,contentisaccumulatedaccordingtoascopeandsequenceofthemes,withassociatedvocabulary,phrases,andculturalconceptsandincreasinglycomplexgrammaticalstructuresintegratedintothethematiccontent.Insequence,fromearlynursery/Ktoelementary,middle,andsecondaryschool,contentisorganizedaroundage‐anddevelopmentallyappropriatesubjectmatter.Subjectmatteristhenorganizedaroundlanguageteachingmethodsandactivitiesthathavebeenshowntobeeffective,andmatchedwithresources(books,video,audio,games,manipulatives,etc.)thateitherexistorneedtobeproduced.Finally,theunits,gradeandagelevelsareorganizedaroundprescribedlearningoutcomes,andperhapsareadditionallyorganizedaccordingtohowtheyrelatetobenchmarkslikethosediscussedinPart3.Derivingfromtheprescribedlearningoutcomesidentifiedforeachgradelevel,assessmentformatsaredevelopedtohelptheteacherdetermineifindividualstudentsandtheclassaremeetingtheoutcomes.Such“forward”designislinear.Itbeginswithmappingoutthelanguagecontentthatthecurriculumdevelopmentgroupwantstoinclude,andaftermappingoutthesyllabus(the“what”thatisbeingtaught),itaddressesthelanguageteachingmethodsandstrategiesthatwillbeused.Thenitformulatestheexpectedskillslearnerswilldevelop,describedaslearningoutcomesthatareconnectedtoassessmentformatsandtools.

Forwarddesignplanningbeginswithdevelopingasyllabus(orScopeandSequenceChart)asagrandmasterplanforK‐12content,whichmapsoutwhattopicsaretobetaught/learnedinwhatsequence.Thisworkwillinvolveconsiderationofthefollowing. Themesorlanguagetopics–Appendix2providesalistofcommunicativetopicsthat

learnerswillneedintheirrepertoire,includingarangeoffairlyuniversalthemes.Forexample,thematictopicsexistinvocabulary(words),buttheyalsoconnecttoconventionsofspeech(howtoorganizeastory,aspeech,modesofpolitespeech),andoptimallywillbeintegratedwithgrammaticalcomponents(seebelow).

Input(Languagecontent)

Process(LanguageteachingMethods)

Output(Learningoutcomes)

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CulturalLessons:Unitsmayalsoincludeculturallessonsabout,forexample“principles”(atermusedbytheSto:lo)or“laws”(reflectingtheSecwepemctermstsq’ey’),orayaawx(or“laws”asusedbytheTs’msyenpeopleinSm’algyax).Dependingontheobjectivesofthelanguageprogramandthelanguageskillsoftheteacher,thesecanbecommunicatedintheFirstNationslanguageusingsimplesentencesandaccompanyingimages,ortheycanbeexplainedusingEnglish.

Grammaticalforms:Formsshouldbeorderedfromelementaryorbasicmovingto

moredifficultgrammaticalformsthatcontinuouslybuilduponpreviouslylearnedsimplerforms.

AsdiscussedinPart2ofthisdocument,inbestteachingpractices,wherelessonsareconductedinthelanguage(especiallyforyoungerlearners),grammarisnottaughtasatopicinitself.Instead,theyshouldbe“focus‐on‐form”componentsoflanguageactivities,meaninggrammarstructures(suchaspronounprefixesorsuffixes,connectives,etc.)areemphasizedtoconveymeaningandaretaughtthroughgesture,repetitionandcontrast.Thisapproachwillenablelearnerstograspgrammaticalconceptsbyhearingandseeingthemrepeatedlymodeledbytheteacher.ExamplesfromXaadKilGrades1‐2Curriculum,ChiefMatthewsSchool,OldMassettExample1:Teachinginalienablepossessivepronounsusedforrelativesandbody‐parts,butnotbelongingsorotherthings

Focus-on-Form: For the teacher: unlike the possessives (“my”, “your” etc.) for things, words for relatives and body parts use a different set of possessives: Díi my Dáng your ‘ll his/her/their íitl’ our daláng you folks’ Use the possessives when reviewing the names for relatives. Show students pictures of your own relatives, name them with the possessives and the correct kinship term, pointing to yourself, and emphasizing díi.

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Example2:TeachingthemodalsuffixsGwáanang(keepondoingsomething)

Focus-on-Form For the teacher: the ending (or suffix) – sGwáanang means that an action is going on and on, or keeps going on: dii kaj guugangsGwaananggaa my head keeps hurting hlaa uu k’usangsGwáananggaa I keep on coughing, I cough on and on dii sk’alaawsGwáaanggaa I keep on having diarrhea Eli uu k’usangsGwáananggaa! Eli keeps on coughing! Mary uu sgayhlang sGwáananggaa! Mary keeps on crying. Use a hand-gesture or sign language gesture to convey the idea of “on and on” to students in sentences with sGwáanang , as you emphasize the ending sGwáanang as well. After a number of repetitions with various verbs/actions, the students will catch on what sGwáanang means. Forolderstudents,itisusefultoincludegrammarpracticeactivitiesthathelplearners:1. identifystructuresinthelanguage,likepronounsuffixes,correctwordorder,tense

markers,questionmarkers;2. applysuchstructuresinavarietyofexercises(fill‐in‐the‐blanks,unscrambling,

substitution,orperhapstranslationexercises);3. applysuchformsintargetedconversationsandbyhavingstudentscarryoutnarrations

–forexampletellingwhattheydidyesterday,narratingasequenceofeventsaccordingtopicturesoracomicstrip,etc.;and

4. listeningforandapplyingcorrectedforms,wheretheyareonlypartiallyornotyetproducingthem.

IntheearlyyearsofFrenchimmersioneducation,itwasrealizedthatyearsofimmersionalonedidnotproducenative‐likeandgrammaticallycorrectspeechinstudents.Accordingly,intensiveFrenchandFrenchimmersioneducationnowincludes“focus‐on‐form”exercisesandactivitiestohelpstudentsacquirethecorrectuseofgrammaticalforms.ThesameistrueformanyIndigenouslanguageprograms.Forexample,asKell(2014)reports,a2007assessmentofCherokeeNationprimarystudents’languageskillswhoattendedanimmersionprogram:

showedthatmoststudentscouldnotusepastorfuturetenses,orevenproduceallpresenttenseformsaccurately.Adetailedanalysisofthisassessmentdatabyfluentspeakersandlinguistsrevealedspecificknowledge

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ofCherokeelanguagestructuresthatthechildrenwerelacking,andsuggestedthatimmersionwasnotsufficientforthemtoachievelanguageproficiencywithgrammaticalaccuracy.Researchinotherimmersionsettingshashadsimilarfindings.Peter,SlyandHirata‐Edds(2011[theCherokeeresearchteam])identifiedaneedforteacherstobalancenaturalinputwithplannedopportunitiesforpracticeusingspecificlanguagefunctionsandtheirforms…The2008[studentlanguageassessment]showedthatanincreaseinform‐focusedinstructionhadledtogreaterproficiencyandaccuracyinchildren’sproductionofCherokeeverbforms.

Inthiscase,focus‐on‐formpracticeinvolvedthestepsof:a)discoveringthelinguisticrulesofCherokeegrammar,especiallyverbforms;b)planninglessonstoprovideopportunitiesforchildrentopracticesuchforms;andc)preparinglearningandteachingmaterialstoexposeandencouragestudentstousesuchformsinengagingways.4.5.2Practice‐DrivenCentralDesignAnotherwaytoembarkoncurriculumdevelopmentistobeginnotwithagrandorforwarddesignapproach,butbybuildingsmallerblocksandaddingtothemonanongoingbasis,asneeded.Manylanguageteacherstakethisapproachbasedontheirpracticalneeds,existingresources,andtheirclassroomteachingpractice.Curriculumisthusvisualizedandimplementedasclustersandsetsofclassroomactivities,withthematerialsandresourcesrequiredtocarryoutlessons.Suchcurriculumdesign(sometimescalled“centraldesign”)ismoreimmediatelyteacherandlearnerfocusedandbasedonclassroompractice.Centraldesigncanbegraphedasfollows(adaptedfromRichards,2013).

content

outcomes

assessment

content

assessment

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Inthecentraldesignmodel,thelanguageteacherleadsthecurriculumdevelopment,oftenbyunitorworkingonasinglegradelevelatatime.Theteacher’spreferencesand/orskillsinlanguageteachingapproachesandmethodsarethefocus,andtheunitsandlessonsdevelopedthroughcentraldesignareoftendeterminedbyseasonalthemesandculturalpractices(salmonmigrationandfishinginfall;birdmigrationoranimalhibernationpatterns;plantgatheringinlatespringorlatesummer).TheFirstNationsLanguageEssentialsmentionedinPart3(FNLEs)areanexampleofcentraldesign,astheyaroseoutofpractice.TheFNLEsengageTPRandCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)todevelopbasicauralandoralcommunicativeskillsbasedontwodecadesofpracticeusingTPRandCLTstrategiesinimmersionclassrooms–especiallyattheKtoGrade4level.TheFNLEprogramisdesignedtodevelopabasiclevelofcommunicativevocabularythatcanbereusedandrecombinedinmanywayssothatstudentscanproduceauthenticspeechtomeettheirowncommunicativeneeds.Initially,vocabularyisintroducedintheimperativeor“command”formsothatteachersmaybegintoteachinthelanguageimmediately,withoutresortingtoEnglish,becausethecontentiscomprehensibletothestudentsandthereisnoexpectationofanoralresponse.Asstudentsbuildvocabularyandtheirlevelof“comprehensibleinput,”teachingstrategiesexpandtoincludeTPR‐Storytellingandothercommunicativeactivities.4.5.3“BackwardsDesign”–StartingwithCompetencyLevelsYetanothertypeofcurriculumdesign–“backwardsdesign”–beginsnotwiththelanguageanditscontent,butinsteadwithcommunicativeoutcomesasexpressedinexistingcurriculumframeworksandbenchmarks.Thisapproachbeginsbyaskingwhatlearnersshouldbeabletounderstandordoregardlessofwhatactivitiesortestsareused,whatistheevidenceofsuchability,andthereforewhattexts,activitiesandmethodswillbestenablesucharesult(WigginsandMcTighe2006,citedinRichards2013).In“backwardsdesign,”thefocusisonhowtocreatecompetencylevelsinlearners,whichisarticulatedaccordingtoanumberofauthentic“survivaltasks.”ForFirstNations,culturallyimportantauthenticsurvivaltasksmightinvolve:communicationanddialoguerelatedtorelatives,theirwell‐beingandwhereabouts;introducingandaskingaboutfamily;cookingameal,preparingtraditionalfoods,visitinganolderrelative,cleaninghouse,traditionalsubsistencetasks;etc.Suchcompetencies,accordingtotopicsandtasks(brokeninto“CanDo”statements),arethenmatchedwithlanguagecontent(vocabulary,grammar)inspeaking,listening,readingandwriting.Instructionalmaterials–eitherinprint,electronicmedia,videooraudio–are

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chosenoridentifiedasneeded.Thecurriculumdevelopersalsodeterminewhichofthefourareas(speaking,listening,readingandwriting)shouldhavepriority.Overall,thesequenceofcurriculumdesigninacompetency‐basedapproachor“backwardsdesign”canbevisualizedasfollows(fromRichards2013).

Inthismodel,thecurriculumdevelopmentteambeginsbyconsideringwhatkindsofcompetencylevelsthegroupexpectsaslearnersprogress.Suchmappingoutofemergentcompetenceorproficiencyinthelanguagecanbeadaptedfromexistinglanguagebenchmarkdocuments,likethosediscussedinPart3.Forexample,theDraft2011CoreFrenchIntegratedResourcePackageusesCEFRbenchmarkstoguidelearnersthroughnumerouslevelsinlistening,speaking,readingandwritingskills.Asstudentsreacheachbenchmark,theyareassessedonthebasisoftasksthey“CanDo.”Belowareafewexamplesoflisteningandspeaking“CanDo’s”adaptedfromMaxwell(AIMLanguageLearning,2011).SAMPLECANDOExamplesA1–Listening Iunderstandthewordsthattheteacherusesallthetime.[suggestion:listthesewordsin

yourcurriculumdocument] Iunderstandshortandeasyphrasesandquestions[suggestion:listthem] Iunderstandthephrasestheteacheruseseverydaywhentalkingtotheclass

[suggestion:listthese!] Iunderstandtheactionstheteachermakes Iunderstandthewordstosongswesinginclassandstoriesourclassislisteningto

A1Speaking(interaction) IcansaywordsIhaveheardmanytimesbeforeinveryshortandsimplephrases IcansaywhereIliveandwhomyimmediatefamilymembersare Whenthepersonspeaksveryslowly,Icanrespondtosimplequestions Icanasksimplequestions

outcomes syllabus materials teachingassessment

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Formanypeople,especiallythosewhohavepreviouslyengagedinIRPdevelopment,theseCanDo’swillbefairlyfamiliar;inlargepart,theyreflecttheprescribedlearningoutcomestatementsastheyexistedinpreviousiterationsofcurriculum.Inwritingandassessing“CanDo’s”adaptedfromEnglishorFrenchlanguage,itisimportingtonotesomeculturalconstraints,suchasdifferentconventionsofspeech.Forexample: ItcouldberudeforachildtointerruptorbeperceivedasinterruptinganElder(e.g.

teacher).Itcouldalsobeconsideredrudeforayoungerlearnertointerruptorcorrectanolderlearner(evenifthelearnersareanoldersibling).

AccordingtomanyFirstNations’conventions,whilepeoplespeakcasuallyaboutthemselves,thepreferredconversationtendstonotemphasizeself,butinsteadtovalidateothers.Accordingly,fromaFirstNationsperspective,focusedtalkonMeisinconflictwithsocialnormsofdiminishingselfforreasonsofsocialinteraction.Therefore,whiletalkofpreferences,likes,wantsandinterestsareoftenemphasizedinIRPsand“CanDo”statements,suchtalk(asquestionsanddeclarativesentences)isnotahighfrequencytopicinauthenticFirstNationslanguagediscourse.

Correctingsomeoneexplicitly(orbeingperceivedtodoso)canbeconstruedasviolatingaperson’ssocialspace,andthemoreauthenticwayofcorrectingapersonmaybeteachingthroughastory(see,forexample,Basso,1995).

WhileTPRhasproventobeausefulandproductivemethodinmanyFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,somespeakersconsiderbasicimperativeformsaslackinginpoliteness(althoughtheymaybeappropriateatleastwithyounglearners).

Intheend,“CanDo’s”areusefulwaystoshowlearners’progress,buttheycannotbesimplytranslatedfromEnglishorFrench‐basedCEFRorCLBstatements;instead,theymusttakeintoaccountculturalnormsandconventionsofhowprotocolsbetweenself,others,community,society,andalllivingthingsareconstruedinparticularlanguages.4.6MakingaCasefor“ScriptedCurriculum”AsdiscussedinPart1,secondlanguagelearnersor“semi‐fluent”speakersareincreasinglyactingasteachersinFirstNationslanguageclassrooms.Therefore,manypresentandfuturelanguageteachersarestillimprovingtheirlanguageproficiencyandcouldbenefitfromdetailed,“scripted”curriculumthatlistsnotonlylearningoutcomes,teachingstrategies,assessmentsandresources,butalsoprovidesthedetailedcontentofwhatistaughtinthelanguage(vocabulary,phrasesas“frame‐sentences,”stories,TPRexercises,dialogue,“focus‐on‐form”exercises).Ideally,thewholedocumentwouldbeintheFirstNationslanguage,butthismaybeinfeasible.

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“Scriptedcurriculum”alsocanincludethequestions,prompts,instructions,andothersentencesforunit‐basedandrecurrentactivities(weather,calendar,time,season,crafts,clean‐up,turn‐taking,games)thatthenot‐yet‐fluentteachercanuseinordertoconductlessonsinthelanguageasmuchaspossible.Suchscriptedcurriculumworksmostefficientlyifitalsoexistsassoundfilerecordingsthattheteachercanlistentoandpracticewhenpreparingforlessons.Itisimportanttocontinuallybuild“teachertalk”andclassroomcommunicationrepertoireastheteachergainsmoreconfidenceinconductinglessonsinthelanguage,andaslessonsreachhighergradesandbecomeincreasinglycomplex.Agoodexampleofdetailed“scriptedcurriculum”thatdoesnotlimittheteacher’sverbalinteractionswithstudentsarethebindersproducedbyAIMlanguagelearning(www.aimlanguagelearning.ca).ForFirstNationslanguages,theSm’algyaxPrimaryCurriculum(GradesK‐4)andtheChiefMatthewsSchoolcurriculumprovideadditionalexamplesofwaystoincludedetailedcommunicativecontentinthelanguage,aswellasthe“teachertalk”necessaryforcarryingoutavarietyofclassroomactivities,includinggames,crafts,cleaningup,turn‐takingetc.(seebelow).ForOkanagan(Nsilxcen),thePaulCreekLanguageAssociationhasdevelopeddetailedsetsofcurriculathatengageavarietyofmethodologieswithdetailedcontentinthelanguage.Seehttp://www.interiorsalish.com.

ExamplesofLanguageCurriculumDevelopmentTheSm’algyaxCommitteehasengagedinSm’algyax(CoastTsimshian)curriculumdevelopmentwithDr.M.Ignacesincethelate1990s.Followingcommunityconsultations,aSm’algyaxGrades5‐12programwasimplementedinallschoolsofthedistrictin1997‐98,beginningwithaGrade5curriculum.Between1999and2006,onetotwoyearsofcurriculumbinderswereaddedannuallyuptothegrade12level,withanIRPdevelopedin2001andabeginnersGrade11course,asstipulatedbytheIRP,developedatthesametime.In2007,theSm’algyaxAuthorityandschooldistrict52alsoembarkedonaK–Grade4Sm’algyaxprogram,whichledtothedevelopmentofcurriculumbindersforthoselevels.WiththefirststudenttocompletetheK‐4programnowhavingmovedtoGrades5and6,thecurriculaforGrades5‐12arebeingadaptedtoreflectthepriorK‐4languageskillsofstudents.Eachcurriculumbinderincludesunitsfora10‐monthyear,inmostcasesorganizedaroundthe“Ts’msyenSeasonalRound”(seasonalroundsaredescribedmorebelow).Eachunitincludesunit‐specificlearningoutcomes,particulartopicswithvocabulary,stories,dialogue,andotherlanguagecontent,aswellasteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivities,worksheets,studentexercises,andstudentassessmentformats.ChiefMatthewsSchoolinOldMassettisaFirstNationsschoolwithXaadKil(Haidalanguage)instruction,includinglearningonthelandasanimportantcomponentoftheschool’sobjectives.LedbytheXaadKilteacherRhondaBell,anadvancedlearnerofthelanguage,alongwithanassistant,thefocusisonteachingcommunicativecontentinthe

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language,ratherthanusingEnglishwhileteachingHaidawordsandsentences.TheschoolcomprisesNursery,KandGrades1‐5.Studentsreceive45minutesofinstructioninXaadKilperday,basedoncommunicationalmostentirelyinthelanguage.TheschoolbeganwithaNursery/Kcurriculumin2007/2008,addinganadditionalsplitgradeyearofcurriculumannuallyuntilGrade3/4wascompletedin2011.Thecurriculumwasproducedoutofinitialdiscussionofcross‐curriculargoalsandcontentbetweentheHaidalanguageteacher,RhondaBell,theschoolprincipal,andthecurriculumdeveloper(M.Ignace).Subsequently,thelanguageteacherandcurriculumdevelopermappedoutayearlongsequenceofthemesandlanguagecontent.Thedetailsofcommunicativecontent(teachertalk,classroomroutines,TPRsequences,shortstoriestaughtwithTPR‐S,games,craftsandotherhands‐onlessons,weresubsequentlyrecordedinsoundandtextwithfluentElders,mostofwhomarenowdeceased.Duetotheageofspeakersandlogistics,contentwasrecordedduringsome80hoursofsessionspersplitgradewithElderfluentspeakers.4.7TheRoleofLiteracyinK‐12EducationAnimportantconsiderationindevelopingFirstNationslanguagecurriculumistheroleofliteracyskills(readingandwriting).ManyEldersandfluentspeakerswhoareinvolvedindevelopingFirstNationsassecondlanguage(FNSL)programsstronglyadvocateorallanguageeducationintheearlygrades(e.g.K‐Grade4),withthegradualintroductionoftheorthographyofthelanguageataroundtheGrade5level.Intheintermediatelevels(Grades5‐7),readingandwritingpracticebecomesthefocusof30–50percentofinstruction,whilecontinuingtofocusatleast50percentofinstructionaltimeonorallanguageskills.Similarly,theFNLEdiscussedabovebeginwithorallanguageonly,initiallyfocusedoncomprehensionaloneandsubsequentlyintroducingspokenlanguagelearningoutcomesandassessmentbenchmarksafterthefirst150hoursofinstruction.TheChiefAtahmSecwepemcimmersionprogramisalsohighlyfocusedonorallanguageintheprimarygrades,althoughstudentsareintroducedtopre‐literacyandearlyliteracyinstructioninSecwepemctsin,andtheyareexpectedtotransfertheirliteracyskillstoEnglishliteracybyGrade4,atwhichpointteachingEnglishlanguageartsandothersubjectsinEnglishbegins.ManyFirstNationslanguageteachersnonethelessliketodisplaylabeledpictures,charts,visuals,andpostersintheclassroom,whichwillintroducestudentsgraduallytothewrittenlanguagefromanearlyage,withoutmakingreadingandwritingskillspartoflearningoutcomesandassessment.Inthisway,pre‐literacyandliteracyisatacitpartoftheearlyprimaryFirstNationslanguageclassroom,whenmanychildrenarenaturallycuriousaboutthewrittenlanguage.

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4.8AccommodatingDifferentDialectsMostFirstNationslanguagesinBChavetwoormoredialectscharacterizedbyaslightlydifferentpronunciationofwords,andoftenbythereplacementofcertainsoundswithothers.Dialect‐baseddifferencesinspeechidentifyspeakersasmembersofparticularcommunitiesorareaswithintheirterritories,andactasmarksofcollectivelocalidentity.Variousoptionsexisttoincorporatedialectdiversity.Forexample,SecwepemclanguagecurriculumwasdevelopedforGradesK‐4and11/12inthelate1990sbyacommitteethatconsistedofsevenspeakersfromtheFirstNationsrepresentedinSchoolDistrict73(Kamloops–NorthThompson),alongwithM.JulesandM.Ignace.TheEldersinitiallyfeltthateachofthesevenspeechcommunities(fourofthemrepresentingtheWesternDialectofSecwepemctsin,andthreerepresentingtheEasternDialect)shouldhavetheirownversionofthecurriculum.Thiscouldbedonefairlyeasilybykeepingtrackofthesmallnumberofdifferentwordsandphrasesassociatedwitheachspeechcommunity.OncetheEldersrealizedhowsmallthedifferenceswere,theypreferredtonotethedifferentwordsusedinsomecommunities,buttomakeonlyanEasternSecwepemcandaWesternSecwepemcversionofthecurriculum.InthecaseoftheSouthernTutchonecurriculum,developedin2010bytheYukonGovernmentinpartnershipwiththeChampagne‐AishihikFirstNation,thegroupproducedasinglecurriculumdocument,whilenotingandaudio‐recordingwordsandphrasesineachofthethreelocaldialectswheretheydiffered.4.9CommunicativeTopicsorThemesWhatevertypeofcurriculumdesignbeingused,itisalwaysusefultodeterminewhatcommunicativetopicsmatterforyourlanguage,culture,andpresentandfuturespeakers.Appendix3providesalistoftopicstoconsider.Thefollowingtipsalsomaybehelpful. Meaningfulconnectionscanbemadebetweenthemeorcontentandgrammaticalform.

Forexample,learningaboutrelativescanincorporatepersonalpronounmarkers(formy,your,his/her,our).Insomelanguages,pronounmarkersforrelativesandbodypartsdifferfrompronounmarkersforone’spossessionsandthings.Learningaboutgoingplaces(placesinthevillage,intown,houses)caninvolvepost‐positionsorprepositions(infront,behind,beside,above,below,etc.).

Itmaybeusefultoconsiderlevelsofdifficultyingrammarorvocabularyassociatedwithcommunicatingabouttopics,andhowtheyrelatetosuggestionsaboutfocusingonhigh‐frequencyvocabularyandphrases.

Sometopicsaremoresuitableforcertainagelevels. Akeyconsiderationistheculturalrelevanceandtheinterestthatthecontentwill

generate.

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Itiscommontobeginwithfamiliartopicslikemakingintroductions,tellingaboutone’sfamily,foods,“bodyparts,”clothing,community,etc.,buteachgroupshoulddecidewhatismostfitting(seeFNLEsasanexample).

Itisusefultoincludeonlyalimitedamountofcontent(vocabulary,grammaticalform)ineachthemeunit.Forexample,whenfirstintroducingwordsforrelatives,itisnotnecessarytoincludeallofthekinshiptermsthatexistinyourlanguage;instead,beginattheintroductorylevelwiththeeighttotenmostcommonandage‐relevantterms.Thetopicoffamilyandkinshipcanberevisitedlater,addingnewtermsincrementally.Keepinmindthatstudentswillnotbeabletoretainmorethan3‐4wordsperlesson,andtimeisalsoneededforreview.

Whendesigningthemeunitsandcontent,includeavarietyofwordclassesandphrases,ratherthanjustnounvocabulary.

4.10DevelopingCurriculumBindersandBreakingtheYearIntoUnitsBasedonthetypeofdesignbeingused(forward,central,backward,oracombination),thecurriculumteamshouldchunkthesyllabusorbenchmarksintoageandgradelevelcurriculumbindersthatreflectlearningoutcomesorbenchmarksspecifictoeachlevel.Asmentionedabove,whendevelopingthematicunitsandlessons,manyteamsuseaseasonalroundapproachbasedonthetraditionalnamesofmonths(moons),andontraditionalresourcegatheringactivitiesthroughouttheseasons.BelowisanexamplefromtheGrade3Sm’algyaxCurriculumbinderdevelopedbySchoolDistrict52AboriginalEducationServicesandtheSm’algyaxAuthority.Itbreaksayeardowninto10thematicunits,withassociatedcontent.Example:Grade3Sm’algyaxataGlance

Month Themes Ha’lilaxsimaay - September

Ha’lilaxsimaay – the berry month, or month of blueberries; berry words and phrases.

Questions and answers surrounding the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for Ha’lilaxsimaay (September)

Review of some classroom words, question words and short sentences for describing where things are in the classroom.

Optional review activity: my family Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax - October

Ksuut - Fall time – questions and answers about changes in nature occurring in fall

Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax– the cockle month: showing and telling about gaboox (cockles).

Question and answer activities with the Seasonal Round Poster and Booklet for Ha’lilaxsigaboox (October).

Introducing the Beaver and Porcupine Story: Noun and action vocabulary, and the plot of the story.

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Optional: Review of Halloween Words. Ha’lilaxsigaboox - November

Ha’lilaxsigaboox – the month for digging clams. Questions and answers around the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for

Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax Dm liitsgm - Review of Sm’algyax Counting 1 - 10, and counting in 10’s to

100 Action words and sentences for climb, swim, walk, dive, jump and directionals

up (man) and down (tgi) Ha’lilikluulgit - December

The Seasonal Rounds Poster and Booklet for Ha’lilikluulgit Words for Christmas things (review) Decorating a Christmas Tree – based on a 10 sentence TPR action routine that

includes prompts for getting a tree, putting it up, decorating it with different colour ornaments and lights.

Making a Christmas Card with a Christmas message in Sm’algyax New and Review Christmas Songs

Ha’lisuwiiliinsk - January

The meaning of Ha’lisuwiliinsk: the month when people trap animals Ha’lisuwiliinsk in the Ts’msyen Seasonal Round – Questions and answers Counting animals with the animal counting system (review) Describing the tracks of Beaver and Porcupine Song: The Bear went over the Mountain in Sm’algyax

Ha’ligisi’yaask - February

Ha’liwilgisi’yaask, the North Wind Month More words and phrases for winter, snow and cold The Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for Ha’liwilgisi’yaask Learning about emotions (Beaver and Porcupine) Winter weather and dressing warm (optional review activity) Making a Valentine’s card with a Sm’algyax message

Ha’lilaxsiẅah - March

The seasonal theme of the month is ‘ẅah - ooligans Questions and answers about the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for

Ha’lilaxsi’ẅah Habitat or “playgrounds” for beaver and porcupine Where do you live? – human dwellings and comparing beaver and porcupine

habitat with human dwellings Further optional review materials for this month will deal with vocabulary,

questions and phrases that deal with spaces and places in the house. Ha’lilaxsis’waanax – April

Xs’waanax – Herring Roe on hemlock boughs The Seasonal Rounds poster and booklet for Ha’lilaxsis’waanax – asking and

responding to questions about the pictures. Words and phrases for spring Drawing a map or picture of beaver’s house and habitat or of their own

neighbourhood (creative activity) Review of counting words for people Song: K’bool K’abatgüüłk

Ha’lilaxsiła’ask The Seasonal Theme of the Month: ła’ask – Seaweed The Seasonal Round Poster for Ha’lilåxsiła’ask – asking questions and giving

answers about people, things, actions and places in the pictures Review: Foods we eat Foods of beavers and porcupines – asking and telling what foods they like and

don’t like, and naming them

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Expressing likes and dislikes (as negative sentences) about foods. Ha’lilaxsimaḵ’ooxs Traditional theme – maḵ’ooxs (salmonberries)

Questions and answers about the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet Summer weather The Seasonal Rounds Posters and booklets for July and August Going for a Nature Walk (Review Activity) Telling what I will do in summer

Wheretheseasonalround–whichintheSm’algyaxprogramiswellsupportedbyasetofposters,accompanyingbookletsandlearningresources–providestheculturalframeworkfortheorganizationofthemeunitsandtheircontent,thechallengeforcurriculumdevelopersistodevelopadditionalcontentformoreadvancedlearnersthatwillenablereview,whileatthesametimeaddingmorecomplexvocabulary,grammaticalstructures,andculturalknowledge.Anotheroptionistoorganizethematicunitsaroundseasons(Fall,Winter,Spring,Summer),ortouseacombinationofseasonalactivities(weather,hunting,fishing,gathering,trappingandtraditionalecologicalknowledge,gardening,seasonalfoods,observationsofseasonalchangesamonganimals,plantsandtheland)andeverydayvocabulary(familyandrelatives,humanbodyandhygiene,clothing,food,utensils).TheSouthernTutchonecurriculumdevelopedwithChampagne‐AihishikFirstNationEldersandeducatorsincludesaseasonalroundsapproachthatfeatureslessonsaboutfallfreeze‐up,hibernationofanimals,birdmigrations,wintercelebrations,andinlatewintertoearlysummer,thereturnofbirdsandfowl,animals“comingout”ofhibernation,andthecomingofspringandearlysummer.Inthewintermonths,indoorlessonsaboutcommonthemeslikeclothing,body,inthehouse,etc.wereaddedtotheunits.4.10.1UnitDevelopmentasaWebThegraphbelow,fromtheSm’algyaxGrade3Curriculum,providessomeorientationforhowtomapoutaunitbasedonatheme.Inthiscase,thethemeunitencompassesthreetofourmonthsoftheschoolyear.Itisaweb‐likesetoftopicsthatderivedfromtheBeaverandPorcupine(Sts’ooldiłAwta)story,awell‐knownadaawxororaltraditionthatexistsinvariousversionsastranscribedrecordingsfromdeceasedTs’msyenElders,andasablackandwhiteillustratedbookletinSm’algyaxwithEnglishtranslation.Sts’ooldiłAwtaisawidelyknownadaawxnotsubjecttocrestorotherlocalgroupownershiprestrictions,whichmakesitagoodchoiceforuseinschoolcurriculum.Likemanyadaawx,itismulti‐dimensionalinthatitincludesmessagesthatpertaintosocialandmoralprotocols,traditionalecologicalknowledge(animalcharacteristicsandhabitat),weather,seasons,andgeography.

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TheSm’algyaxCommitteeundertookthefollowingstepstomakeSts’ooldiłAwtathecornerstoneofatheme‐basedunit–inspiredbyAIMLanguagelearningthemeunits.1. Reviewedandeditedthestoryfromversionspreviouslyrecorded,andpareditdownto

simplelanguagewithoutcompromisingtheessentialsofplotandmessage(arelativelycomplextask).

2. Recordedthepared‐downstoryandanaccompanyingsongforteacheruse(teachersthemselvesbenefittedfromlearningandmemorizingthestory,especiallysinceseveralofthemwerenotyetfluentspeakers).

3. ConsideredvocabularyandgrammaticalformspreviouslytaughtinGradesK‐2Sm’algyax,andisolatedandlistedstoryvocabularytobepre‐taughtoverseverallessonswithTPRandTPR‐Storytellingmethodology.

4. Developedageandlearnerappropriateteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivitiesforengagingstudentsinlearningthestoryoverthecourseofseveralsessions.

5. Brainstormedrelatedorextensionthemesandactivitiesthatflowfromthestory.6. Developedvocabulary,phrasetypes(questionsandanswers,descriptions),andfocus‐

on‐form(grammar)elementsforeachoftheextensionthemes,andorganizedtheseintoasequence.

7. Developedteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivities(communicativeoralcontent,artsandcraftsactivities,games)fortheextensionactivities.

8. WiththehelpoftheeditedstoryandanexistingEnglishstory‐theatreversion,developedaSm’algyaxstory‐theatreversion,anddevelopedteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivitiesforanend‐of‐unitperformance.

9. Laidoutlearningoutcomesfortheunitbasedonevidenceofstudents’understandingandproductionofwordsandphrases,understandingofplotandmessage,andparticipationinstorytellingandtheextensionactivities.

10. Basedonlearningoutcomes,developedavarietyofassessmentstrategiesaimedatgatheringinformationthroughobservationandcheck‐listtestingofstudents’oralcomprehensionandproductionoflanguagecontent,andbasedonportfoliosofstudents’creativeworksandparticipationinclassroomactivities.

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4.10.2DevelopingContentforUnitsEachtopicshouldincludeall,oratleastmost,ofthefollowing. “Teachertalk,”orcommunicativecontentproducedbytheteacherusingprompts,

props,visuals,role‐playandactions. Dialogueorconversation,whichintheearlygradescanbemodeleddialoguewith

puppets. TPRexercises(TPR’ingnewvocabularywiththehelpofpropsandphraseslike“goto

the…”,“pointto…,”“showme…,”“goandget…,”“givexthe….,”etc.). Story/narrativeaboutthetopic,usingprintandaudio,comics,TPR‐Sexercises. Atraditionalstoryinlanguageappropriatetothelearners’level,likeaRavenorCoyote

story.Atthebeginnertointermediatelevel,thismayneedtobeapareddownversionofthefullstory,whichwillrequiresometime,discussionandpreparation,becausethebasicsoftheplotshouldnotbechanged.

Games,includingphysicalactivitygames,boardgames,flashcardgames,guessinggames–someforwholeclass,someaspartnerorsmallgroupactivities.

Video(s). VocabularyGlossary(notonlynounvocabulary,butALLwordcategories‐adjectives,

verbs,adverbs,demonstratives,directivesetc.,plusaffixesthatexpressverbtenses,modality,applicatives,control),withicons,photos,pictures,andflashcards.Theglossaryshouldnotbeprovidedtolearnersasawordlist,butinsteadshouldguidetheteachertobreakdowncontentintochunkstobepre‐taughtandtaughtusingvariousstrategies(question‐answerswiththehelpofrealitems,pictures,TPRcommands,etc.).

Culturalcontext,includinginterestingfactsinprint,video,graphics,andphotos. Grammarorfocus‐on‐formactivities.Theincreasedlevelofcomplexityofgrammarthat

isbeingtaughtcanbetrackedthroughamastersyllabuswithatableofgrammartopics

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connectedtocommunicativecompetence(seeAppendix4),orthroughalistingofgrammartopicsconnectedto“CanDo”statementsandbenchmarks.

Exercises(oral[listeningandspeaking]andwritten[readingandwriting]). Learningoutcomesfortheunit,basedonthecontent,activities,vocabulary,focus‐on‐

form,orgrammartopicsandexercises/activitiesoffered.Learningoutcomesshouldcompletethestem“aftercompletingthisunit,studentsshouldbeableto…,”andtheyshoulduseconcretewaystomeasurethetasks.Forexample,theycanincludeverbslike“beabletosayx,”“beabletodox,”“respondtoquestionsaboutybydoing/sayingz,”ratherthanusingvaguewordslike“appreciate,”whicharedifficulttomeasure.

Assessmenttoolsthatarebasedonmeasuringifandtowhatdegreelearnersareabletoperformthelanguagetaskslistedinthelearningoutcomes.

4.10.3LessonPlanningfromUnitsFortheSm’algyaxcurriculum,thecurriculumdevelopmentgroupdeveloped13gradelevelcurriculumbinders(K‐Grade12),eachwitheightto10unitspartiallybasedontheseasonalround,alongwithage‐andgrade‐levelappropriatecommunicativetopics.Inaddition,themes,communicativetopicsandsampleassessmentstrategiesdevelopedfortheSm’algyaxIRPatthestartofthecurriculumdevelopmentprocessalsoprovidedguidanceforthemes.Asteachers,teamsoffluentspeakers,andteamteachers19wereteachingspecificgradelevels,theybrokedownthecurriculumunitsintoasetoflessonsaccordingtotheamountofinstructionaltimeavailable.Withthehelpofwrittenlessonplans,teachersaddedoradaptedclassroomactivitiestoincludeparticularprops,resourcesandgamestheyhadretrieved.Lessonplanningalsoprovidedauseful“realitycheck”fortheusefulnessofthecontent–whetheritengagedlearners,andwhetherthecontentwastoodifficultortooeasy.Suchconsiderationsrepresentedassessmentforlearning,andsubsequentlyinformedfurthereditingofthecurriculumbinders.4.11IssuesRelatedtoCopyrightandIntellectualPropertyRightsIndevelopingandprintingacurriculumframework(likeonebasedontheBCLanguagesTemplate)orlanguage‐specificcontent‐basedcurriculumbinders,itisimportanttoconsidertheissueofhowtoprotectyourcopyrightandtheintellectualpropertyrightsofyourproduct.Note:copyrightaddressestherighttomakecopiesofpublishedworks(art,

19InSchoolDistrict52,manyclassroomsengageateamoffluentspeakerand“teamteacher”,thelatterbeingacertifiedteacherwhoisnotyetfluentintheFirstNationslanguage,buthoninghis/herlanguageskillsastheyco‐teachwiththefluentspeakerandastheypreparelessonsandreviewcontent.

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music,film/video,text),inprintordigitally,butnottherighttotheknowledgecontainedintheproduct.Inrecentyears(1997‐2012),Canadiancopyrightlawhasbeenamendedwithafocusonallowingnot‐for‐profitcopying.Also,governanceofcopyingforeducationaluseisdifferentiatedfromfor‐profitusebysomeexemptions.Inmanycases,makinganindividualcopyofadocumentforpersonal,non‐forprofitpurposesisallowed,butcopyingforfurtherdistributionisnot.Thisprincipleappliestocurriculumusingsamplesofotherpeople’swork,orworksheetsandexercisesfromexistingworks.Inordertousematerialsfromexistingworks(beyondcitingandquotingsources),writtenpermissionfromthepublisherisrequired.IncopyrightingFirstNations’curriculum,itiscrucialtoconsiderinwhosenamethecopyrightisstated–consideringwhetheritshouldbethelocallanguageauthority,aFirstNationsorganizationthatsponsoredthecurriculum,theFirstNationsschool,aschooldistrict,orsomecombination.Permissions,ifany,relatedtowhocanmakecopiesoftheproductandforwhatpurposes,shouldalsobeclearlystated.WhenFirstNationslanguageIRPdevelopmentthroughtheBCMinistryofEducation’sLanguages5to12Templatebeganinthelate1990s,FirstNationsorganizationsinsistedonretainingthecopyrighttotheirFirstNationslanguageIRPs,reflectingtheperspectivethatneitherthelanguagecontentnorthedocumentshouldbecopyrightedorownedbytheprovinceofBC.Accordingly,whiletheBCMinistryofEducationmakesmostofitsIRPsforcoreacademicsubjectsavailablefordownloadonitswebsite,FirstNationslanguageIRPsarenotincluded,astheircopyrightlieswiththeFirstNationsorganizationsthatproducedthem.AnexceptionistheKwak’walaIRP,whichisavailableonline,althoughitiscopyright‐protectedinthenameoftheorganizationsthatproducedit.

Beyondcopyrightasrelatedtocopyingadocument,itmaybeimportanttoprotecttheintellectualpropertyrightstotheproduct.Intellectualpropertyrightsare“legally

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recognizedexclusiverightstocreationsofthemind.”Underintellectualpropertylaws,ownersaregrantedcertainexclusiverightstoavarietyofintangibleassets,suchasmusical,literary,andartisticworks;discoveriesandinventions;andwords,phrases,symbols,anddesigns.Commontypesofintellectualpropertyrightsincludecopyright,trademarks,patents,industrialdesignrights,tradedress,andinsomejurisdictions,tradesecrets(seeWikipedia–intellectualpropertyrights).WhileUNDRIP(althoughnotlegallybindinginCanada)addressestheprotectionofIndigenousintellectualpropertyrights,CanadianlawdoesnotspecificallyprotectFirstNationsintellectualpropertyrights.However,inanticipationoffuturelegislation,somewordingofFirstNations’intellectualpropertyrightscouldserveasusefulmodels.Forexample,agroupofresearchersworkingwiththeShuswapNationTribalCouncildevelopedwordingtoassertSecwepemcintellectualpropertyrightstoprintanddigitalculturalandlinguisticproducts.VariousFirstNationsgroupsthathavedevelopedpublicationsandcurriculumdocumentshavesinceadoptedsimilarwording.TheSm’algyaxCommittee,forexample,adoptedthefollowingwordinginitsstatementofintellectualpropertyandcopyright.

Inaddressingtheissueofcopyrightandintellectualpropertyrights,FirstNationslanguagecurriculumdevelopersmayalsowanttoconsiderthefollowingquestions.• Whatareourownlegaltraditionsrelatedtoquoting,acknowledging,protecting,and

celebratingtheknowledgeofindividualsandgroups?• Inwhosenameshouldourcurriculumbecopyrightprotected?OurHereditaryChiefs,

FirstNationsgovernment,culturalcentreororganization,Elderswhocontributedtheir

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information,aFirstNationsschoolorschooldistrict,orinpartnershipbetweenanumberofgroups(e.g.theKwak’walaIRP)?

• Howcanwecreateeffectivecopyrightandintellectualpropertyrightsstatementstoprotectourexistingandfuturerights?

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CONCLUSIONSThisdocumentcontainsinformationandideastosupportdiscussionsbyFNESC,theBCMinistryofEducation,FirstNationscommunitiesandschools,andpublicschooldistrictsaboutasuitableandimprovedcurriculumframeworkforFirstNationslanguages.ThisguidesuggeststhattheBCMinistryofEducation’sK‐12secondlanguagepolicyisinsufficientforFirstNationslanguages.AsnotedinPart1,theveryfutureofFirstNationslanguagesinBChangsbyathread,withFirstNationsElders,languageactivists,andlearnersofdifferentagesworkinghardtostemthetideoflanguageloss.Giventhiscontext,K‐12FirstNationslanguageeducationcanhaveameaningfulroleinlanguage(re)vitalization,butthepremisesforhowFirstNationslanguagesaretaughtneedtobeimprovedandvalidated.AnadditionalurgentissueistheneedtoencourageandsupporttheengagementofFirstNationsadultsinacceleratedlanguagelearning,particularlyfacilitatinghighlevelsofproficiencyinthecomingyears.WithoutacriticalnumberofhighlyfluentFirstNationsadultspeakersitwillnotbepossibletosustainK‐12FirstNationslanguageprogramsthatwillenablechildrenandyouthtoattainproficiencyandthereforebuildanothergenerationofpeoplewhocanuseFirstNationslanguagesincommunication.Indeed,wemustmakeeveryefforttosecurethefluent,creativeandcompetentuseofourbeautifulandamazinglanguages.

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Appendix1:CommunicativeObjectivesandGrammaticalConceptsPreparedbyMarianneIgnace,PhDSecwepemctsinlanguageteachers,eldersandcommunitymembershavestatedthatproficiencyinSecwepemctsinisadesiredgoalforaschoolprograminlocalschools.Inordertomeetthisgoal,itisusefultodefineparticularcommunicativeobjectiveswhichstudentsofthelanguageneedtomeet,andtodefinewhatgrammaticalconceptsofSecwepemctsinstudentswillneedtoknowandmasterbytheendofGrade12inordertobeconsideredproficientinthelanguage.Thetablesbelowbreakdownessentialcommunicativeobjectivesandgrammaticalconceptsintospecificcomponents.Theyalsolayoutasequencefromexposuretoaconcept,toworkingonit,andtoeventualmasterywhichstudentsshouldreachbeforeorbytheendofGrade12.Thus,foreachcommunicativeobjectiveandgrammaticalconcept,thechartindicatesatwhichgradelevelaconceptisintroduced,thenworkedonandeventuallymasteredbythestudent.Itiscrucialthatcurriculummaterialswhichwillbedevelopedinthefuturewillenforcethepracticeoftheconceptslistedbelowthroughavarietyofteachingstrategies,throughavarietyofresources,includingprint,audio‐,video‐,audiovisual,computer‐multimedia,hands‐onmaterials,andliveresources(teachersandelders),andthroughavarietyofassessmentstrategies.TheIntegratedResourcePackageLanguagesTemplate5‐12bytheBCMinistryofEducation,SkillsandTrainingsuggestsavarietyoflearningoutcomes,instructionalstrategies,andassessmentstrategieswhichwouldallowforthis.Inaddition,theexistingSecwepemctsinGrades11Beginners’andGrade12CurriculumGuides,aswellasexistingCurriculummaterialsforSecwepemctsin4‐10,andfutureCurriculumGuidesforthesegradelevelswillprovidefurtherdetailedlearningoutcomes,instructionalandassessmentstrategiestomeettheseobjectives.Instatinggrammaticalandphonological(=soundsystem)objectives,thisdocumentfollowsthegrammaticalmaterialspresentedinAertKuipers,TheShuswapLanguage(Leiden1974),A.KuipersandM.Dixon,AShuswapCourse(Leiden1984)andA.Kuipers,AReportonShuswap(Paris1989),aswellasfurtherunpublishedgrammaticalmaterialsdevelopedbyMarianneIgnaceandSecwepemctsinfluentspeakers1995‐2010.

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The key to the letter codes in the tables below is as follows: T = teacher Teacher uses the concept but does not explicitly present it to students and

does not enforce its use.

P = present Teacher presents the concept to the class and all students are exposed to it.

W = work on All students practise the concept. Some students will understand it and apply it independently, while others will need more time to understand and independently apply the concept.

K = know Students understand the concept, but not all students can apply it independently.

M = master Students can correctly apply the concept in most situations, including in new contexts and situations.

I.CommunicativeObjectivesCommunication 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Exchangesimplegreetings W K M M M M M MIntroducethemselvesandothersusingappropriatetermsofrelationship(familyterms) W K M M M M M M

Countto20andrecognizenumberswhengivenrandomly W K M M M M M MRecognizeandusenumbersto100andcarryoutmathematicaloperations(addition,subtraction)

W K M M M M M M

Understandandusecountingwordsforthingsofparticularshapes T P W K K M M M

Communicatelikes,dislikesandpreferences W W K K K M M MFollowclassroominstructionsandcommands W W K K K M M MMakerequests,askandgiveinformationaboutsomethingintheclassroom,communityetc.

W W K K K M M M

LanguageLearningStrategies 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Guessthemeaningofanunknownwordbyitscontext P W K K M M M MRecognizewordsderivedfromthesameroot W K K M MBeabletofindwordsintheSecwepemctsin‐EnglishDictionary

W W K K M M M

BeabletofindwordsintheEnglish‐ SecwepemctsinDictionary W W K K M

BeabletofindwordsintheEnglish‐SecwepemcWordlist W K K M M MUseanewwordcorrectlyinsideasentence P P W W W K M MReplaceawordwithasynonymorparaphrase P W W K M MStories 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Drawpicturesafterlisteningtoanoraldescription W W K K M M M MRecognizecharacters,placeandeventsinanoralstory P W W K K M M MActoutastorythatyouhaveread W W W K K M MRespondtooralquestionsaboutatextstudenthasread W W W K K M M

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Chooseanappropriatetitleforapassageinatext W K M M MPresentanoralsummaryafterhearingastory P W W K K M M MCompleteamissingpartofatext P W W W K K MTellashortstoryfrommemory T W W K MUnderstandtopic‐trackingthroughoutatext P P K MPresentationsandSpeeches 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Doashowandtellactivity W K K M M M MGiveabrieforalpresentation,usingnotesorcue‐cards W W K K M M M MLeadaprayerinSecwepemctsin W W K K M MFollowalongaprayerinSecwepemctsin W W K K M M M MGiveabrieforalpresentationwithoutnotes P W W K K M M MRecognizethemainfeaturesofafeastorwelcomingspeechinSecwepemctsin

P W K K M M

Translateanelder’sfeastorwelcomingspeechintoEnglish W W K M M

GiveashortspeechinSecwepemctsin,usingconventionsofspeech‐making W W K M M

GiveanelaboratefeastorwelcomingspeechinSecwepemctsin,includingappropriatecontentandstyle

W K K M

II. Phonology: The Sound System

Sounds and sound system 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Distinguish and pronounce Secwepemctsin vowels W K M M M M M M Distinguish and pronounce all sounds that are similar to English sounds

M M M M M M M M

Distinguish sounds that are different from English but not glottalized

W K K M M M M M

Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing sounds that are different from English but not glottalized

W W K K K K M M

Distinguish glottalized sounds W W W K K K M M Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing glottalized sounds P W W W W K M M Distinguish all vowel variations T P W W K K M M Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing all vowel variations T P W W K K M M Recognize correct stress marking in a word T P W W K K M M Pronounce stress correctly in a word T P W W K K M M Follow proper intonation of a phrase T T P P W K K M

III. Literacy

Reading 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Read already known short words K M M M M M M Read already known longer words W K M M M M M Sight-read unknown short words P W W K M M M Sight-read unknown long words with consonent clusters and glottalized sounds

W K K M M M

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Read a short text aloud and understand it P W W K K M M Read a text of 250 words or more aloud and understand it P W W K K M Read a text silently and find time, place, participants and events

P W K K M M

Give an oral summary of a short text you read P W W K M M Give an oral summary of a longer text you read P W W K M

Writing 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Copy already learned short words without mistake K K K K M M M Copy already learned longer and complex words without a mistake

W K K M M M M

Write known short words from memory W K M M M M M Write known longer and complex words from memory W K K M M M Correctly sound out and write new words mainly with sounds similar to English

W K K K M M

Correctly sound out and write new words with Secwepemctsin-only and glottalized sounds

W W K K K M

Write a short dictation with largely known vocabulary W W K M M Transcribe a short text or speech in Secwepemctsin W W W K M Re-write a story you have heard in your own words W W K K Compose an original short story and write it out W W K K

IV. Grammar: Morphology and Syntax Grammar:QuestionsandAnswers 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Respondtoquestionswiththequestionmarker‐enwithsinglewordsoryes/no W K K M M M M M

Askquestionswiththequestionmarker ‐en W W K K M M M MRespondtoquestionsthataskstem’i,“what”,withafullsentence

W K K M M M M M

Askquestionsthatbeginwithstem’i,“what” P W K K M M M MRespondwithfullsentencestoquestionsthatask sweti7,who?

T P W K M M M M

Askquestionsinfullsentencesthatbeginwithsweti7,“who” T P W K K M M M

Respondtoquestionsusingt’he7en,“where”,telhe7en“fromwhere”,nehe7en“whereat” T P W W K M M

Askquestionsusing,“where”? T P W W K M MRespondtoquestionsusingkw’incanditsvariations,“howmany” P W K K M M M M

Askquestionsusingkw’inc,“howmany” P W K K M M M MAskandrespondtoquestionsaskingkenem,“whathappened?” T P W K M M

Askquestionsusingkenemme7e,“why” T T P W K MRespondtoquestionsusingkenemme7e“why” T P W K MAskquestionsusingpenhe7en,“when” T T P W K MRespondtoquestionsusingpenhe7en,“when” T P W K MAskquestionsusingtkenhe7e,“how” T P W K

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Respondtoquestionsusingtkenhe7e,“how” T P W K

Grammar: Deictics, Possessives and Verbs 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Understand the 3 levels of deixis in pointing words (yi7ene, yirey, yiri7 - this, that near you, that over there)

T P W K K M M M

Use the pointing words yi7ene, yirey, yiri7 in short sentences T P W W K K M M Understand and use deictics that distinguish visible/invisible things, nekllu7, nu7 etc.

W K M M

Understand and use the intransitive verb pronoun suffixes, 1st, 2nd and 3rd person sing.

P W W K K M M M

Understand 1st pers. singular consonant reduplication W W K K K K M M Correctly use 1st pers. singular consonant reduplication P W W W K K M M Understand and use the intransitive verb pronoun suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.), and 2nd pers. plur.

T P W W K K M M

Understand and use the possessive suffixes for 1st, 2nd pers and 3rd person sing.

P W W K K M M M

Understand and use the possessive suffixes for 1st(inc./exc.), 2nd pers person plur.

T P W W K K M M

Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st, 2nd sing. And 3rd pers.

T P W W K K M M

Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st, 2nd sing. and 3rd person

W W K K M M M M

Understand the transitive object suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.), and 2nd pers. plural

P W W K K K M M

Use the transitive object suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural

T P W W K K M

Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd sing. and 3rd pers.

T P W W K K M

Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd sing. and 3rd pers.

T P W W K K M

Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd pers. plural

T P W W K K M

Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural

T P W W K K M

Understand and use the intransitive subordination suffixes, 1st and 2nd pers. and 3rd pers. sing.

W W K K M

Understand and use the intransitive subordination suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural

W W K K M

Understand and use the transitive subordination suffix, marked trans. suffixes + -es.

W W K K M

Understand and use passive forms P W K M Understand and use prepositional phrases, including appropriate preprosition, or prefix, or lexical suffix, or verb

T P P W W K K M

Understand the independent pronouns re ntsetswe7, re newi7, renewi7s, wellenwi7s etc.

T T P W W K K M

Use the independent pronouns re ntsetswe7, re newi7, renewi7s, wellenwi7s etc.

T P P W W K K M

Use and understand the ct/cit benefactive form with transitive verbs

P W W K K M

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Sentence Building, Determiners, and Connectives 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Correctly understand and make statements with a noun subject and intransitive verb or adjective

W K K M M M M M

Understand and make statements using a two-word predicate W W K K K K M M Understand and use negated sentences with ta7 and intransitive verbs.

P W K M M M M M

Understand and use negated sentences with ta7 and transitive verbs

W K M M M M M

Understand time phrases and other adverbs at beginning of a verb phrase which are followed by nominalized verbs w/possessive or transitive endings

T P W W K K M M

Use temporal designators at beginning of a verb phrase with correct nominalized verb form

T P P W W K M M

Understand and use sentences expressing verb+es + correct intransitive poss. Or transitive form

P W W K M M

Understand the use of the determiner/connective te in simple subject/predicate phrases

T P P W W K M M

Understand and use the determiner/ connective re in simple subject/predicate phrases

T P P W W K M M

Understand and use re and te correctly in object marking W W K K M Understand and use causal clauses (“because”) T P W W K M Use and understand construction of relative clauses T P W W K M Understand and use consequential clauses (“therefore”; “if...then”)

T P W W K M

Morphology: Word Formation 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Understand the concept of word roots T P W K K M M M Understand the concept of singular and plural verbs, including plural reduplication in verbs

W K K M M

Correctly use singular and plural reduplicated forms on a range of verbs

P W W W K K M

Understand and correctly use a range of Lexical Suffixes on roots

T T P W W K K M

Understand and use basic prefixes, like s-, c-, t-, tk, pell-, etc. T T P P W W K M Understand the principle of and types of reduplication and plural formation in nouns and other words

T T P W W W K K

Use the principle of and types of reduplication and plural reduplication in nouns and other words

T T T P P W W K

Understand and use allophonic variations of prefixes, suffixes and clitics

T T P W W K K M

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Appendix2LanguageBenchmarks:FirstNationsLanguageEssentialsByDr.KathrynMichel

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Appendix3ListofThemedTopicsforFirstNationsLanguageUnitsandLessons(notexclusive!) Makingintroductions:“Howareyou?”“I’mfine.”“What’syourname?”“Mynameisx.”

Awordofcautionhere:manylanguageteachers,fluentspeakersandeldersarereluctanttouseandteachgreetingsthatintheendaretranslationsfromEnglishconventionsofgreetings.Forexample,Secwepemcspeakers,promptedbyEuro‐Canadianeducators,atsomepointinthepastdevisedphraseslikele7tescwén’wen“itisagoodmorning”,agreetingtheysaywasneverusedbyspeakersinthepast.Instead,theyusedtscwinúcw‐en‐k?whichmeanssomethinglike“didyoumakeitthroughthenight?”

Myrelatives,yourrelatives,ourrelatives:basicterms(mother,father,grandparents,

son,daughter,brother,sister,grandchild).Moreadvancedtermscanbeintroducedincrementally.Somelanguageshaveverycomplexsetsoftermswhoseusedependsonwhetherafemaleormaleisspeaking,and/orwhethertheydistinguishbetweenrelativesonthemother’sandfather’sside.Therearealsodifferencesbetweenhowkinshiptermsworkwhentheyareusedastermsofaddressortorefertoarelative.

Villages,communitiesandplacesintheNation. Goingtoplaces/travelinthecommunityandNation.Thiscouldincludeplacenames,

geographicterms,buildings,stores,modesoftransportation,actions(walk,goback,turnleft,turnright).

Foods,eatingandsharingfoods:traditionalfoodsfromtheland;modernfoods,utensils,

eating,settingandclearingtable. Preparingcertainfoods:recipes,alongwithcutup,chopintobits,fillet,pourliquidsor

solids.Manyindigenouslanguageshaveavarietyofglued‐togetherwordsforwhatinEnglishcanbeexpressedbysuchubiquitouswordsas“put”or“cut”.

Washingdishes,dryingdishes,puttingawaydishes,wipingcounters/tablesinthe

kitchen. Thingsaroundme:roomsinthehouse,furnitureandactionsinthehouse(thiscan

includesomelocationwords–in,on,under,nextto,below,etc.). Cleaninghouse:actionsofsweeping,vacuuming,mopping,wiping,wordsforgadgets. Gettingfirewoodandmakingfire/acampfire.

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Campingout:travelling,buildingashelter(orsettingupatent),makingfire,cookingfood.

Preparingasweat. Bodyparts:humanandanimalanatomy(basicterms&actions). Hygieneandhealth:grooming,bathing,washingup(thiscouldalsoincludecultural

meaningsandvalues). Sicknessandgettinghealthy:fluseason,differentpartsofbodyhurting. Doinglaundry:clothing,actions,foldingclothes,puttingaway. Talkingabouttheweather:weatherformations,announcingpresent,tomorrowand

yesterday’sweather,gettingdressedfortheweather. Tides(incoastalareas)andchangestorivers(freshet/highwater,lowwater,

meltwateretc.). Celestialbodies:theirmeanings,storiesandassociationswiththeseasonalround–

sun,moon,stars,constellations. Reckoningtime:calendar,months,seasons,daysoftheweek,clocktime–ifandwhere

suchtimereckoningisculturallyappropriate. Seasonalroundofsubsistence:whatsubsistenceresourcespeopleengagedin,inthe

pastandnow. Animalsandtheirhabitats:characteristicsandbehaviour,includingwhenanimalsgo

intoandcomeoutofhibernation;whendifferentbirdsflysouthandcomebackinearlyspring.

Cardinaldirectionsandwinddirections(thesemaybedifferent). Geography:thelayofthelandandsea,nounwordsforgeographyterms,

demonstratives,locationalanddirectionalaffixes,instrumentals,classifiers,etc.etc.,movementverbsandcompounds.

Occupationsandjobs:placeswherepeopleworkandwhattheydothere. Dwellings:longagoandnow(longhouses,pithouses,shelters,camps)andlocations,

lay‐out,andactivitiesinadwelling. Clothing:dressingfortheweather(clothingwordsandputon/takeoffwords).

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Trading(longagoandnow). Goingshoppingatthelocalstoreormall:forfood,clothes,etc. Visitingrelatives,Elders(combineswordsfor“visiting”withsharingfood,teaorcoffee,

helpingoutinthehouse). Lookingafterababyorchild. Fishing:salmonandlakefishing,methods,gear,fish,actions,places. Hunting:deer,moose,elk,smallanimals. Trapping:insomeFirstNationscommunities(e.g.inNorthernBC),trappingcontinues

tobeanimportantandvaluedskillandoccupation. Fishing:ocean,river,lakefishing,technology,actions. Plantsandplantgathering:berries,rootplants,vegetables,nutsandseeds,cambium,

gatheringseaweed,eelgrass. Gatheringandpreparingmedicines(consultwithEldersastowhatkindofmedicines

theyfeelaresafetosharewithstudentsinclass). Otherseafood:shellfish,seaweed,ooligans. Traditionalecologicalknowledge:connectionsbetweenanimals,plants,seasons,

sustainablewaystoharvestfoods,payingrespecttoeverythingontheland. Traditionalskillsandcrafts:tanninghides,makingmoccasins,butcheringanimals,

weavingabasketorahat,otherweaving(wool,Indianhemp,sage…),makingadrum,carvingapole,makingacanoe.

Modesoftransportation:goingsomewherebycar,partsofavehicle,railway. Canoesandcanoetravel:partsofacanoe,typesofcanoefordifferentfunctions,

travellingbycanoe,makingacanoe,paddlingacanoe,rowingaboat(forexample,inXaadKillessons,Grade4childrenlearnedtheactionsforrowing,whichwasagreatwayoflearningtheinstrumentalprefixessku‐“motionofpushingoutfromoneselfwithfists”anddáng‐=“motionofpullingsomethingtowardsoneself”.)

Travellingbyplanetoalocation,orgettingvisitorsbyplane(theSm’algyaxcurriculum

includesastorythatcanbeactedoutabouthavingvisitorsfromTak’waan,New

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Metlakatla,andtakingthemaroundKxeen,PrinceRupert,forsightseeingandentertainment).

Fishingboatsandothermodernwater‐craft. Learningandsayingaprayer:mealtime,openingameeting,athank‐youprayer. Songsandmusic:repertoireofvarioussongs,includingtraditionalsongsandtranslated

songs(fromEnglishnurseryorothertunes). Makingaspeech/oratory:canbecoveredatdifferentstages,fromaveryshortrote‐

memorizedspeechtothankpeopleatagathering,toalonger,improvised,occasion‐specificspeechwhereinformationisshared.

Communicationatceremoniesandplanningafeast:give‐away,potlatch.(Forexample

theSm’algyaxGrade10and11curriculaincludeafeast(luulgit)unitaboutpreparingforafeast,invitingpeople,organizingtasksandcarryingoutafeast,culminatingintheclassgivingafeasttotheschool).

Dating,friendship,marriage(forolderyouth). Counting:differentcountingsystems,countingmoney,rotenumbercounting,word

mathproblemsintheFirstNationlanguage,traditionalunitsofmeasurement. Colours:bestintegratedintolessonsthatteachadjectives(clothes,thingsintheroom). Relationsinspace:ontop,under,in,besidesetc.(canalsobeusedinconjunctionwith

othertopicsabove,e.g.inthehouse/dwelling,describingwherepeopleetc.are). Holidays:Christmas,Easter,Valentine’s,RemembranceDay,Birthday.Forafurtherlistingofessentialthemesortopicsinlearningalanguage,seealsoHinton(1994).

Appendix4:SampleSyllabiandOrganizationalCharts(from:TheBreathofOurAncestors,FNESC,2012)SampleCulturalContentChart

Place, Land, Nature &

Living Things

Place, Land, Nature & Living Things

tides, winds seasons, weather, moons hunting/fishing grounds different types of hunting

& fishing gathering outdoor education

(horticulture, sea, land) how to live off the land campgrounds (where,

what, who) …

Identity through Language

Family&CommunityRelationships

Stories,Songs,Dance,Art,&Ceremonies

Identity through Language

cedar tree of life; environmentalism, science, & medicines

technologies for all aspects of life

stewardship & conservation

expressing gratitude prayer words for plants

and animals beliefs and teachings re

hunting and fishing …

language as a source of motivation to learn confidence leadership in

community language (words,

structures) as expressing relationships social (e.g.,

inclusion) with the natural

world (e.g., seasonal calendar)

…

Family & Community Relationships

traditional cooking and food preservation

multigenerational learning trade connections transportation methods cultural exchanges (land

use and animals from diff territories)

sharing of resources (vs. colonial concept of ownership)

family-specific fishing & gathering locations

…

chieftainship (head of house)

connection with the spiritual world

responsibility for revitalizing the language

specificity of roles encourages mastery in community (treasuring each child’s special gifts)

…

beliefs re child rearing resolving issues,

healing activities and systems

that bring us together societal rights &

responsibilities individual and

community responsibilities

family kinship …

Stories, Songs, Dance, Art, & Ceremonies

how dances and songs are tied to the land

history of the people seasonal celebration place names, history,

teachings re land (names tied to locations)

vocab for describing relationships & kinship,

knowing stories and traditions connects students to who they are

values and beliefs, as expressed in rituals; oral teachings re morality

…

public speaking (students taking a role in ceremony)

ceremony, celebration, feasting (naming, marriage, death etc.) –participation & witnessing

traditional dance contemporary songs and

dance composing new other arts (carving, visual,

dramatization) student-generated work beliefs learned from creation

stories (origin stories) learning to tell stories

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including relation with spiritual

ancestral names & ceremonial rights

crests and symbols related to the land

…

ownership of dances & song (kinship)

regalia representing houses, families, …

place oral history systems & protocols

(acknowledging sources of info)

…

types of songs (seasonal, prayer, etc.)

…

CommonThroughoutValues–the“pillars”oflearning(e.g.,responsibility,roles,respect,reciprocity,butalsohumility,gratitude,etc.).

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SampleAge‐AppropriateLearningRelatedtoCultureTopics With your Culture Topics identified, you will need to elaborate on what you focus on at each level. The two charts provided here illustrate by distinguishing four levels that span the entire K-12 range. Depending on how new your program is and how many students at differing ages you intend to serve, your own curriculum may need to have more levels and/or you might opt to reduce the range of ages/grades covered.

Level Cultural Content Re Place, Land, Nature, & Living Things

Advanced(ages16&up)

tides, water flows, winds: significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways) – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics

seasons, weather, moons: phases of the moon; advanced biology and chemistry associated with seasonal animals, plants, foods; ceremonies and other cultural expressions of respect for the natural world

hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering (those who participate can share their experiences)

outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land): the planning component how to live off the land (survival); stories of resourcefulness; mapping the traditional territories; landmarks and

finding your way; water safety (esp. re travel on water); more practical knowledge of the properties of plants for food, medicine, creating technologies (shelter & other types)

campgrounds – stories and knowledge related to traditional territory) cedar tree of life; environmentalism, science (chemistry, biology) & medicines

LateIntermediate(ages12‐16)

tides, water flows, winds: names, attributes/characteristics, and stories/songs/dances related to these; also relationships among them; as aspects of weather and climate – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics

seasons, weather, moons: gathering and preparing seasonal foods, rituals and observances related to these activities and the seasons; science associated with weather & seasons; conservation; traditional and contemporary ways of acknowledging the seasons and natural world

hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: health considerations related to handling and preparing game/fish/plants; using entire parts of killed animals

outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land): reflection and personal connection with the land how to “live off the land” (survival): modifying activities to allow for personal conditions (e.g., girls during

menstruation) – safety in the wild; this also relates to community customs campgrounds – fire creation, management

cedar tree of life; environmentalism – science (ecosystems & interdependence) & medicines

EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12)

tides, water flows, winds: effects on harvesting and travel & celebrations – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics

seasons, weather, moons: characteristics and indicators of each season; dangers and opportunities, including social responsibilities associated with the seasons; as told in stories/songs/dances; concepts of time; science associated with seasonal plants and animals – their life cycles; recognition and respect

hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: techniques (including protocols) & technologies for gathering, catching, trapping food plants and animals; the significance and meaning of particular place names

outdoor education (horticulture, water & land); safety (buddy systems; not wandering alone) how to “live off the land” (survival): bringing only what you need; sources of food and shelter campgrounds (where, what, who)

cedar tree of life; environmentalism – why & how to practice: respect (clean up after; minimal footprint; leave as you find it)

Basic(ages4‐8)

tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics seasons, weather: what they are, common activities associated with each season; choosing the right clothing for

the weather & staying safe; seasonal plants & animals – habitats & characteristics; respect for themselves & the natural world

different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: learning to identify some tracks & signs of animals; where foods come from; place names for nearby, frequently visited places; creation & teaching stories featuring animals

outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land) campgrounds (where, what, who)

cedar tree of life: identifying, knowing some uses of, and having respect for key plant and animal species

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Level Cultural Content re Family & Community Relationships

Advanced(ages16&up)

beliefs re child rearing responsibilities of establishing a family traditional and contemporary approaches to

teaching and learning resolving issues, healing restorative justice and consequences for violation

of customs, laws the legacy of colonialism (e.g., residential

schooling) – decolonization appropriate and effective ways of effecting change

activities and systems that bring us together expressing respect for responsibilities

societal rights & responsibilities rights of indigenous peoples, worldwide

(e.g., UN declaration) ownership and systems of mutual support within

communities treaty and other legal rights and responsibilities traditional and contemporary governance systems

family kinship roles of extended family members (aunties,

uncles) in specific situations – disciplinary, et al roles of Elders in communities (part of expanding

spiral of understanding)

LateIntermediate(ages12‐16)

beliefs re child rearing reasons underlying community practices

resolving issues evolving peer relationships conflicts; healthy and unhealthy responses to

challenges/disappointment personal planning (balance and healthy lifestyles)

activities and systems that bring us together organizing and carrying out feasts and celebrations mentoring relationships

societal rights & responsibilities regalia, its significance & purpose; protocols &

stories initiations volunteering, role modelling, and leadership

family kinship practices around family loss (funerals) beliefs around death and dying

part of expanding spiral of understanding increasing respect for differences significance of residential schooling (what, when,

who)

EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12)

beliefs re child rearing puberty rites tasks associated with looking after children

resolving issues, (peers) friends (what is a good friend, how to be a good

friend), including boyfriend/girlfriend self-care and health bullying, racism, respectful gender relations respecting differences

activities and systems that bring us together technology symbols, images; places for gathering community events (feasts, memorials,

birthdays,…)

societal rights & responsibilities being helpful; increasing (new) roles in the family

and community (chores, activities) participation in ceremonies (initiations, roles) resources for youth in trouble

family kinship other peoples’ places and roles in the extended

family – family trees (part of expanding spiral of understanding)

crests or other family “symbols” similarities and differences among families

Basic(ages4‐8)

beliefs re child rearing Who looks after children? How/when did you get your name? expectations for siblings in a family nurturing a child’s special qualities (what are

yours?) resolving issues self-care and health What are “rules” for behaviour in class? …in

family? …in public situations (e.g., big house)? empathy, courtesy, respect

activities and systems that bring us together How do families stay in touch? (e.g., computer e-

mail, telephone, Skype, family/community events)

activities and systems that bring us together How do families stay in touch? (e.g., computer e-

mail, telephone, Skype, family/community events) societal rights & responsibilities What is the name of your

“house”/clan/tribe/society? Can you give an example of a “house”/clan/tribe/society?

Who is the chief, …the matriarch? family kinship Who are your relatives? Who you are (identity) is tied to your family (part of

expanding spiral of understanding – understanding of self, family, community, nation, world)

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ConnectingCultureTopicsandLanguageSkillsAgoodselectionofage‐appropriateculturetopicsprovidesavaluablebaseforsettingoutthelanguageskillsyouwantlearnerstoacquire,sincetheculturetopicsaremostlywhatwillbediscussedinthelanguage–bytheteachers,thesupportinglanguagespeakers(e.g.,fluentElders),andsoon,thelearnersthemselves.Eventually,aslearnersmatureandastheirlanguageskillsdevelop,theculturetopicswillbewhattheyreadabout,writeabout,andotherwiselearnaboutbyviewingand/orproducingaudio‐visualworksusingthelanguage.Nowwhenitcomestogeneratingideasaboutwhichaspectsofthelanguagetointroducefirstandthenbuildon,ascurriculumdevelopersyoucanproceedinanyoneofthreeways:a) Beginbythinkingaboutcommunicativetasks–whatstudentsneedtobeabletosayand

understand(andlaterreadorwrite)inthelanguageinordertodealwiththeculturetopicsyouhaveitemized.Followupbyidentifyingthelanguagestructures–sounds,word‐buildingpatterns,sentence‐buildingpatterns,andlanguageprotocols(prayers,speeches,conversationpatterns,etc.)–neededtoaccomplishthesecommunicativetasks.Thisapproach–identifyingcommunicativetasksandthenstructures–extendsnicelyfromtheworkofidentifyingculturetopics,andcanbetackledsystematicallybyusingtheorganizers&levelsyouhaveestablishedforculturetopics.Ifyourcurriculumteamdoesn’tincludememberswithmuchlinguisticsexpertiseorexperiencedevelopingalanguagecurriculum,however,thesomewhatformal&theoreticaldemandsofthisapproach(i.e.,havingtoformulatecommunicativetasksanddefinestructuresusing“grammar”language)maymakeitlesscongenialforyourgroup.Inthisevent,considerbeginningwithsomethingabitmorepracticalandspecific,assuggestedinapproach(b).Foranillustrationofhowyoumightconnectcommunicativetasksandlearningactivityideastoaspecificculturetopic,checkoutsample6xontheensuingpages.Thenseethethreesamples6yforillustrationsofhowspecificlanguagestructuresmightbeidentifiedanddescribed.Thethreesamplesincludeexamplesofstructuresfromdifferinglanguages(Hul’q’umi’num’,Kwak’wala,andSm’algyax),sincetherecanbesignificantvariationamonglanguagesintermsofstructures.Theyalsoincludeexamplesfromdifferinglevels(i.e.,BasicandAdvanced).

b) SimplybrainstormspecificwordsandphrasesstudentsarelikelytoneedatparticularlevelsIfyourdevelopmentteamincludesmanyfluentspeakers(e.g.,Elders)withlimitedteachingexperience,brainstormingacollectionofspecificage‐appropriatewordsandphrasesmaybeagoodwaytostartbuildingthelanguagecomponentofyourcurriculum.TrytobuildthesamenumberoflevelsasforyourCulturetopics,rememberingthatyoucanexpectstudentsateachleveltobeabletouseallthelanguagelearnedatanearlierlevel.Onceyouhavelistsofspecificage‐appropriatewordsandphrases,youcancross‐checktheirfitwithyourculturetopics(rememberthatforbeginnersinthelanguage,lotsoffunctionalvocabularyandphrasesforroutineclassroomactivitiessuchasstoringouterwear,greetingeachother,followingsimpledirections,etc.willbeneededatthestart).

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Foranillustrationofhowyoumightconnectspecificwordsandphraseswithcommunicativetasksandlearningactivityideas,ifyoubeginwiththistypeofbroad‐spectrumbrainstorm,seesample6zontheensuingpages.

c) Beginbyimaginingactivitiesthatcanbeconductedtohelpstudentsatthevariouslevelslearnabouttheitemizedculturetopics,usingthelanguage.Forclassroomteachers,thisissometimestheeasiestplacetostart,sincethisisthe“stuff”ofdailyinstructionalplanning,andfindingwaystoengagestudentsisessentialifanylearningwhatsoeveristooccur.Remember,however,thatmanyactivityideasfocusasmuchonHOWtoengagestudents(pedagogy)asonWHATtheyaretolearn(curriculum).Soitremainsimportanttocompilelistsofwords,phrases,andotherlanguagestructuresthatgetcoveredinthecourseoftheimaginedactivities.Again,seesamples6x,6y,and6zontheensuingpagesforexamplesofhowactivitiescanhelptieculturetopicstospecificvocabularyandgrammarstructuresyouwantstudentstolearn.

Ultimately,arichcurriculumdocumentwillprovideclarityaboutthecontenttobecoveredateachlevel(culturetopics,languagestructures,andlotsofexamplesofwordsandphrases),aswellasasenseofpurposeandfocus(communicativetasks).

Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Possible Activities, Teacher Cues

Advanced(ages16&up) tides, water flows, winds:

significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways)

All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding more extended and complex discourse

delivered at a normal rate of speech using abstract and technical terms related to weather,

climate, waterways recognizing and responding to humour performing ceremonies used to express gratitude and

respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)

dramatizing stories related to the tides, winds, waterways (involving rehearsed use of the language)

formulating a sequence of events as a narrative conversing with an Elder or non-classroom speaker writing (composing) personal stories in their own words

more extended presentations to the class science experiments, demonstrations,

and explanations the carbon cycle and water cycle weathering and erosion water chemistry and effects of pollution on

biological organisms undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care

activities using information technology: (apps) to communicate via text messages audio and video recording to document and archive

information, traditions, and stories from Elders re weather, climate, and water (or to retrieve and analyse)

presentation software to create image and word presentations related to language

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LateIntermediate(ages12‐16) tides, water flows, winds:

names, attributes/characteristics, and stories/songs/dances related to these; also relationships among them; as aspects of weather and climate

All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding, speaking, reading, and writing concrete

and some abstract words (related to elements of climate and weather; to mood, attitude, and feelings, and to family relationships)

understanding simple utterances delivered at a normal rate of speech

creating and memorizing stories, songs, dances involving the winds and waterways

narrating actions and events in increasingly complex terms

recognizing and being able to identify words in written forms of the language

responding appropriately to simple, closed questions formulating more complex and socially sensitive personal

observations about the environment recognizing and responding to humour regularly combining simple language structures into

sequences or more complex forms able to make themselves understood even if errors of

usage are present beginning to self-correct summarizing key ideas

Having students make a video of performed stories, songs, or dances

Having students use presentation software to create image and word presentations

conducting science experiments and demonstrations cyclonic action recording data (weather, climate measurements) observing gathered water samples for micro-

organisms undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care

activities Having students retell stories for younger children, with

and without use of pictures using circumlocutions, repetition, gestures, and pictures

rather than translation to discuss topics

EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12) tides, water flows, winds:

effects on harvesting and travel & celebrations

All the Basic level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding and speaking concrete terms (e.g., for

gear, paddles, or other tools, directions, steering and manoeuvring, balancing, parts of watercraft, various aquatic animals, colours, clouds, weather conditions)

understanding and repeating phrases such as “stay low,” “don’t stand up,” “low tide,” “flooding tide,” “slack tide,” “upstream,” “downstream”

understanding short sequences spoken slowly recognizing and responding to protocol expressions (e.g.,

blessings, expressions of thanks) spoken slowly describing actions and events in simple terms responding appropriately to simple, closed questions, with

assistance formulating personal observations about the winds,

waterways, weather (with teacher support), using two or three-word phrases

beginning to use more than one tense beginning to combine simple language structures into

sequences or more complex forms

guest speakers (Elders) educational exchanges with other,

dissimilar communities exposing students to water travel

(boats) weather awareness (safety on or in

the water) taking students to a beach or

watercourse and engaging in harvesting activities (seaweeds, shellfish, freshwater fish, tules, ) discussing restrictions on harvesting (seasonal

concerns re red tide/PSP or other micro-organisms) building and operating model water craft visiting fishery enhancement facilities and discussing

the salmon (fish) life cycle; growing activities modeling using stream tables, water tanks, stationary

pools recognizing places to avoid (safety considerations) demonstrating ceremonies used to express gratitude

and respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)

picture creation and analysis (using the language) using repetition, gestures, and pictures rather than

translation to discuss topics

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Basic(ages4‐8) tides, water flows, winds:

staying safe near water

understanding and speaking words for clothing, water, objects in the environment, respect (for the environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go

understanding phrases such as “everybody be careful,” “stop and listen,” “go,”

understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings, “look at what I found”)

following simple instructions using simple questions such as “what is this [called]?”

from a learned set

taking students to a beach or watercourse and playing running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the situation “rules” for staying safe

pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds

repetition of key utterances and speech sounds using gesture and body language to help convey and

reinforce meanings slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and discussion of representations

InfillingouttheLanguageStructurescolumn,ourdeveloper(s) readthroughthelistintheCommunicativeTaskscolumn(fromsamplex) brainstormedalistofsentencesthatstudentswouldneedtoaccomplishthosetasks thoughtaboutwhatgrammaticalfeatures(commandwords,singular/plural,demonstratives,

etc.)couldbehighlightedfromthosesentences

organizedthemthatwayintheLanguageStructurescolumn.Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheHul’q’umi’num’language. Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues

Basic (ages 4-8) tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water

understanding and speaking

words for clothing, water, objects in

the environment, respect (for the

environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go


understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings,

“look at what I found”) following simple

instructions using simple questions such as

“what is this [called]?” from a learned set

recognizing and pronouncing the

distinctive sounds of Hul’q’umi’num’ – e.g., hw, x, xw, lh, ch’, kw’, p’, q, qw, q’, qw’, t’, tl’, ts’,

tth, tth’ using and responding to commands

with lhe – e.g., ’Imush lhe! “Walk!” Nem’ lhe! “Go!”

showing respect for classmates with expressions of politeness – e.g., Tth’ihwum ‘i’ m’i ewu. “Please

come here.” ‘Uy’ skweyul, si’em’! “Good day,

respected one!” recognizing and using singular and

plural pronouns in context – e.g. La’lum’uthut ch! “You be careful!” La’lum’uthut tseep! “You all be

careful!” ‘Ii ch ‘o’ ‘uy’ ‘ul’? “How are you?” ‘Ii tseep ‘o’ ‘eli ‘ul’? “How are you

all? following instructions in short phrases

– e.g.,

taking students to a beach or

watercourse and playing running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the

situation “rules” for staying safe

pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds

repetition of key utterances and speech sounds

using gesture and body language to help convey and reinforce meanings

slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and discussion of

representations

125

‘Unuhw ‘i' hwiyuneem’. “Stop and listen.”

using and responding to learned phrases and questions with tu’i and kwu’i – e.g., Lemut tu’i! “Look at this!” Stem ‘a’lu kwu’i? “What is that?” Stem kwun’s hun’ut tu’i? “What do

you call this?”

InfillingouttheLanguageStructurescolumn,ourdeveloper(s) readthroughthelistintheCommunicativeTaskscolumn(fromsamplex) brainstormedalistofsentencesthatstudentswouldneedtoaccomplishthosetasks thoughtaboutwhatgrammaticalfeatures(commandwords,singular/plural,demonstratives,

etc.)couldbehighlightedfromthosesentences

organizedthemthatwayintheLanguageStructurescolumn.Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheKwak’walalanguage.Theremaybedialectvariations.TheexampleusestheU’mistaOrthography,asthishasbeenadoptedbyboththeKwak’wala/Bakwamk’alaTeacherEducationProgramandSD#85.

Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues

Basic (ages 4-8) tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water

understanding and speaking

words for: clothing, water, objects in

the environment, animals/birds

respect (for the environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go


understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings, “look at what I found”)

following simple instructions using simple questions such as

“what is this [called]?” from a learned set

rituals surrounding water: expressing gratitude for the provision of food; fish, seaweed, cleansing

observing different types of water flow e.g., High tide, very low tide, ebbing, ripe tide or swift current, slow current, river, stream

recognizing and pronouncing the

distinctive sounds of Kwak’wala – e.g., m, g, gw, x, xw Tł, tł’, ‘, K , Kw

using and responding to commands with daga’ – e.g., Kwaxida ga’ “Sit down” (now) Haga “Go!”

showing respect for classmates with expressions of politeness – e.g., Gila’s wa’x a “Please come

here.” La’a ms waxida “You’ve been

most helpful” recognizing and using singular

and plural pronouns in context – e.g. a’ekak ilala “be careful!” a’ekak ilaladaxwlas “You all

be careful!” Wiksas? “How are you?” Wixsdaxwlas’? “How are you

all?” following instructions in short

phrases – e.g.,

taking students to a beach or

watercourse and playing, running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks, scavenger hunt) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the

situation “rules” for staying safe

pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal, bird calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds

repetition of key utterances and speech sounds

using gesture and body language to help convey and reinforce meanings

slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and

discussion of representations found item art project

discussion re; respect for the environment, leaving things the

126

dialogues in Kwak’wala about water, expressing gratitude, etc.

Wa’la, hutłilala “Stop and listen.”

using and responding to learned phrases and questions – e.g., dukwałała “Look at this!” Matsałuxda? “What is that?” Matsalixda? “What is this?”

progression for types of water flow “High tide” “low tide” “Very low tide” “ebbing tide”

way you found them/where you found them

participating in or observing first salmon ceremony, cleansing ritual

dramatization of legend/story that pertains to water. Ie mink finds a wife. (married kelp woman)

In filling out the Language Structures column, our developer(s) read through the list in the Communicative Tasks column (from sample x) brainstormed a list of sentences that students would need to accomplish those tasks thought about what grammatical features (command words, singular/plural, demonstratives, etc.)

could be highlighted from those sentences organized them that way in the Language Structures column. Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheSm’algyaxlanguage.ExamplesentenceshavebeenselectedoradaptedfromVisibleGrammar:Ts’msyenSm’algyaxGrammarResources,authoredbyDr.MargaretAnderson,Dr.MarianneIgnace,andmanyfluentspeakersofSm’algyax.©Ts’msyenSm’algyaxAuthority,2008.


Advanced (ages 16 & up) tides, water flows, winds:

significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways)

All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding more extended

and complex discourse delivered at a normal rate of speech

using abstract and technical terms related to weather, climate, waterways

recognizing and responding to humour

performing ceremonies used to express gratitude and respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)

dramatizing stories related to the tides, winds, waterways (involving rehearsed use of the language)

formulating a sequence of events as a narrative

using the Sm’algyax names of

communities and Houses, recognizing their meanings and how the words are constructed – e.g., Git- prefix, as in Gits’ilaasü

‘People of the canyon’ Waaps Niishaywaaxs

‘House of the North Wind’ acknowledging all chiefs and

matriarchs in the feast hall with their traditional names and House names

understanding and using Sm’algyax prayers – e.g., Gyigyinwaxl, ‘Guidance Prayer’

recognizing and using appropriate intonation patterns for prayers, storytelling, feast speeches, etc.

accurately expressing the time frame of sentences – e.g., Dm łimoomu nabiibu.

more extended presentations to

the class science experiments,

demonstrations, and explanations the carbon cycle and water

cycle weathering and erosion water chemistry and effects

of pollution on biological organisms

undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care activities

using information technology: (apps) to communicate via

text messages audio and video recording to

document and archive information, traditions, and stories from Elders re: weather, climate, and water (or to retrieve and analyse)

127


conversing with an Elder or non-classroom speaker

writing (composing) personal stories in their own words

I am going to help my uncle.

Łimoomu nabiibut Clarence. I helped my Uncle Clarence.

expressing weather conditions with ła – e.g., ła gyelx (‘It’s dark out.’) ła maadm (‘It’s snowing.’)

using phrases with the preposition da – e.g., Eets’da hana’a misoo. (The

woman fried the sockeye.) Dzakwdis Bernard hoon a

da gan. (Bernard killed the fish with a stick.)

using appropriate conjunctions (dis, dił) and verbal prefixes (sila) with common nouns and proper nouns to express actions done ‘together’ – e.g., Sihoon’nu dił k’abatgüüłk I went fishing with the

children. Sihoon’nu dis nabiibu. I went fishing with my Uncle. Nah sila sihoon’nmt John. We went fishing with John.

expressing actions done for someone with da / das and common or proper nouns – e.g, Dzabu łax’ask a da

k’abatgüüłk. I made seaweed for the

children. Nah güültu łax’ask das

nooyu. I harvested seaweed for my

Mother. expressing location and/or

direction with prepositions – e.g., Dm łimoomu nabiibu a lax

boot. I am going to help my uncle

on the boat. expressing reasons, introduced

with the conjunction awil – e.g, Deentga’nut Frank a na

waabu awil …sgeetga gyelx.

Frank guided me to my house …because it was dark outside.

presentation software to create image and word presentations related to language

reading adaawx (origin story) about the origin of the winds

scrambled sentence activities – putting words in the correct order

immersion activities with Elders – e.g., making nets

learning House stories and how House names are constructed

memorizing, reciting, and using prayers

reading or listening to early Sm’algyax texts or recordings, and observing: differences in style and

mood among different speakers and texts

how the language has changed over time

128

Level‐AppropriateWordsandPhrases,LanguageSkillsandPossibleLearningActivities

Level Specific Words and Phrases Broad Descriptors of Language Skill

Possible Activities

Advanced(e.g.,ages16&up)

respect yourself, respect each other, respect all things (e.g., I am proud to be a

member of… family, community, nation; this expresses my connection with… family, community, nation)

(e.g., I [welcome] thank … for wisdom/teaching etc. I/we acknowledge my/our responsibility for this wrong; I/we will make this right/make restitution by…)

(e.g., discharging responsibility: I have harvested/gathered… to share with you, …may this help your family; It is only appropriate to harvest … when… because…; our people believe that…)

You have caused harm. How can you make amends? How can you wipe away the tears of the person you have harmed?

What is the best way to make ____ feel better about this situation?

Our ancestors/Elders taught that … I have been told that…

I [we] are gathering information about [this place/activity] to ________

Are you comfortable, should we take a break, would you like…

Could you please explain [repeat]?

I don’t understand. How do you say _______ in the

language? Who lived there? Why did they

live/go there? What did they do there? To whom did that belong? How often/when did they go there?

How did that work? Can you show me?

Is this what you meant? May I use this recorder …this

camera?

Communicative Tasks expressing negation (e.g., via

prefixes/suffixes, word order in sentences, use of specific words such as not, nor, …)

communicating ideas that involve time relationships (time words, tenses, connectives, and changes to other words in a phrase)

spontaneously using appropriate greeting & leave taking expressions (e.g., formal vs. informal)

interacting with fluent speakers (language users) to undertake recording, documenting, and archiving of their language use (includes demonstrating awareness of the courtesies and sensitivities involved)

generating and responding to humour

elaborate/extended explanations of how a creative or other process works

using language to support or provide counsel to others

discussing roles and responsibilities

modeling appropriate usage; teaching younger students

Other Aspects of Language Learning using slang and other idiomatic

expressions appropriately developing a sense of personal ability, contribution,

role, and responsibility with respect to the community’s /nation’s language revitalization effort

the parental role in language revitalization

options for advocacy re language revitalization

the distinction between acquiring the language, using the language, and learning about the language

organizing and hosting a feast fabric designs and execution

(e.g., symbols for nation, clan, crest)

regalia making plan and teach procedures or

crafts to younger students, using the language

creating contemporary songs, stories, poetry

exploring/analysing contemporary art (comparing art from differing nations and traditions such as Maori, Tsimshian, Secwepemc, …)

129

Do you want me to slow down? Could you please slow it down for me?

mourning, celebrating, Things to notice about this work

include… The meaning I take from this is… This connects with…

LateIntermediate(e.g.,ages12‐16)

words containing more complex, less commonly used sounds

“why” questions and “because” answers

respect yourself, respect each other, respect all things (e.g., look after your space,

…your belongings; get enough sleep; take responsibility… for your homework, actions, eating, etc.)

(e.g., you’ve been very helpful; let me help you/can I help? What can I bring you? Would you like some…? How can you make this better? excuse me – may I…?)

(e.g., please bless …our food, this event; if we over-harvest, then there will be…; if we don’t look after our garbage…; stewardship)

I feel embarrassed/ashamed; I apologize for making you feel …

Can you tell me about your [drawing, model, weaving,…]?

What do you think the artist might be trying to accomplish/say/communicate with this piece?

This [image, model] represents ...

The similarities [differences] in these [two] representations are…

This is interesting because… The difference between this and

a traditional [work] is…

correctly using transitive and intransitive verbs in sentence construction

distinguishing homonyms (words that sound the same, but have different meanings)

acquiring phonetic fluency: producing more complex, less commonly used sounds

deliberately using intonation (and gesture) to communicate meaning

using the language of conditionals & causality

producing written forms of simple sentences

generating (in written and oral form) nan explanatory paragraph about their painting, carving, beadwork, models, …

discussing techniques, tools, and materials associated with creative work (e.g., natural materials, pigments, carving or sewing tools; materials and techniques associated with building/fixing drums or other instruments)

naming different beats, rhythms, types of songs/music

answering the phone and having a short conversation on the phone in the language (also texting)

analysing traditional stories told by Elders or other fluent speakers

translating from English into the language

public speaking: original composed speeches

incorporation of music performance into public events (e.g., drumming)

creation of original work (music/singing, dancing, painting, carving)

outdoor activities on land, on water (e.g., camping, fire building, gathering, building, paddling)

increased involvement in planning and decision-making re events, celebrations, etc.

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EarlyIntermediate(e.g.,ages8‐12)

We, you, he, she, they Give it to [him, her, us, them] Who is this? Who is that? now, later, soon, after, before,

today, tomorrow, yesterday Where are [is] … This is my …mother’s mom

[step-father, sister’s husband I like [don’t like]______,

because… respect yourself (e.g., always

come to school clean), respect each other (e.g., always greet an Elder; I’ve made a mistake and I’m sorry), respect all things (e.g., don’t waste, take only what you need, express gratitude)

think about sharing, I’m [you’re] sharing with,…

It [he, she] hurt me sounds – loud, soft, high, low move to the rhythm; move

together how does this [painting, song,

carving, dance…] make you feel?

recognizing sound-letter associations as a precursor to literacy (how the alphabet captures sounds – with the emphasis on commonly used sounds)

reading age-appropriate and level-appropriate texts

distinguishing root words from prefixes and suffixes

using modifiers (prefixes, suffixes, adjectives, plurals)

using connecting words (and, or, with,…)

using basic phrases and vocabulary involving time relationships

using directional and positional vocabulary (above, below, on, beside,…)

names/rules/language of commonly played games in the community (e.g., Lahal, basketball)

discussing types, purposes of dances

creating new sentences using a few patterns

establishing themes (e.g., respect, camping, exploring different environments)

reenacting or retelling traditional stories

translating from the language into English

participating in community observances (funerals, memorials etc.)

introducing themselves, following appropriate conventions/protocols

harvesting of materials for arts and crafts; using them to create objects

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Basic(e.g.,ages4‐8)

This is my [brother, mother, auntie, jacket, family, friend, home…]

food [salmon, apple, corn, bread, berries,…] head, hands, fingers, arms, legs, knees, feet, toes stop, go, slow down, hurry up, wait, stand, sit,

crawl, get down, get up it’s time to… be careful, pay attention, listen, be quiet, respect yourself (e.g., hang your coat up), respect

each other (e.g., I’m sorry), respect all things think about sharing, I’m [you’re] sharing with,… It [he, she] hurt me What are you doing? please, thank you, [other expressions of

gratitude/appreciation] offer, offering (pay, payment) good morning, hello, good-bye (see you later) yes, no happy, sad, angry, hungry, tired (sleepy), excited Give it to me colours, number names (to 10) bigger, smaller, more, less (comparatives) compare, is like, is the same as, is different

from,… I need to…[e.g., leave to use the washroom] I can… It is [sunny, raining, cloudy, windy, snowing] walk [fly, crawl, run, swim, hop, climb] like a [bear,

fish, rabbit, eagle, hummingbird…] dance, sing, draw, paint, Say it louder, …again Say it. Say it in (speak) __________ [the language] Point to ___________ Are you ready? Let’s start. We’re finished now Whose turn is it? It’s my turn. Let’s play a game Here are the rules. That’s cheating. Are you having fun. I’m [We’re] having fun. He [she] is teasing me. Watch me. Look. Group 1 here. Group 2 there. Tell me about…

accurately repeating a phrase or word

reproducing sounds of the language (e.g., by using rhyming or memory songs that feature language sounds)

counting (to 10) talking about days of the week seasons and seasonal

activities weather clothing (including sports gear

such as shoes) celebrations (feasts,

birthdays, Christmas, seasonal, etc.)

animal sounds (like a bear, cow, horse, eagle, chicken, crow…)

names of children (traditional) crests or other significant

family/community symbols self care sports activities art activities and crafts (lines,

shapes, encouragement for creativity, attempting)

engaging in and sustaining short dialogues

following a simple short story or sequence of stories, entirely in the language, based on a picture or series of pictures

telling their own simple version of this story, also entirely in the language based on a picture or series of pictures

establishing themes (e.g., gatherings, fish, games, family, all about me)

listening to traditional stories

needs assessment (What backgrounds & prior experiences do students have? Can any special needs be identified?)

learning welcome or other songs with actions

participating in food-related ceremonial activities

involving learners in decision-making re events

try, again look for, find toward, away from and then… What is this? What do you want? How are you? [fine,…] Can you help me…? What happened? What did you do? That’s good/beautiful; Good job. You have worked very hard. What is this supposed to be? What is it? I liked how you… Could you please make me another one with… Could you add …. ; Could you try… Try it yourself. I did it myself.

Appendix5ASimpleAssessmentTest(ChiefMatthewsSchool–XaadKilGrades1and2)Note:intheexamplebelow,comprehensionandproduction(saying)ofnounwordsistested,however,thisassessmenttoolcanbesetuptobeusedwithverbs(commands,3rdperson,1stperson)orusingpossessives,andotherforms.