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Results sections in sociology and organic chemistry articles:A genre analysis

Ian Bruce *

General and Applied Linguistics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3420, New Zealand

Abstract

This paper reports a genre study of the Results sections of two samples of 20 research-reporting articles from two dis-ciplines: sociology and organic chemistry. Following the proposal of Bhatia (2004) that genre knowledge needs to be inves-tigated from two perspectives, an ethnographic perspective and a textual perspective, the Results sections are analysed interms of the social genre/cognitive genre model of Bruce (2008b). The ethnographic dimension of the investigation involvesa semi-structured interview with a sociologist and an organic chemist, revealing significant differences between the two dis-ciplines in terms of social genre elements of context, epistemology and writer stance in reporting the Results of research.The textual investigation involves rater analysis of two samples of 20 Results sections from three nominated journals towhich the two interviewees frequently refer. The texts are analysed in relation to the cognitive genre model, the analysisrevealing consistent differences in the textual resources employed in each subject, with sociology Results sections mainly

employing the cognitive genre termed Report and organic chemistry Results sections employing the Explanation cognitivegenre. 2009 The American University. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Most of the models proposed for the concept of communicative competence in a language include the com-ponent of discourse competence (Canale, 1983; Canale & Swain, 1980; Celce-Murcia & D}ornyei, 1995; Councilof Europe, 2001) or textual competence (Bachman, 1990). Discourse competence refers to the ability to com-

municate through extended spoken or written texts that are characterized by an appropriate, integratedarrangement of content information and language. Developing this idea, Bhatia (2004) proposes that studentswishing to participate in the discourses of a particular academic or professional community need to developwhat he terms a discursive competence, which includes the three subsuming areas of social competence, generic

competence and textual competence.

0889-4906/$34.00 2009 The American University. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.esp.2008.12.005

* Tel.: +64 7838 4466x6375; fax: +64 7838 4788.E-mail address: [email protected]

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

English for Specific Purposes 28 (2009) 105–124

www.elsevier.com/locate/esp

ENGLISH FOR

SPECIFIC

PURPOSES

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]



[Social competence] incorporates an ability to use language more widely to participate effectively in avariety of social and institutional contexts to give expression to one’s social identity, in the context of constraining social structures and social processes....[Generic competence] means the ability to identify, construct, interpret and successfully exploit a specificrepertoire of professional, disciplinary or workplace genres to participate in the daily activities and to

achieve the goals of a specific professional community...[Textual competence] represents not only an ability to master the linguistic code, but also an ability touse textual, contextual and pragmatic knowledge to construct and interpret... texts (pp. 144–145).

In the teaching of academic writing, genre-based approaches have been seen as a way of uncovering theknowledge required to assist student writers to develop the discourse (or discursive) competence necessaryto process and create extended texts within a particular academic or professional discourse community. How-ever, a problem with this is that the various approaches to identifying genres (as systematic classifiers of writ-ten or spoken texts) are not stable. When it comes to defining genres, there is a multiplicity of overlappingtheories along with a range of competing terminologies (see Hyon, 1996; Johns, 2002). For some, the classi-fication of texts in terms of genre is largely a social phenomenon. They see genre as being reflected primarily inthe social actions and functionally related sections of whole texts, for example: legal cases, research articles

and dissertations (see, for example, Bhatia, 1993, 2004; Swales, 2004). For others, the classification of texts,in terms of genre, is a rhetorically motivated, cognitive phenomenon, often described in terms of categoriessuch as: argument, explanation, recount and description (see, for example, Knapp & Watkins, 2005;Macken-Horarik, 2002).

For purpose of writing pedagogy, two schools of genre theory have been frequently drawn upon: one is theapproach of genre theorists influenced by systemic functional linguistics (Eggins, 1994; Hasan, 1989; Martin,1986, 1992, 1997, 2000; Ventola, 1985); and the other is the Specific Purposes approach (Bhatia, 1993, 1998,2004; Dudley-Evans, 1986, 1989, 1993, 1994; Johns, 1997, 2001; Swales, 1981, 1988, 1990, 1998, 2004). In theiroriginal forms, both approaches to genre involve identifying a recurrent pattern commonly used to organizethe content of a genre (category of texts), and then relating the stages of this content-organizing pattern tospecific linguistic features. It is interesting, however, to note that a large-scale, computer-mediated corpusstudy by Biber (1989) does not support the idea of characterizing genres in terms of linguistic features. Hisconclusion was ‘‘[g]enres are defined and distinguished on the basis of systematic non-linguistic criteria,and they are valid in those terms” (p. 39). On the other hand, in his corpus study, Biber did find systematicoccurrences of linguistic patterns within more general, non-genre-specific text types, four of which he foundcommonly occurred in academic English prose. More recently text types have also been identified by corpusanalysis of the clustering of vocabulary-based discourse patterns (VBDUs), referring to ‘‘a block of discoursedefined by its reliance on a particular set of words” (Biber, Csomay, Jones, & Keck, 2007, p. 156).

Similarly, Brian Paltridge’s (1993, 1997) research, which employed the approach to genre influenced by sys-temic functional linguistics, also challenges claims of deterministic relationships between recurrent content-organizing patterns and linguistic features. As a result, Paltridge (2002) argues that academic writing coursesneed to focus on both genre and text type knowledge. Paltridge illustrates this through the example of theeveryday genre of letters to the editor, which may be realized by different text types according to the varying

communicative purposes of writers. The dual approach to levels of genre knowledge is also supported by bothPilegaard and Frandsen (1996), who propose text genres and text types, and Bhatia (2004), who distinguishesbetween rhetorical acts/generic values, (such as description and evaluation) and genre colonies (such as promo-

tional genres) and their particular realizations as genres, such as book blurbs and advertisements (p. 59). Toaccount for these two areas, Bhatia proposes that genre knowledge needs to be investigated from two perspec-tives: an ethnographic perspective and a textual perspective (p. 163). Thus, in my own research and work ondeveloping materials for academic writing courses, I have attempted to account for these two areas of knowl-edge by proposing a dual approach to genre: that of social genre and cognitive genre (Bruce, 2005, 2008a,2008b).

Social genre – socially recognized constructs according to which whole texts are classified in terms of their overall social purpose. Purpose here is taken to mean the intention to consciously communicate

a body of knowledge related to a certain context to a certain target audience...

106 I. Bruce/ English for Specific Purposes 28 (2009) 105–124



Cognitive genre – the overall cognitive orientation and internal organization of a segment of writing thatrealizes a single, more general rhetorical purpose to represent one type of information within discourse.Examples of types of general rhetorical purpose relating to cognitive genres are: to recount sequencedevents, to explain a process, to argue a point of view, each of which will employ a different cognitivegenre. (Bruce, 2008b, p. 39)

Social genres and cognitive genres are not mutually exclusive categories, but, in effect, two sides of the samecoin or two complementary approaches to examining the discoursal and textual elements of a genre. Themodel as articulated in Bruce (2008a, p. 131) proposes that understanding the nature and operation of a socialgenre (such as a category of written texts within an academic or professional setting), involves knowledgerelating to:

context, which Widdowson (2004) suggests involves specialist knowledge of a field and its particular lan-guage (technical lexis);

epistemology, described by Lea and Street (1998) as ‘‘disciplinary assumptions about the nature of knowl-edge” (p. 162);

writer stance, involving issues of addressivity and audience, such as what Hyland (2005) describes in terms

of the use of metadiscourse; and, content schemata – the conventionalized, conscious staging of content in texts, such as schematic structure

(Hasan, 1989) or systems of moves and steps (Swales, 1990).

Cognitive genres are complex, organizational categories that are usually drawn upon in combination whencreating whole texts. They are described in terms of a model that draws upon cognitive, rather than social, orlinguistic knowledge. The design of the model is constrained by three important categorization theories fromcognitive science:

a category is formed in response to purpose or intentionality (see Barsalou, 1983; Murphy & Medin, 1985).Thus, when writing, certain types of communicative purpose individually activate a prototypical textual

pattern (cognitive genre). complex knowledge is hierarchically organized – higher level general to lower level specific structures (see

Miller, 1984; Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977). Thus, a text-organizing structure may employ different, intercon-nected systems of knowledge that relate.

creating and identifying examples of categories is in relation to knowledge and memory of prototypes (seeRosch, 1975, 1978). Therefore, creating extended written text involves drawing on knowledge of prototyp-ical organizational patterns.

Taking these principles and their implications into account, I have proposed models for four cognitive gen-res that commonly occur in academic English prose. Table 1 following summarizes the proposed cognitivegenre model and its constituent knowledge types.

The four cognitive genres are based on the four text types that Biber (1989, p. 39) found to occur mostfrequently in academic prose. Biber’s findings emerged from an extensive corpus study although histypology has been critiqued in relation to the types of texts included in the corpus and the opaquenessof some of his terminologies (Santini, 2005). However, since the four text types relating to academic writ-ten prose largely mirror those of the typology of Quinn (1993) based on needs analysis, they are selectedto form the basis for the cognitive genre model. In terms of their structure and internal organization, theyare conceptualized here in terms of top–down, cognitive structure rather than by their linguistic andstylistic features:

Drawing on the first principle from categorization theory – that categories are formed in response to inten-tion or purpose – each category of the model relates to a general rhetorical aim to communicate a certain typeof knowledge – this is the rhetorical focus for each of the four types in Table 1. Drawing on the second prin-ciple (that complex knowledge is hierarchically organized), they have a top–down, internal structure that

involves:

I. Bruce / English for Specific Purposes 28 (2009) 105–124 107



Gestalts called image schemata (Johnson, 1987). At the upper levels of the model, the rhetorical purposewill engage a high-order, image schema gestalt pattern (see Johnson, 1987) in order to broadly structure

the content knowledge to be represented within the particular segment of text that realizes the cognitivegenre. This is based on the idea that gestalts provide a basis for upper level categorization in the way pro-posed by Lakoff (1987, p. 283) in his spatialization of form hypothesis.

Discourse patterns (Hoey, 1983, 1994, 2001). While gestalts (image schemata) refer to the organization of concepts or ideas, in relation to the overall organization of the actual written text, they lead to the engage-ment of non-genre-specific discourse patterns (e.g. General–Particular, Problem–Solution), which have typ-ical patterns of co-occurrence (see Hoey, 1983).

Interpropositional relations (Crombie, 1985). The rhetorical focus (purpose) also influences selection froma specific set of lower-order, more specific, cognitive categories termed interpropositional relations (e.g.Reason–Result, Chronological Sequence, Condition Consequence), which always have two parts in thatthey involve a relation between two propositions.

Interpropositional relations involve making connections that draw upon both semantic and pragmaticknowledge, and they have a direct effect on linguistic selection relating to cohesion and coherence. Thus,the social genre/cognitive genre approach to text classification is proposed as a basis for performing genreanalysis that accounts for the socially constructed, rhetorical organizational and linguistic elements of genresas categories of texts. As an example of the implementation of this integrative approach, this article reports astudy of the part-genre of Results sections (of research-reporting articles) from the two disciplines of sociologyand organic chemistry.

1.1. Previous studies of Results sections

Previous studies that have examined Results sections include those of Brett (1994), who examined the

results sections from 20 sociology research articles and Williams (1999), who analysed eight medical research

Table 1The cognitive genre model.

Report: static descriptive presentation

Rhetorical focus Presentation of data that is essentially non-sequentialGestalt structure WHOLE PART structure of which PART has an UP DOWN structureDiscourse pattern Preview-details

Interpropositionalrelations

Amplification; reason–result, grounds-conclusion; simple contrast, simple comparison, concession-contraexpectation, condition-consequence

Explanation: means-focused presentation

Rhetorical focus The presentation of information with the orientation on meansGestalt structure SOURCE PATH GOAL schema; LINK schemaDiscourse pattern Preview—detailsInterpropositional

relationsMeans-purpose, means–result, amplification, concession-contra expectation

Discussion: choice/outcome-focused presentation

Rhetorical focus Focus on the organization of data in relation to (possible) outcomes/conclusions/choicesGestalt structure CONTAINER schemata (more than one)Discourse pattern Generalization—examples and matchingInterpropositional

relations

Grounds-conclusion, reason–result, means-purpose, means–result, concession-contra expectation

Recount: sequential presentation

Rhetorical focus Presentation of data or information that is essentially sequential or chronologicalGestalt structure SOURCE PATH GOAL schemaDiscourse pattern General—particular, problem solutionInterpropositional

relationsMeans-purpose, means–result, amplification, chronological sequence, grounds-conclusion, reason–result

(Bruce, 2005, p. 14).




articles. Brett (1994) employed what he calls three communicative categories: metatextual, presentation and

comment:

Metatextual defines parts of the text that refer to the data or to other written sections; it is textabout the text,... guiding the reader to other parts of the writing... Presentation categories are thosewhich objectively and impersonally report, present, or highlight the results or the ways in which they

were obtained... Comment categories are those in which authors offer their own interpretation of, orcomment and opinion about the results already presented, building up on the Presentation categories(p. 52).

In the sociology Results sections of his sample, Brett proposes that the occurrence of the three organiza-tional categories is cyclical, the most frequent pattern being pointer (metatextual) followed by statement of

finding (Presentation), and substantiation of the finding (Presentation). He describes each of the three commu-nicative categories in terms of their linguistic features.

Williams (1999) analysed a sample of eight medical research articles using a modified version of Brett’s(1994) model of communicative categories. Williams found Brett’s model to be ‘‘an adequate basic modelfor the rhetorical categories of Results sections for interdisciplinary genre analysis” (p. 362). However, heobserved that the cyclical patterning identified in Brett’s study was less common in biomedical articles (where

the results section tended to be presented in a more linear way). He, therefore, suggests that both type of studyand subject matter influence text organization, which may be either chronological, hierarchical or climactic.What this may suggest is that more general rhetorical patterns (operationalized here by cognitive genres)may be central to the discourse organization of the texts of the sample, something that is the focus of the studyreported here.

In another approach to describing the organizational patterns used in the type of writing that occurs inResults sections, Swales and Feak (2004, p. 116), in an academic writing textbook, propose that writing, whichthey term data commentary, uses a framework that includes: locating elements or summary statements (similarto Brett’s metatextual ‘pointer’), highlighting statements and discussions of the findings, such as implicationsproblems and exceptions. In relation to the latter category, they cite a corpus study by Thompson (1993),which categorizes the types of discussion statements found in Results sections.

In examining Results (and Discussions) sections in a sample of 20 Applied Linguistics articles, Yang andAllison (2003) proposed a six move structure for Results sections of: preparatory information, reporting results,

summarising results, commenting on results, evaluating the study and deductions from the research. Theydescribe the first three as ‘‘dominant moves” (p. 373). Significantly, in their analysis Yang and Allison alsosignal the need to acknowledge two levels of textual organization – moves and steps: ‘‘our use of two levels,Move and Step, serves to distinguish the communicative purposes from the rhetorical techniques realizing thepurposes” (p. 376) – emphasis added.

As part of a more recent study, Kanoksilapatham (2005) and Kanoksilapathan (2007) describes the Resultssections of a corpus of 60 biochemistry articles in terms of a content-organizing schema of four moves (thatmay vary in order and may occur cyclically): restating methodological issues, justifying methodological issues,

announcing results, commenting on results. Each move contains a number of sub-moves or steps. In relation toeach step, an illustrative sentence is presented and described in terms of its content-organizing role, and the2007 report of the same research provides a detailed corpus analysis of the linguistic features of the movestructure.

Thus, drawing mainly on the ESP approach to genre, previous studies of Results sections have mostlytended to focus on text-organizing structures, either in terms of more general communicative categories(and their sequencing) or of a more specific content schema (move/step) structure. These structures are thenlinked to particular linguistic features. While there are some similarities in the patterns proposed, there alsoappears to be variation between disciplines, but ‘presenting’ and ‘commenting on’ results appear to be oblig-atory stages in most disciplines although they may not always occur in a linear way.

In the study reported here, the Results sections from research articles in two disciplines (sociology andorganic chemistry) are examined in terms of the social genre/cognitive genre model as a way of extendingor broadening the notion of what it is that constitutes knowledge of a genre to include its socially constructed,

general rhetorical and linguistic dimensions.




2. Methodology

2.1. Social genre analysis

The ethnographic (social genre) dimension of this study involves a semi-structured interview with a sociol-

ogist and a chemist (see Appendix A for the interview schedule) as well as the analysis of Results sections fromresearch-reporting articles – 20 from sociology and 20 from chemistry. The articles for the samples wereselected from the three academic journals to which the two interviewees most frequently refer in their respec-tive field. (The reference lists of the two samples are presented in Appendix B.)

To carry out the interviews, a sociologist and organic chemist were approached and gave their consent to beinterviewed for this study. Both interviewees are research-active, have achieved multiple publications and areteaching faculty members of two tertiary institutions (a polytechnic and a university). After obtaining the nec-essary ethical consents and following the question schedule in Appendix A, the subjects were interviewed, inrelation to subject-specific contextual knowledge, epistemology and writer stance. The textual analysis (of social genre elements) focused on the use of metadiscourse features (Hyland, 2005, p. 49) and whether ornot there were content-organizing schemata in the samples of Results sections from the two disciplines, suchas Swales’ (1990) move and step structures.

2.2. Cognitive genre analysis

To investigate the textual dimension, the Results sections of the two samples were scanned into plain textfiles and analysed in two ways. First, they were rater-analysed by the author in relation to their use of the fea-tures of the cognitive genre model. Following a bottom–up approach, a copy of each text was marked up withthe cognitive genre elements of interpropositional relations, discourse patterns and gestalt structures. Becausethe sets of characteristics of the cognitive genre model are proposed as prototypical discourse patterns, a textsegment that realizes a particular cognitive genre may be highly prototypical (i.e., employ most of the char-acteristics of a cognitive genre from the model) or more peripheral (i.e., employ some or few of its character-istics). Thus, conformity to the cognitive genre model is by degree. In this study, however, there was no

attempt to grade the degree of prototypicality of segments of texts (in relation to the cognitive genre model).The rater standard that was used was where a text segment appeared to conform mostly to the features of aparticular cognitive genre category, it was classified in terms of that category. The social genre elements of metadiscourse devices (relating to author stance) were also marked on each text (see Appendix C, Figs. A1and A2, for examples of two marked up texts).

Secondly each sample of texts was examined using corpus software, Oxford Wordsmith Tools 4.0 ( Scott,2004). The corpus of sociology results sections consists of 28,268 tokens (running words) and the organicchemistry corpus consists of 29,663 tokens. A word list was created for each sample of Results sectionsand concordance searches were performed on frequently occurring cohesive devices. The purpose of the cor-pus analysis was to provide objective, linguistic data that can be compared with the rater analysis of cohesionand coherence in terms of Crombie’s (1985) interpropositional relations.

3. Results

3.1. The social genre elements of Results sections

In the interviews with the sociologist and the organic chemist, questions (Appendix A) were posed in rela-tion to the social genre elements of context, epistemology, writer stance and schematic structure.

3.1.1. Context

The sociologist interviewed describes her subject as the study of ‘‘inter-human behaviour, in terms of inter-relationships and interactions”. On the other hand, the organic chemist said that his subject is concerned with

examining ‘‘carbon-containing compounds, most of which are involved with life processes”. Both informants


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reported that their respective fields had widely used, subject-specific vocabulary as well as terminologies spe-cific to sub-branches of their disciplines.

3.1.2. Epistemology

In sociology, the approach to research varies from scientific or positivist through to naturalistic or interpre-

tative. Thus, data from research may be either quantitative or qualitative (or often a combination of the two).The sociologist reported that her research follows a naturalistic or interpretative approach. She uses ethno-methodology as a research style, and one of the data collection methods that she uses is interview. However,the same informant said that her earlier training and experiences had been within the positivist tradition.

Research in organic chemistry uses a positivist or scientific approach, where on the basis of present knowl-edge of chemical compounds and their constituencies, new ‘target’ compounds are proposed and investigatedfollowing established techniques and procedures. The data tends to be quantitative, but can also involve somequalitative descriptions of the appearance of compounds, such as their colour and shape.

3.1.3. Writer stance

The sociologist informant proposed that the reporting of research findings has to acknowledge multipleviews of reality. Not only does the reporting of findings need to account for the multiplicity of intentions

and views of the human subjects of the research, but also the writer has to anticipate and pre-empt multiplecritiques or interpretations of their findings by readers. The style of sociology writing may range from personalto impersonal.

In the reporting of findings from organic chemistry research, the informant suggested that key values arethe need for preciseness of detail as well as conciseness. As part of this precision of specification, the writeroften provides familiar landmarks in terms of named processes and named analytical techniques.

Also, in relation to writer stance the two samples of texts were examined for their use of metadiscoursedevices (as summarized by Hyland, 2005, p. 49).

In the sample of sociology texts, all 20 used endophoric references (references to tables, figures and otherparts of the text). Ten of the 20 texts were reported in the first person. Twelve of the 20 used evidentials

(quoted other writers to support assertions) and 14 used hedges – (usually modal) structures to weaken(or make more cautious) claims or statements.

In the organic chemistry texts, all 20 texts used endophoric reference (to tables, figures), 13 used self-men-tion (usually the first person plural) and eight used evidentials (usually referring to named chemicalprocesses).

From the interviews and from the textual analysis of the two samples, the principal difference in stance thatemerged was the need in sociology to present findings in ways that allow for multiple meanings and views,which contrasts with the need for precise specification of detail in reporting research results in organic chem-istry. This difference was evident in the use of metadiscourse in the two samples with the extensive use of hedg-ing (cautious language) in 14 of the sociology texts, while hedging was largely absent from the chemistry texts.Examples of hedging from sociology are:

‘‘It seems likely that her anger at him then provoked his feeling angry in Time 2. This suggests apattern...”[emphasis added] (Sociology Text 1);

‘‘These results suggest that the positive effect of non-resident children is a least partially explained byvisitation” (Sociology Text 5).

The need for precise writer specification in organic chemistry results appeared to lead to the frequent use of nominalised structures and quantification. For example:

‘‘Dibromocyclopropanation of vinylferrocene proceeded without any difficulties, and 1,1-dibromo-

2ferrocenylcylopropane (3) was isolated in high yield (70–80%) (Chemistry Text 10).




3.1.4. Schematic structure

In examining the Results section texts from both sociology and organic chemistry, no clear conventional-ized patterns of content organization emerged. In the sociology texts, the findings in eleven of the articles orga-nized around specific research questions (or sub-headings related to research questions), while in nine thefindings were combined in a more unified way. In the sample of organic chemistry texts, 10 were organized

around research questions (or related sub-headings) and 10 were more unified texts. Of the nine unified textsin the sociology sample, seven focussed solely on presenting findings, while two followed the presentation withsome comment on the findings. In one case the shift (from presentation to comment) was signalled by: ‘‘Itcould be suggested that this greater involvement may have come about through...” (Sociology, Text 8); inthe other text this shift was signalled by ‘‘As noted above, differences in household structure could influ-ence....” (Sociology, Text 11). With the 10, more unified organic chemistry texts, the content focus was diverse:five texts provided an explanatory presentation of the findings, three texts provided an explanatory presenta-tion followed by some comment on the findings and two texts focused on a discussion of the findings. Since noclear content schemata emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that it is more salient to consider the Resultssections of the two samples in terms of the types of rhetorical purpose and related textual resources (cognitivegenres) that are employed. This is the focus of the next section of the analysis.

3.2. The cognitive genre elements of Results sections

3.2.1. Sociology Results sections

Rater analysis of the sociology Results sections in relation to the cognitive genre model found that theyemployed a range of textual resources (Table 2 following), but they mostly used the cognitive genre termedReport, often recursively – several small, adjacent reports. In some cases the recursion is signalled by sub-headings or separate research questions used as sub-headings. In other cases, there are rhetorical shifts withinthe text from one cognitive genre to another. For example, in Text 11 of the sociology sample, the cognitivegenre pattern is Report, Discussion and Report. The first Report presents data comparing household unem-ployment rates in three countries. A Discussion follows considering three possible reasons for the differencesbetween the three countries including evidence for and against those reasons.

Table 2The use of cognitive genres in sociology Results sections.

Text Cognitive genre

1 Report (3)2 Report (1) containing embedded Recounts (4), Explanation (1), Report (1)3 Report (1) containing embedded Reports (3)4 Report (2) Recount (2)5 Report (1)6 Report (2)7 Report (3)8 Report (1) Discussion (1)

9 Report (1)10 Report (3)11 Report (2) Discussion (1)12 Report (1)13 Report (4)14 Report (3)15 Report (2) containing embedded Reports (3)16 Report (1) Recount (3)+17 Report (3)18 Report (4)19 Report (1)20 Report (1)

A number in parenthesis shows the number of occurrences of a cognitive genre within a Results section.

In some cases different cognitive genres are adjacent to each other (No. 1) or embedded within each other (No. 3).




In the case of Report, it is proposed in the cognitive genre model (Table 1) that one of the most frequentlyoccurring interpropositional relations (Crombie, 1985) will be Amplification. The rater analysis of interpropo-sitional relations in the sociology texts, in fact, found that Amplification was the most frequently occurringrelation, comprising 21.5% of the total number of relations in the sample. This was followed by Simple Con-trast (17%), Reason Result (9%), Concession Contraexpectation (6.6%), Grounds Conclusion (5.7%) and Sim-

ple Comparison (4.5%).The two most frequently occurring relations – Amplification and Simple Contrast are explained in Table 3following.

As Table 3 indicates, the Amplification relation can be realized by a main clause followed by either anobject noun clause or dependent (restrictive) relative clause, both types of clause often being headed by theconjunction ‘that’. The Simple Contrast relation is often signalled by ‘than’. In order to provide a comparisonwith the rater analysis, these features were investigated further using corpus software, Oxford WordsmithTools 4.0 (Scott, 2004). The sample of sociology articles formed a small corpus of 28,268 tokens (runningwords) and a word list was created. Table 4 following is the part of the wordlist showing the 20 most fre-quently occurring function words.

The wordlist showed high frequencies of ‘that’ (301 occurrences) and ‘than’ (136 occurrences). Creating aconcordance of the 301 occurrences of ‘that’ and searching their contexts found that 189 introduced noun

clauses (as objects or complements of verbs), 73 introduced relative clauses and 39 occurrences belong to otherword classes, supporting the rater analysis finding of a high frequency of the Amplification relation. Similarly,a concordance was generated for the 136 instances of ‘than’, of which 92 were found to signal the Simple Con-trast relation between propositions. (Within the texts, contrast was also signalled in a variety of other ways.)

3.2.2. Organic chemistry results sections

Table 5 shows the cognitive genres identified by the rater analysis of the organic chemistry Results sections.These texts mainly used the Explanation cognitive genre, again often recursively, such as several short expla-nations. The Discussion cognitive genre also occurred in eight of the texts. One of the reasons for this use of Discussion cognitive genre is that some of the leading Chemistry journals are now joining together (conflating)the Results and Discussion section of research-reporting articles.

The rater analysis showed that the organic chemistry results sections mainly employed Explanation cogni-tive genre, in which the model (see Table 1) proposes the most frequently occurring interpropositional rela-tions (Crombie, 1985) will be Means Result and Means Purpose – these are relations that both focus onhow something is achieved (see Table 6).

Table 3Key interpropositional relations in Report cognitive genre.

Interpropositionalrelation

Description Examples from the sociology sample

Amplification ‘‘This relation involves explicit or implicit repetition of the propositional content of one member of the relationin the other member, together with a non-contrastiveaddition to that propositional content” (Crombie, 1985,p. 26)

‘‘For anxiety, the unstandardised beta of .096(SE = .036) for this path indicates that every 1.0deviation of mothers’ anxiety at Time 1 was associatedwith a change of .096 of adolescents’ anxiety from Time1 to Time 2.” (Sociology Text 1) (noun clauses as the

object of a transitive verb or complement of the copula)‘‘we selected items from the partner’s diary that tappedrelationship contentment, exhilaration, anxiety, anddepression” (Text 2) ‘‘We began by investigating thefactor structure of the outcomes of emotionaltransmission used in the study” (Sociology Text 2)(restrictive and reduced relative clauses)

Simple contrast ‘‘This is a relation involving the comparison of twothings, events, or abstractions in terms of someparticular in respect of which they are different”(Crombie, 1985, p. 19)

‘‘Relative risks less than 1.00 indicate a reduced risk,whereas relative risks greater than 1.00 indicate anincreased risk” (Sociology Text 5) ‘‘As shown in Table 2,females reported a higher number and greater severity of

symptoms than males...”

(Sociology Text 9)




The rater analysis of interpropositional relations in the organic chemistry texts found that, together, therelations ‘Means Result’ and ‘Means Purpose’ accounted for 25.5% of the relations in the total sample(17.7% and 7.8%, respectively). These were followed by Reason Result (14.8%) and Amplification (12.6%).

To further investigate the rater analysis of the interpropositional relations, the sample of 20 organic chem-istry Results sections was also searched using corpus software, Oxford Wordsmith Tools 4.0 (Scott, 2004). Thecorpus of chemistry texts comprised 29,633 tokens (running words). First, a word list was created. Table 7following is part of the wordlist showing the 20 most frequently occurring function words in the Sociology

Results section sample.

Table 4Sociology texts: word list.

Word Number of occurrences Number of texts

The 1863 20Of 997 20In 729 20

And 672 20To 484 20For 408 20A 380 20That 301 20

Was 237 20Were 224 20With 224 20On 215 20Is 214 19As 185 20Not 173 19Not 151 19Than 136 18

This 136 20Between 131 18From 125 17

Table 5The use of cognitive genres in organic chemistry Results sections.

Text Cognitive genre

Text 1 Result (2) Explanation (4)Text 2 Discussion (2)Text 3 Explanation (2) Report (2)Text 4 Explanation (3)

Text 5 Explanation (2), Discussion (2)Text 6 Explanation (3)Text 7 Explanation (2), Report (1)Text 8 Report (1) Explanation (1) Discussion (1)Text 9 Explanation (3)Text 10 Explanation (1)Text 11 Explanation (1) Discussion (3)Text 12 Explanation (2)Text 13 Explanation (1) Report (1)Text 14 Explanation (1) containing embedded Discussion (1)Text 15 Explanation (1) Discussion (1) Report (1)Text 16 Discussion (1)Text 17 Explanation (1) Discussion (2)Text 18 Explanation (2)Text 19 Explanation (1) Discussion (1)Text 20 Explanation (4)

A number in parenthesis shows the number of occurrences of a cognitive genre within a Results section.




The wordlist showed a high frequency of ‘by’. Creating a concordance of the 192 occurrences of ‘by’ andsearching their contexts found that 107 (in 19 texts) were part of structures that signalled means (in a MeansResult relation). Of these instances of ‘by’:

72 involved the structure ‘by + nominalization’. For example:

‘‘On the other hand, the reaction (2) can be monitored by measurement of the free iodine released.”(Chemistry Text 2); and,

35 involved the structure ‘by + verb(ing)’ structure. For example: ‘‘The assumption was verified by intro-

ducing the liposomic part eluted from the column into the DPP system.” (Chemistry Text 1)

Similarly, a concordance was generated for the 508 instances of ‘to’ of which 51 occurrences (in 15 texts)signalled purpose in a Means Purpose relation.

4. Discussion

The findings from this study appear to demonstrate that, in the reporting of research results in the two subjects (sociology and organic chemistry), the written texts and the discourses that surround these texts are quitedifferent. These differences appear to arise from the objects of enquiry, epistemological viewpoints andresearch paradigms and textual structures characteristic of the two disciplines. However, because the samplesused were small and it was not logistically possible to employ multiple raters to analyse the cognitive genrepatterns (and then compare the raters’ findings), the results from this study can be only considered to be indic-ative. In the discussion that follows, possible implications of the findings will be discussed in relation to ped-agogy and its wider implications for the conceptualization of genres.

In relation to pedagogy, it is suggested that genre knowledge is used in two areas of activity: to providea heuristic for the analysis of further texts (of the same genre); and to provide the means for writers tocreate their own texts within the same discipline. Genre-based pedagogy that attempts to teach the writingof Results sections should clearly include a focus on both the social and cognitive genre dimensions of thetarget genre. In relation to pedagogy, it is suggested here that when examining the Results section of aparticular discipline, it is salient first to examine the social genre influences that surround the part-genrein order to establish a grounded view of the part-genre. This will involve consideration of issues of con-text, content, epistemology (including research methodology), writer stance and issues of addressivity andaudience. Students may be able to do this partly by carrying out their own simple ethnographic enquiriesalong the lines of the interview schedule used in this study (see Appendix A). The social genre focus canthen be followed by deconstructing and practising the cognitive genre elements of exemplar texts which, itis proposed, will assist in providing writers with tools to achieve finer grained analysis of the textual ele-ments of Results sections in particular disciplines as well as the procedural knowledge necessary to create

their own.

Table 6Key interpropositional relations in explanation cognitive genre.

Interpropositionalrelation

Description Examples from the organic chemistry sample

Means result Involves a statement of how a particular result is/was/will be achieved (Crombie, 1985, p. 20)

‘‘The ability of receptors 1 to provide the predicted, highlypreorganized hydrophobic pocket-like environment for the

dopamine binding could be further supported bycomparing its dopamine binding ability with the referencereceptor 2.” (order of relations – Result Means; ChemistryText 19)

Means purpose Involves an action that is/was/will be undertakenwith the intention of achieving a particular result(Crombie, 1985, p. 20)

‘‘To obviate this setback, a set of calibration plots wereconstructed and used for the simultaneous non-descriptivedetermination of both liposome and drug concentration”.(order of relations – Purpose Means; Chemistry Text 1)


http://-/?-

http://-/?-



In relation to genre theory generally, this study appears to present a further challenge to a unitary approachto operationalizing genre in terms of a schematic structure (or a move and step structure) to account for thestaging of content linked to discrete items of lexis, grammar and syntax. Bhatia (2004), Biber (1989), Paltridge(2002) and Pilegaard and Frandsen (1996) all argue that an adequate approach to genre involves examiningboth socially constructed genre knowledge and more general, rhetorical knowledge. The social genre/cognitivegenre approach employed here further advances this dual approach to genre knowledge in terms of presenting

an approach to operationalizing these two areas of knowledge for pedagogical purposes.

Appendix A

Results. sections study: interview schedule

1. If you had to define _ _ _ _ _ briefly for someone who was new to the subject, how would you describeit?

2. What is the theory of reality (the world) of _ _ _ _ _ ? Are the objects of thought seen as having areal, independent existence, or are they objects of thought created by the human mind that perceivesthem?

3. Does _ _ _ _ _ have its own overall technical vocabulary (common to most researchers working in the field)or do the technical words used relate more specifically to specific areas of _ _ _ _ _ in which particularresearchers are working?

4. What are the main research methods (data collection methods) used in _ _ _ _ _ or the branch of _ _ _ _ _ that you are working in?

5. What types of knowledge do these research methods uncover? (qualitative, quantitative or both?)6. In reporting a piece of research in _ _ _ _ _ (such as in a journal article), are there particular values or ideals

that you think are important?7. In reporting the results or research in a journal article (such as in the Results section), what is important to

communicate to one’s peers, such as other researchers working in the field of _ _ _ _ _ ?8. In reporting research findings (such as in Results sections) in _ _ _ _ _, how much personal or interpretative

comment by the writer appears in the writing?

Table 7Organic chemistry texts: word list.

Word Number of occurrences Number of texts

The 2473 20Of 1153 20In 712 20

And 635 20To 508 20

A 455 20With 284 20For 274 20Is 258 20Was 256 19By 192 20

That 183 20Were 177 19Rom 169 18This 163 19As 162 20

Are 146 20Be 142 19At 128 20On 122 20




Appendix B

Bibliographies. of the sociology and organic chemistry results section

Text Subject Journal Article title Author(s)

Sociology corpus

1. Sociology Journal of Marriage andthe Family

(1999) 61(1), pp.21–37

Transmission of emotions inthe daily interactions of single-mother families

Reed W. Larson & SallyGillman


(1999) 61(1), pp.38–48

Emotional transmission incouples under stress

Anne Thompson & NiallBolger


(1999) 61(1), pp.49–61

Daily transmission of tensionsbetween marital dyads andparent–child dyads

David M. Almeida, ElaineWethington & Amy L.Chandler

4. Sociology Journal of Marriage and

the Family

(1999) 61(1), pp.

62–73

Anger transmission frommother to child: A comparison

of mothers in chronic pain andwell mothers

Geraldine Downey, ValeriePurdie & Rebecca Schaffer-

Neitz


(2003) 65(1), pp.90–104

Union formation among menin the US: Does Having priorchildren matter?

Susan D. Stewart, Wendy D.Manning & Pamela J. Smock


(2003) 65(2), pp.287–301

Generational effects onmarriage patterns: Jewishimmigrants and theirdescendants in Israel

Binyamin Gshur & Barbara S.Okun


(2007) 69(5), pp.1107–1117

The association of couples’relationship status and qualitywith breastfeeding initiation

Christina M. Gibson-Davis &Jeanne Brooks-Gunn

8. Sociology Social PolicyJournal of NewZealand

(1999,July) pp.106–121

Hippy New Zealand: Anevaluation overview BarHava-Monteith, Galia,Harre, Niki, & Field, Jeff


(1999,December)13, pp.115–135

Health care needs for olderadults

Ross A. Flett, NikolaosKazantzis, Nigel R. Long,Michelle A. Millar & CarolMacDonald


(2004,July) 22,pp. 97–107

An employment barrier: Thehealth status of DPBrecipients’ children

Tim O’Donovan, KarenMcMillan & Heather Worth

11. Sociology Social PolicyJournal of New

Zealand

(2004,June) 20,

pp. 134– 155

Work poor or working poor?A comparative perspective on

New Zealand’s joblesshouseholds

Susan G. Singley & PaulCallister


(2004,March)21, pp. 83– 97

Ill-prepared for the labourmarket: Health status in asample of single-mothers onwelfare

Heather B. Worth & Karen E.McMillan


(2007) 32,pp. 126– 154

Gender, mobility andmigration into New Zealand:A case study of Asianmigration

Juthika Badkar, PaulCallister, Vasantha Krishnan,Robert Didham & RichardBedford

(continued on next page)




Appendix B (continued )


14. Sociology Journal of Child andFamily Studies

(1999) 8, 1 Anxiety symptomatology inMexican–Amercianadolescents

Saundra H. Glover, Andres J.Pumariega, Charles E. Holzer,Brian K. Wise, & Moises

Rodriguez15. Sociology Journal of

Child andFamily Studies

(1999) 8(2), pp.169–180

Strengths-based assessment of children with SED:Consistency of reporting byteachers and parents

Karen A. Friedman, Peter E.Leone, & Philip Friedman


(2003) 12(2), pp.185–200

Affiliative and instrumentalmarital discord, mother’snegative affect and children’snegative interactions withunfamiliar peers.

Jeffrey T. Cookston, AmandaW. Harrist & Ricardo C.Ainslie

17. Sociology Journal of Child and

Family Studies

(2003) 12(4), pp.

411–423

The linkage between multipleperspectives of the marital

relationship and preschoolers’adjustment

Osnat Erel, & Karni Kissil


(2005) 14(1), pp.15–27

Are developmental pathwaysin disruptive behaviours thesame for girls and boys?

Deborah Gorman-Smith, &Rolf Loeber


(2005) 14(4), pp.469–485

Predicting the stability of conduct problems in childrenwith and without callous-unemotional traits

Paul J. Frick & Ashley L.Dantagnan


(2007) 16,pp. 593– 605

Is there a Relationshipbetween Family Structure andSubstance Use among PublicMiddle School Students?

Raheem J. Paxton, Robert F.Valois & J. Wanzer Drane

Chemistry corpus

1. Chemistry AnalyticaChimica Acta

(1999) 391(1), pp.83–88

Simultaneous quantitativedetermination of diazepamand liposomes usingdifferential pulse polarography

Christos G. Kontoyannis,Sophia G. Antimisiaris,Dionisis Douroumis


(1999) 391(3), pp.277–288

Qualitative and quantitativedetermination of oxygenatesin gasolines using H nuclearmagnetic resonancespectroscopy

Reinhard Meusinger


(1999) 399(3), pp.265–274

Evaluation of a chemicalvapour dosimeter usingpolymer-coated SERSsubstrates

David L. Stokes, Anjali Pal,V. Anantha Narayanan, &Tuan Vo-Dinh






4 Chemistry AnalyticaChimica Acta

(2003) 480(2), pp.193–205

Evaluation of toriclosan andbiphenylol in marinesediments and urban

wastewaters by pressurizedliquid extraction and solid-phase extraction followed bygas chromatography massspectrometry and liquidchromatography massspectrometry

Ana Aguera, Amadeo RFernandez-Alba, luis Piedra,Milogros Mezcua & M. Jose

Gomez


(2003)495, pp.21–31

Labeless and reversibleimmunosensor assay basedupon an electrochemicalcurrent-transient protocol

Sarah Grant, Frank Davis,Jeanette A. Pritchard, KarenA. Law, Seamus P.J. Higson,& Timothy D. Gibson

6. Chemistry Analytica

Chimica Acta

(2007)

590, pp.139–144

Fast and sensitive trace

analysis of malachite greenusing a surface-enhancedRaman microfluidic sensor

Sangyeop Lee, Junghyun

Choi, Lingxin Chena,Byungchoon Park, Jin BurmKyong,Gi Hun Seong,Jaebum Chooa Yeonjung Lee,Kyung-Hoon ShinEun KyuLee, Sang-Woo Joo, &Kyeong-Hee Lee


(2006)611, pp.56–61

In situ fabrication of nanostructured titania coatingon the surface of titaniumwire: A new approach forpreparation of solid-phasemicroextraction fiber

Dan-dan Caoa,b, Jian-xiaLu a, Jing-fu Liua, & Gui-binJianga

8. Chemistry Journal of OrganometallicChemistry

(1999)588, pp.42–50

Solid state structural andsolution studies on bis (2-methylbenzyl)-selenide,methyl (2,4,6-tri-t-

butylphenyl)-selenide, bis(2,4,6-tri-methylphenyl(-diselenide, and bis(2,4,6-tri-t-

butylphenyl)-diselenide.

Paul M. Dickson, MargaretA. D. McGowan, BurlYearwood, Mary Jane Heeg,& Honhn P. Oliver


(1999)588, pp.155–159

A new synthesis of chloroheterocycles via metal-halogen exchanges betweentrichloroacetly derivatives andheteroaromatic lithium andGrignard reagents

Carl Boga, Erminia DelVecchio, Luciano Forlani,Lilia Milanesi, & PaoloEdgardo Todesco


(2003) 665(1 and 2),pp. 23–28

1-Ferrocenylcyclopropene and1-ferrocenylcyclopropyl cation

Tatiana Klimova, Elena I.Klimova, Marcos MartinezGarcia, Cecilio AlvarezToledano, Ruben AlfredoToscano

(continued on next page)







(2005)690, pp.6263–6270

Polymerization of MMA byoscillating zirconocenecatalysts, diastereomeric

zirconocene mixtures, anddiastereospecific metallocenepairs

Yalan Ning, Megan J.Cooney, & Eugene Y.-X.Chen


(2007)692, pp.3614–3618

Lanthanum trichloride: Anefficient catalyst for thesilylation of hydroxyl groupsby activatinghexamethyldisilazane(HMDS)

Akkirala Venkat Narsaiah


(2007) 69(3), pp.1159–1165

Structure and bonding of MCB5H7 and its sandwicheddimer CB5H6M–MCB5H6

(M = Si, Ge, Sn): Isomerstability and preference forslip distorted structure

Priyadarshi Satpati

14. Chemistry Journal of OrganicChemistry

(1999) 64(2), pp.427–431

a –C–H Bond dissociationenergies of some tertiaryamines

G. W. Dombrowski, J. P.Dinnocenzo, S. Fardi, J. L.Goodman & I. R Gould


(1999) 64(26), pp.9374–9380

Palladium-catalyzedasymmetric allylic substitutionreactions using new chiralphosphinite–oxazoline ligandsderived from D-gloucosamine

Kji Yonehara, TomohiroHashizume, Kenji Mori,Kouichi Ohe & SakaeUemura


(2003) 68(1), pp.11–14

Borane-mediated aldolcycloreduction of monoenonemonoketones:Diastereoselective formationof quaternary centers

Ryan R. Huddleston, DavidF. Cauble, & Michael J.Krische


(2004) 69,pp. 12–17

Assessing the substrateselectivities andenantioselectivities of eightnovel Baeyer-Villigermonooxygenases towardalkyl-substitutedcyclohexanones

Brian G. Kyte, PierreRouviere Qiong Cheng, & JonD. Stewar


(2005) 70,pp. 39–46

Induced circular dichroismand structural assignment of the cyclodextrin inclusioncomplexes of bicyclicazoalkanes

Huseyin Bakirci, XiangyangZhang, & Werner M. Nau


(2006) 71,pp. 38–45

Artificial receptors thatprovides a preorganizedhydrophobic environment: Abiomimetic approach todopamine recognition in water

Jeongryul Kim, BalamuraliRaman, & Kyo Han Ahn







(2008) 73,pp. 2–11

Stereoselective Total Synthesisof Bioactive Styryllactones(+)-Goniofufurone, (+)7-epi -

Goniofufurone, (+)-Goniopypyrone, (+)-Goniotriol, (+)-Altholactone,and (-)-Etharvensin

Kavirayani R. Prasad andShivajirao L. Gholap

Appendix C

See Figs. A1 and A2.

Fig. A1. Sociology corpus, Text 18 (Gorman-Smith & Loeber, 2005, p. 21).




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