bsc (honours) events and leisure...

BSc (Hons) Events and Leisure Management Successful factors of Mega event “Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup” Tsang Ka Yu (91206566)

Sheffield Business School

BSc (Honours) Events and Leisure

Management

Title Successful factors of Mega event - Case studies of the Korea /

Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup

Name TSANG Ka Yu

Student No 91206566

Month Year April 2011


Sheffield Hallam University

Sheffield Business School

Title Successful factors of Mega event

“Case studies of the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and

Germany 2006 World Cup”

FULL NAME TSANG Ka Yu

STUDENT No 91206566

Supervisor: Prof. Ray Pine

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in

Events and Leisure Management.

Month Year April 2011


i

Abstract

This dissertation is named Successful factors of Mega event - “Case studies of the

Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup”. It is undertaken to

research the mega event and focus on the successful factors. Moreover, the case

studies of Korea / Japan 2002 and Germany 2006 Football World Cup are included.

The Olympics Games, World’s Fair and Football World Cup are the famous and

well-known mega-event and many of the supporters interested in these mega events.

What are their attractions? How to organize the mega events successfully? Lack of the

research was achieved when applied the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany

2006 World Cup to be examples.


ii

The relevant literature which is concerning the mega event, event management and

series of journals, reports articles, and statistics has been researched to support the

dissertation and apply the content analysis to research the standpoint and orientation.

To cover the gaps of secondary data, the case studies, Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup

and Germany 2006 World Cup would be focused on.

The majority of the scholars provide the positive and supportive attitude on mega

event, especially the Football World Cup. The successful factors such as cultural,

economic and social are included.

A content analysis, backed by the two case studies, shows that the Football World Cup

is the most popular and attractive mega event.

Keywords

Mega event, World Cup, successful factors


iii

Acknowledgements

When I am finishing the final part of this dissertation, it is hard to believe that it is

almost finished. This dissertation is contributed by many of the professor, classmates

and friends. The most of importance is to express sincere gratitude to Professor Ray

Pine for his guidance and suggestion. In addition, I would like to thank Dr Kevin

Nield, my friend Judith Kwok, Kily Mok and Kathy Leung for their assistance. I

would especially thankful to my parent for her personal support and understanding.

29th of March 2011


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Content

Abstract……………………………..………………………………………………i - ii

Acknowledgements……………………………..……………………………………iii

Content…………………………….……………………………………………. iv - vii

Lists of Figures……………………………….…………………………………..…viii

Lists of Tables……………………………...…………………………………..……viii

Lists of Charts……………………………...………………………………………..viii

Lists of Abbreviations……………………………...…………………………………ix

1. Introduction…………………...…...…...………………………………………1 - 3

1.1 Background…………………………...…………………………………..1 - 2

1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………..…...2

1.3 Structure………………………...……………………………………………3

2. Instrumental Literature Review…………………………...………………...4 - 17

2.1 The classification of event………………………...……………………...4 - 8

2.2 The definition of mega-events and examples…………………...………9 - 10

2.3 Successful factors or benefits of the mega-events……………………..10 - 17

2.3.1 Olympic Games…………………...……………………………11 - 12


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2.3.2 World's Fair…………………………...………………………...13 - 14

2.3.3 Football World Cup………………………...………………...…14 - 17

2.4 Summary………………………...………………………………………….17

3. Method of Investigation…………………………...………………………...18 - 24

3.1 Choice of Methodology………………………...……………………...18 - 19

3.2 Coding definition……………………...…………………………………….20

3.3 Data Collection………………………...……………………………………21

3.4 Reliability and validity of data………………..……….……………….22 - 24

3.4.1 Reliability…………………...……………………………………….22

3.4.2 Validity…………………...………………………………………….23

3.5 Limitation………………………...…………………………………………24

3.6 Summary………………………...………………………………………….24

4. Findings and Analysis………………………...……………………......……25 - 40

4.1 Availability of the Mega-events section data………………………......25 - 27

4.1.1 Themes of mega-events……………………...………………………25

4.1.2 Pages of data……………………...…………………………………26

4.1.3 Standpoint of data…………………………………………………...27


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4.2 Discussion………………………...………………………………………...27

4.2.1 Discussion about the themes of mega-events…………………...…...28

4.2.2 Discussion about the pages of data…………………...…...……28 - 29

4.2.3 Discussion about the standpoint of data…………………...………...30

4.3 Football World Cup case studies……………………...………………..30 - 39

4.3.1 Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup……………………...………….31 - 35

4.3.1.1 Cultural successful factors……………...……………….31 - 32

4.3.1.2 Economic successful factors………………………….…32 - 33

4.3.1.3 Social successful factors…………………………...……34 - 35

4.3.1.4 Summary………………...………………………………...…35

4.3.2 Germany 2006 World Cup…………………...…………………36 - 40

4.3.2.1 Philosophy……………...…………………………………….36

4.3.2.2 Implementation………...……………………………………..37

4.3.2.3 Ticketing………………...……………………………………38

4.3.2.4 Budget controlling……………...……………………………39

4.3.3 Summary……………………...……………………………………..40


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5. Conclusion and Recommendations………..……………………….………41 - 44

5.1 Conclusion……………………...……………………………...….…...41 - 42

5.2 Recommendations……………………...………………………………43 - 44

5.2.1 Extend the technological justice……………………………………..43

5.2.2 Concern about the players’ health and safety…………………..........44

6. Reference……………..…………...………………………………………….45 - 54

7. Appendix……………………………...…………………………………………...55

Appendix A. World Cup Semi Finalists 1990-2006…………………………….55


viii

Lists of Figures

Figure 1: The Categorization of events………………………………………………..8

Figure 2: Ticketing business model Germany 2006………………………………….38

Lists of Tables

Table 1: The event genre of event management……………………………………4 - 6

Table 2: The successful factors of 1994, 1998, 2002 Football World Cup……...15 - 16

Table 3: The data theme(s) of mega-events…………………………………………..25

Table 4: The pages of mega-events data statistical analysis………………………….26

Table 5: Overall standpoint…………………………………………………………..27

Table 6: Annual consumer spending growth within World Cup semi-finalists………33

Lists of Charts

Chart 1 The page(s) of data…………………………………………………………..26

Chart 2: Total budgeted expenditure of the FIFA 2006 World Cup………………….39


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Lists of Abbreviations

ATP Association of Tennis Professionals

EXPO Exposition

FDI Foreign Direct Investment

FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association

IOC International Olympic Committee

MAD Mean Absolute Deviation

OG Olympic Games

OHC Olympic Hosting Cities

PMIS Project Management Information Systems


1

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Nowadays, events are divided the different categories. Bowlin, McDonnell, Allen and

O’Toole (2001) identified four categories of event: mega-events, hallmark events,

major events and local events. In this identification, the mega-event is the event that

the most popular and involved many aspects of stakeholder, especially the huge

amount involvement of the hosting city and the visitors or tourists who come from

different countries. Getz (1991) also added the “yield extraordinarily high levels of

tourism, media coverage, prestige, or economic impact for the host community or

destination” for the mega-event. Getz also specified such events can attract more than

one million person-time participation and at least five hundred million US dollars, the

quality reputations contribute the event within “must-see” factor.

Some of the mega events are summarized by the scholar. According to the Horne and

Manzenreiter (2006), they pointed out the Summer Olympic Games and the FIFA

Association Football World Cup are the typical examples in mega-event. Also, Roche

(2000) replenished the Olympics and Expos are the other powerful and representative

examples in mega-event aspect.


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Football is one of the most popular team sports in the world (Dunning, Maguire and

Pearton, 1993, P.129; Dunning, 1999, P.103) and it is “The contemporary history of

the world's favorite game spans more than 100 years” (FIFA Official, 1994). The

modern Football World Cup also involves “the importance of sound economic

decision marketing and planning” (Bohlmann, 2006, P.3). For example the different

forms of broadcasting and global media explosion are the notable growth of

mega-event in economic aspect since 1980s. It is valuable occasions and opportunities

that analyze the mega-event, especially focus on the Football World Cup how and

why so successful.

1.2 Objectives

For those reasons, the context to analyze the mega-event, especially try to understand:

A. The different definitions of mega-events and examples

B. The main successful factors or benefits of the mega-events

C. The challenges of mega-events in the future


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1.3 Structure

This study is separated for the following six parts:

Chapter 1 Introduction: the motivation and purposes of study

Chapter 2 Literature Review: Gain the good knowledge of the mega-events

and know the facts, the eminent scholars and the theories and ideas,

it is important that know what the former eminent scholars did.

Chapter 3 Methodology: Collect the former and relevant research to accumulate

their experience, such as the Football World Cup relevant information,

like journals, statistics and reports.

Chapter 4 Findings and analysis: The successful factors or benefits of the

Football World Cup and the challenge of the future Football World Cup.

Chapter 5 Suggestions and conclusion: Apply some useful ideas or methods

where the other mega-events’ but modified to suit for Football World

Cup.


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2. Instrumental Literature Review

2.1 The classification of event

There are different concepts of event when it is needed to classify most of the event.

Torkildsen, who stated that “The range of events is so wide that there is no one

definition which encompasses all.” (Torkildsen, 2005, P. 467)

One of the common categories of event is based on their purpose and objective.

Table 1: The event genre of event management

(Source: Berridge G., 2009, p.12 - 13)

Business and corporate events Any event that supports business

objectives, including management

function, corporate communication,

training, marketing, incentives,

employee relations and customer

relations, scheduled alone or in

conjunction with other events.

Exhibitions, expositions and fairs An event created by or for a chartable or

cause-related group for the purpose of

attracting revenue, support and

awareness, scheduled alone or in


Cause-related and fund-raising events An event bring buyers and sellers and

interested persons together to view and

sell products, services and other

resources to a specific industry or the

general public, scheduled alone or in



5

Entertainment and leisure events A one-time or periodic, free or ticketed

performance or exhibition event created

for entertainment purpose, scheduled

alone or in conjunction with other

events.

Festivals A cultural celebration, either secular or

religious, created by and for the public,

scheduled alone or in conjunction with

other events. (Many festivals include

bringing buyer and seller together in a

festivals atmosphere.)

Government and civic events An event comprised of or created by or

for political parties, communities, or

municipal or national government

entities, scheduled alone or in

conjunction with other events,

Hallmark events An event of such significance and scope

that its image or stature assures national

and international recognition and

interest.

Marketing events A commerce- oriented event to facilitate

bringing buyer and seller together or to

create awareness of a commercial

product or service, scheduled alone or in


Meeting and convention events The assembly of people for the purpose

of exchanging information, debate or

discussion, consensus or decisions,

education, and relationship building,

scheduled alone or in conjunction with

other events.


6

Social / life-cycle events A private event, by invitation only,

celebrating or commemorating a

cultural, religious, communal, societal

or life-cycle occasion, scheduled alone

or in conjunction with other events.

Sport events A spectator or participatory event

involving recreational or competitive

sport activities, scheduled alone or in


Besides this kind of classification, the other one is based on their scale. This kind of

sorting of event may relatively popular and generally apply on the different aspects.

Also, many of the scholars (Getz, 1991; Hall, 1992; Bowdin, McDonnell, Allen and

O’Toole, 2001; Roche, 2002; Torkildsen, 2005) are agree on this classification.

a) Mega-events

b) Hallmark events

c) Major or regional events

d) Local events

One of the separating ideas is that focuses on the impact of tourist, demand and value

and the different target market. For instance, the mega-events, such as the Summer

and Winter Olympics, Paralympics, Football World Cup and World’s fair (EXPO) are

perform the large among of the tourism and also promote and raise the image and

profile for the hosting city and country. It is not same as the hallmark events. The


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hallmark events are defined by Ritchie (1984) as “Major one-time or recurring events

of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance awareness, appeal and

profitability of a tourism destination in the short term and / or long term.”

Ritchie (1984) also further explained that the hallmark events rely for their success on

uniqueness, status or timely significance to create interest and attract attention. About

this point, Allen et al. (2002) added some examples on the hallmark events - The

Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, the Kentucky Derby in the USA, the Chelsea Flower Show

in England and the Edinburgh Festival in Scotland.

Some of the researchers claimed that “it is quite hard to distinguish a difference

between a hallmark and a mega-event” (Kok, 2003). It is relatively agreeableness on

the type or style, but it can be found some difference on them.


8

The figure 1 pointed out the difference of the four types of event – the scale of

impacts such as the attendance, media profile, infrastructure, costs and benefits of

mega-event, hallmark event, major event and local event. According to figure 1, the

mega-events’ scale of impact are larger and huger than the hallmark event.

Figure 1: The Categorization of events

(Source: Kok, 2003, P.16)


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2.2 The definition of mega-events and examples

Some of the mega-events are acknowledged by the public and the eminent scholars.

For example, Hall (1992) stated that the mega-events are “mega” because of their

size – attendance, public involvement, political effects, television coverage,

construction of facilities and social and economic impact. Then, the definition of

mega-event which defined such sporting events are part of the wider and growing

analysis of major events within diverse fields of urban regeneration, economic

development, politics and tourism which are agreed by the scholars. (Getz, 1997;

Baum and Lockstone, 2007, P. 29)

Also, the Olympic Games and the World Fair should be included. Chen and Spaans

(2009, P.99) stated that the mega-events are included the Olympics or World Fair

because of large-scale and intended to encourage and stimulate the local and regional

economic development by attracting investment, tourism and media attention.


10

Moreover, the football World Cup is another main item in mega-events. Fédération

Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was been grown since 1904 and

recently organized total 208 member Associations in the world. Many of the scholars

researched this mega-sporting event and proven it is one of the attractive and popular

mega-event. (HEYNE, MAENNIG and SÜSSMUTH, 2007, P. 2; Matheson and

Baade, 2003, P. 1; Fourie and Santana-gallego, 2010, P. 1; Baum and Lockstone, 2007,

P. 29).

2.3 Successful factors or benefits of the mega-events

2.3.1 Olympic Games

As the Modern Olympics Games started in 1896, so the latest one – Beijing Olympics

is the 29th Olympics Games and one of the successful Olympics Games in the history

(CCSE, 2009, P. 89). Different scholars pointed out their opinions to support why

many of the Olympics Games is one of the biggest and successful mega-events.

Haynes (2001, P. 3 - 10) concluded that the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games successful

factors. “The factors contributed to making the Sydney Olympic Games a success,

including the volunteers. Sydney’s 47,000 volunteers presented a cheerful face of the


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Olympics, the enthusiasm of the volunteers was a huge hit with all. The volunteers

were held in such high regard that 100,000 people turned up for a ticker-tape parade

for the volunteers after the Games.” Haynes also pointed out that the sporting

infrastructure and facilities such as smooth running public transport are the success

factors in 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.

The 2004 Athens Olympic Games was showed the high sensibility on the operating

preparation. Migdalovitz (2004, P. 1 - 6) provided the opinion that at that time, the

possible terrorist threats may be attacked by Al Qaeda or its allies in Europe and

elsewhere heightened the government’s awareness of the potential for terrorism at the

Olympics. The Greene government and International Olympic Committee (IOC) was

planned the unprecedented security measures to deal with possible terrorist threats.

Raymond and Bergeron (2007, P. 2 - 7) claimed that Olympics Games applied the

Project Management Information Systems (PMIS) on it. PMIS usually provide

managers with the decision-making support needed in planning, organizing, and

controlling projects. Also, these kinds of system can provide the advantages that not

limited to individual performance but also include project performance. These


12

systems were found to have direct impacts on project success, as they contribute to

improving budget control and meeting project deadlines as well as fulfilling technical

specifications. In 2004 Athens Olympic Games, they applied this system on the

mega-sporting event.

In 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the different successful factors are carried out. Bu

(2009, P. 84 - 89) said that the successful factors are mainly come from the marketing

because set up the image and status of a country internationally and also a process of

displaying the national brand. Moreover, Bu contributed that the opinions which is the

success or failure of an Olympics does not depend on its temporary gain or loss, but

on the long-term development of the host city. It is because Beijing Olympics is the

first Olympics held by developing countries.


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2.3.2 World's Fair

The World’s fair originated from the French tradition of national exhibitions in 1844

held in Paris. In 1851, the real and international exhibition held in United Kingdom,

London. The purposes of the World’s fair that show their result of industrialization,

such as the 1851 in London, display their technological inventions and advancements.

But somehow progressively extended and changed to achieve the purpose of cultural

exchange and improve their national images through their pavilions.

The last time World’s fair was 2010 held in China, Shanghai. According to the official

website, even the global economic is still struggling, the totally investment in 2010

Shanghai EXPO was US$45 billion, over 73 million person-time to visit the different

pavilions, it was the largest scale in the history and also be better than the 2008

Olympics Games in China. (Expo 2010 Shanghai China official website, 2010)


14

Some of the former researches provided the economic factors that the World’s fair

held in 2010. Ren, who one of believes that World’s fair, was held in 2010 because of

the commercial success. The World’s fair is a mage-event that can provide highly

profit for the hosting country. Ren also claimed that after Beijing’s successful bid,

Shanghai immediately secured the right to host the World’s fair can last the economic

becoming better in tourism and foreign direct investment (FDI). (Yin, 2007, P. 35 – 38;

Ren, 2008, P. 175 - 190)

2.3.3 Football World Cup

After the Olympics Games, the Football World Cup also is another popular

mega-event in this world. The first Football World Cup is started in 1930 and in 2008

was the 19 times of the Football World Cup.

About the successful factors or the importance of Football World Cup, Manzenreiter

and Horne (2002, P. 1 - 25) stated that it success in different aspects.


15

Table 2: The successful factors of 1994, 1998, 2002 Football World Cup

(Source: Manzenreiter and Horne, 2002, P. 1 – 25; Nufer, 1998, p. 5; HBS homepage)

Year Successful factors

1994 Broadcasting

The televised global event is repackaged in numerous versions

of ready-made and localized World Cups

Global interest

Over 3.5 million football supporters attended the US tournament

30 billion watched the games in front of TV screens

Forty multinational corporations paid US$400 million in total to

gain "official product" status and guaranteed global advertising.


16

1998 Partnership

Canon and Fuji Film each paid US$ 30 million to be FIFA’s

corporate partners with all rights to use the FIFA emblems.

(Nufer, 1998, p. 5)

Sensibility of the macro-environment

Football hooliganism, which was a major security issue in 1998

and most previous World Cups since the 1960s but the

controlling still be reasonable.

2002 New gimmick

The first time that organized in Asia

The first time that co-hosting the Football World Cup by Korea

and Japan

Economic factors

FIFA granted the worldwide broadcasting rights to a private

sport-marketing group for US$ 800 million

The cumulative audience figures might reach 41 billion. (HBS

homepage)


17

According to FIFA, 37 billion spectators were followed the World Cup Finals by

television, it is the biggest shared experience in human history and the fact that

football certainly is the “world’s game”, it refers to the FIFA's President Blatter's

mission – “Make the game better, and take it to the world.” (Manzenreiter and Horne,

2002, P. 1 – 25)

2.4 Summary

The Olympics Games, World’s fair and Football World Cup are the majority in

mega-events, especially the Football World Cup has been attracting the countless

spectators via firsthand, Internet and television.


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3. Method of Investigation

3.1 Choice of Methodology

According to the purpose of this dissertation that find out what is the successful

factors in mega-events, such as the Olympics Games, Football World Cup and

World’s fair, so the methodology would be used the secondary data collection to

analyze the mega-events. There are mainly some of the questions:

I. How much spaces or page(s) are spending on the data?

II. What is the author’s standpoint or position on the data?

As the secondary data could be randomly divided such as the referencing books,

journals, reports included the statistics, texts and photos in library and via Internet,

and this dissertation would be analyze the mega-events successful factors, so if the

content analysis are applied on this situation, it could reflect the objective and

systematic quantitative method. (Radio Television Hong Kong, 2004)


19

The importance of content analysis is to analyze the content within apply the

objective and quantifiable methods and classify the statistics. The statistics could be

the descriptive categories of explanation to show the objective, unbiased and impartial

situation. Krippendorff (2004, xviii - xvii) concluded the three advantages for this

method – the empirically grounded method, transcends traditional notions of symbols,

contents, and intents and last one is forced to develop a methodology of its own.

According to the above-mentioned questions, the content analysis could be separated

the following three types of coding:

I. Data of number, ratio and size;

II. Data of the overall standpoint


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3.2 Coding definition

About the data of the overall standpoint, it should be according to their words which

are positive, negative and neutral. The following definition would be provided:

Positive: The data show the affirmative attitude and action which is

supporting and agreeing with the mega-event’s contribution

Negative: The data reflect the mainly negative impact and the mega-events

may be harmful to the some aspects such as economic waste,

social unharmonious situation, political unstable and

the negative impact on environment.

Neutral: The data have not shown the standpoint which is positive or negative,

it has only shown the information or the objective description for the

mega-events.

Uncertainty: It cannot be identified or determined what the standpoint is.


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3.3 Data Collection

This dissertation’s data are come from the different channels. Total 165 pieces of data

which are the secondary data are collected via the academic books, journals, reports

included texts, photos and statistics and websites. All of the data are related to the

mega events, event management and tourism management. The reason of choosing

the secondary data that is increasing the accuracy of data in the basis of analysis. As

the collected data almost came from the research, academic books, journals and

reports, the reliability and importance should be raised.


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3.4 Reliability and validity of data

“Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist epistemology.” (Winter,

2000, P. 7). The data’s reliability and validity are important that to prove how the data

reliable and available.

3.4.1 Reliability

According to Kirk and Miller’s identification (1986, P. 41 - 42), three types of

reliability could be used to in quantitative research:

(1) The degree to which a measurement, given repeatedly, remains the same;

(2) The stability of a measurement over time;

(3) The similarity of measurements within a given time period

The reliability can be divided by the Test-Retest Reliability, Alternative Forms

Reliability and Inter-Rater Reliability. (Friel, 2004, P. 17 - 23). As the scale and the

possibility of time, the Test-Retest Reliability is the first priority to achieve because it

is the common format to test the reliability (Litwin, 1995, P. 5 - 30). The data was

been tested twice in the same day.


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3.4.2 Validity

Litwin (1995) defined the validity is “How well a survey measures what it sets out to

measure.” and he separated four forms of measurements - Face validity, Content

validity, Criterion validity and Construct validity. About the forms of validity

measurements, it seems like that the different scholars hold different views because

Mr. Trochim (2006, P. 2 - 4), a professor at Cornell University only classified two

main categories - Translation validity and Criterion-related validity. Actually, the

subject matters are relatively similar and resemble. In the above mentioned research,

the Face validity, which included the Translation validity and it should be progressing

in an expected way. All of the data are related to the mega-events and the majority

stated their standpoint so the research is also providing with the validity.


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3.5 Limitation

One of the major limitations is data sampling. As the mega-events are various and

multifarious, it could not be easily and suitably to find and collect the relevant

information to be the part of data. This research is only provided the 165 kind of data,

the sampling should be enlarged and enriched, the information which related to

mega-events are numerous, the research only could be possibly chosen and analyzed

the relevant data. According to the Google.com, about 2,780,000 results when key in

the “mega event”, it could be proved that many of the data should be included

(google.com, 2011). Also, the information which related to mega-events are numerous,

the research only could possibly choose and analyze the relevant data.

3.6 Summary

The content and textual analysis was been chosen and implemented to find out the

mega-events, especially focusing on the Football World Cup. At the same time, the

data’s reliability and validity should be equipped.


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4. Findings and Analysis

4.1 Availability of the Mega-events section data

4.1.1 Themes of mega-events

The table 3 showed that the number of data which are belonged to what kind of

mega-events and their proportion. In total 165 kinds of data, the Football World Cup

(37%) and the multiple examples of mega-events (30%) are the majority.

Table 3: The data theme(s) of mega-events

Mega-event item(s) Quantity Percentage (%)

Football World Cup 61 37

Olympics Games 34 21

World’s Fair 11 7

Others 9 5

Multiple examples of mega-events 50 30

Total 165 100


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4.1.2 Pages of data

The chart 1 reflected that the pages of the 165 kind of data. According to the data

pages, it can realize that how much space the authors should use to discuss the

mega-events. Chart 1 indicated that the data generally about below 30 pages to

express their opinion. Also, 10% of the data may more than 50 pages, it is a special

and notable point in Chart 1.

Chart 1: The page(s) of data

Chart 1: The page(s) of data

8%

4%10%

27% 29%

22% 1 to 10

11 to 20

21 to 30

31 to 40

41 to 50

51 or above

Table 4: The pages of mega-events data statistical analysis

Mode Median Average Standard Deviation Mean Absolute Deviation

10 18 31.44848 56.63268535 25.79386593


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4.1.3 Standpoint of data

Table 4 is the standpoint from the data. More than 65% the standpoint of the data

provide the positive viewpoint or attitude to discuss the mega-events.

Table 5: Overall standpoint

Standpoint Quantity Percentage (%)

Positive 111 67

Negative 23 14

Neutral 20 12

Uncertainty 11 7

Total 165 100

4.2 Discussion

After the decoding of the data, some of the clues should be reflected that based on the

data. The objective statistics could show the phenomenon and fact to realize the

actuality.


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4.2.1 Discussion about the themes of mega-events

According to the Table 3, in 165 kinds of data, the Football World Cup is the most

popular, the total number is 61, and it occupied the 37% of the overall data. The

second popular theme is the multiple mega-events examples in one data, which means

the data made use of the Olympics, World’s Fair, Football World Cup or the other

mega-events in their article. So this part of analyses could show that the Football

World Cup is the most popular mega-event that whatever the spectators, public or

scholars have been concerning this mega-event continuously.

4.2.2 Discussion about the pages of data

The pages of the data could reflect the mega-event importance in the authors’ mind

and article. Although the data size and quantity are huge so it could not easily analyze

all of it, it could find some ways to make it be quantifiable. Count the pages of the

data are one of the useful and relatively simple ways to analyze and realize how the

authors descript and provide the opinions about the mega-events. (Audience Dialogue,

2005, chapter 16)


29

Some of the statistical analysis were been chosen. For instance, Mode, Median,

Average, Standard Deviation and Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) are the most

common way to analyze how reliable of the data. In general, the data of average could

reflect the data reliability because the objective tendency could be showed on this

statistical analysis. In this analysis, the 165 data’s average pages are the nearly 31

pages. However, some of the data would be come from the academic or referencing

books, so the data might be deviant (Hardy et. al, 1998). In order to improve the

reliability of data, the Standard Deviation and Mean Absolute Deviation could be

useful. First, Porter (1986) claimed that the Mean Deviation and its close relative the

variance are “an apparently impeccable mathematical pedigree, is socially constructed

and a product of history”, included the Mean Absolute Deviation. Second, Gorard

(2003, P. 12) described that “This is able to create from this a simpler introductory

kind of statistics that is perfectly useable for many research purposes, and that will be

far less intimidating for new researchers to learn.” As the Mean Absolute Deviation

(≈26) is lower than the average (≈31), so the data are the expected result on the

research. At the same time, the Standard Deviation are nearly 57, it means the data are

relatively dispersed.


30

4.2.3 Discussion about the standpoint of data

Stemler (2001) replenished that the content analysis could be a powerful tool for

determining authorship, included the authorities’ attitude and standpoint. However,

some of the authors could express their opinions circuitous, indirectly and tactfully, so

it should be according to their overall attitude rather than their simply words. In 165

kinds of data, 67% showed their overall viewpoint is positive, it is the majority of the

standpoint analysis that the authors might agree on the mega-event overall reasonable

performance.

4.3 Football World Cup cases study

Besides the analysis of the 165 kinds of data, the cases study approach would be

applied in this research. As effectively as to realize the mega-events, the Football

World Cup would be chosen to analyze the successful factors. The last three years of

the tournaments are focused on because they are representational, specific and also

relatively easy access.


31

4.3.1 Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup

In this year World Cup, this is a special World Cup that it could show the different

successful factors such as cultural, economic and social aspects.

4.3.1.1 Cultural successful factors

This is the first time that the Football World Cup co-hosted by two countries and also

anti-traditionally and innovatively organized in Asia (Horne and Manzenreiter, 2002,

P.1 - 25). It improves and builds the countries relationships, especially transcend the

historical painful memories of the past while the World War II from 1939 to 1945.

Another important signals that it symbolizes that not only about the Korea and Japan,

but also about the Asia. The World Cup was showing the love, the ability to organize

the mega-event and showing the representational and significant roles for all of the

people (Lee, 2002, P.66 – 69).


32

The other cultural factor is an example of globalization. Football is on the way to

becoming a truly global sport. The Asia team, the Republic of Korea surprised

performance during the 2002 World Cup and defeat some of Europe’s strongest

national teams, including Portugal, Italy and Spain. The Africa representative,

Senegal’s opening match victory over world champions France that show their

mysterious performance. In this year of World Cup, the Asia and Africa teams showed

their tough and willpower in the competition so they got the reasonable performance

finally. Undoubtedly, the global consciousness and the one interconnected world

could be catalyzed by the World Cup (Tiplady, 2003, P.1 -10).

4.3.1.2 Economic successful factors

The World Cup could bring the profitable revenue for the hosting generally. The

official funding arrangement, the revenue from tourism, different kinds of

broadcasting and sponsors might be contributed to the hosting country (Horne and

Manzenreiter, 2002, P.1 - 25). One of the researches is difference of the average

annual consumer spending growth in the Pre-World Cup and Post-World Cup period.


33

Table 6: Annual consumer spending growth within World Cup semi-finalists

(Source: Datastream)

Table 6 showed the economic difference of the before and after the World Cup in

previous years. The result reflected that whatever in Pre-World Cup and Post-World

Cup period, the consumer spending growth is stably increased. One of the interesting

in this research that it was not only benefited for the hosting countries, but also

favored the World Cup semi-finalists. (Appendix A)

Annual consumer spending growth

Year Pre-World Cup Post-World Cup

1990 1.9% 1.9%

1994 8.6% 10.7%

1998 3.7% 5.4%

2002 5.4% 6.4%

2006 1.6% 2.0%

Average 4.2% 5.3%


34

4.3.1.3 Social successful factors

The traffic management is important for the mega-events that control the crowd and

flow. Professor Chang, who is the Department of Transportation Systems Engineering

in Hanyang University, the research team analyzes the World Cup period of the traffic

management. They focused on the transportation capacity, waiting room capacity, the

operating speed of the entry/exit guarding gate and escalator capacity to prepare 3

steps control plan for preventing accidents. As the result, they claimed that even the

semi-final game between Korea and Germany was successfully held without a single

accident among 100,000 gathered together (Chang et al., 2003, P.1011 - 1024).

The other social successful factor that showed their capable of social cohesion. Kim

and Petrick (2003, P. 25 - 38) research the social impacts of the World Cup. They

focused on the five main dimensions:

“Tourism resource development and urban revitalization”

“Image enhancement and consolidation”

“Economic benefits”

“Interest in foreign countries or their cultures”

“Tourism infrastructure development”


35

The result of the research showed the“Image enhancement and consolidation” is the

most important issue that residents most likely to consider and the second one is the

“Tourism infrastructure development”. The research team concluded that the social

image and the infrastructure are the most residents concerned about it, included the

social cohesion and perceptions, it could be realized that the civic responsibility and

social cohesion could be raised via the long-term education (Kim and Petrick, 2003, P.

25 - 38).

4.3.1.4 Summary

The Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup was a revolutionary and special World Cup,

especially the arranged in Asia and co-hosted by South Korea and Japan.


36

4.3.2 Germany 2006 World Cup

The president of the FIFA, Joseph Blatter, summed up the World Cup with the

following statement. “This was the best World Cup of all time. Never before has an

event been presented in such an emotional and global manner” (Eberl, 2007).

Germany 2006 World Cup’s successful factors should be divided by marketing and

economic and technological three main aspects.

4.3.2.1 Philosophy

The Germany 2006 World Cup was been defined three main elements - Cosmopolitan,

Friendly, Casual and Cheerful and the motto is “A time to make friends”. It could

imagine that they hosted the World Cup not only focus on the sporting mega-event,

but also treat it sort of a make friends event and a cultural exchange event. To achieve

the above mentioned, the series of famous cities such as Berlin, Hamburg, Hannover,

Nürnberg and Frankfurt were extended their image that not only the sports, but also

included tourism, culture, history and business (Buchholz and Klingel, 2009). For

example, more than 15,000 media representatives, 33 billion TV audience and cover

in 215 countries that the transparent mega-event for all of the people.


37

4.3.2.2 Implementation

To definitely implement the motto - “A time to make friends”, the relevant

stakeholders built the “Fan Fest Hotspots”, the peripheral events such as exhibitions,

“Closed-Shop”, “Arts- and culture programmes”, “Streesoccer (street football world)”

and enlarged the central transportation infrastructure. Besides, Germany trained over

100,000 “Service ambassadors” in five months and it worked, who making Germany

being warm and welcoming place for visitors - 90% of people who visited Germany

brand advocates (Eberl, 2007). Those of decisions purposed to attract the visitors and

provide the opportunities of consumption, enjoyment and excitement. The Germany

Federal Government also described “The huge artistic and cultural programme which

made an impressive and valuable contribution towards the success of the 2006 World

Cup” (The Germany Federal Government, 2006).


38

4.3.2.3 Ticketing

Ticketing is one of the important revenue in event. In Germany 2006 World Cup, the

tickets separated the different distribution channels such as the sponsors, FIFA family,

the other teams and also the spectators. This approach could be promised that the

various participants and visitors could enjoy the tournaments (Cherubini, Iasevoli and

Lauretta, 2007, P. 24).

Figure 2: Ticketing business model Germany 2006

(Source: Cherubini, Iasevoli and Lauretta, 2007, P. 24)


39

4.3.2.4 Budget controlling

Besides the excellent periphery events and infrastructure to attract visitors to

participate the World Cup, the well budget controlling also could benefit the economic.

The Chart 2 reflected that the expenditures were focused on the organization costs,

stadiums, personnel, media and budget reserve. It showed the budget planning and

management were well-prepared.

Chart 1: Total budgeted expenditure of the FIFA 2006 World Cup

(Source: The Germany Federal Government, 2007, P. 21)


40

4.3.3 Summary

As the Mr. Joseph Blatter said that the Germany 2006 World Cup is one of the best

World Cup because of their branding management. Eberl explained that the 2006

World Cup was such an overwhelming success that Germany holds the second most

valuable country brand in the Nation Brand Index (NBI), the tourism bookings have

increased 33% nearly, the unemployment has dropped by more than 20% and the

investor are confident that it is the best time to extend their business (Eberl, 2007).

The cultural, economic and social factors guide the Football World Cup to be the most

popular and attractive mega event.


41

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

This research mainly focused on the successful factors of the mega event, especially

using the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup and Germany 2006 World Cup to be the case

studies’ target.

According to this research, many of the evidences prove that Football World Cup is

the most popular and attractive mega event undoubtedly. At the beginning the

research was focused on “Event” because of wide range and various definitions. The

most of the acknowledged and agreeable classification would be applied and

implemented on this research - mega-events, hallmark events, major or regional

events and local events.

After established the consistent standard of the objective, the literatures would be

reviewed and cited that the characteristics of the mega events. Then, the content

analysis would be applied that decoding the data such as the pages and standpoints

which the topic related to the mega events. It could reflect that the scholars held the

positive attitude numerously.


42

To replenish and ensure the research’s reliability, the Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup

and Germany 2006 World Cup case studies would be applied. The successful factors

of Korea / Japan 2002 World Cup were mainly focusing on the cultural, economic and

social factors. Moreover, the Germany 2006 World Cup was a representative mega

event that within the meaningful and impressive peripheral event. For instance, the

philosophy, motto and the implementation provided the successful and striking

performance. Also, the financial and budget controlling within the high transparency

were the good reflection to prove the mega event successfully.

According to the above mentioned, the Football World Cup has been occupying a

decisive position in the world. It also reflected that the reason why the billions of

supporter focus on this mega event loyally and devotedly.


43

5.2 Recommendations

As the Football World Cup is the most attractive mega event and the countless people

are concerning and paying close attention to this sport, some of the aspects could be

improved and make it better and better.

5.2.1 Extend the technological justice

Many of the sports are applied the technological system to assist the referees

providing the fairly judgment. For example, the tennis series competition, included

the four Grand Slam and Association of Tennis Professionals tour (ATP) are using the

“Hawk-Eye System” to provide the accurate decision on the competition (Hawk-eye

Innovations Ltd, 2007). The National Basketball Association (NBA) also implements

the technology which immediate play back the video for the referees’ assistance. For

this reason and reference, the Football World Cup should consider expand the

technological elements that provide the objective justice. The above mentioned

technology could be contemplated.


44

5.2.2 Concern about the players’ health and safety

As the FIFA hopes to encourage and promote the Football World Cup, the location

and the hosting countries are becoming special and extraordinary. For example, after

the South Africa 2010 World Cup, the following three tournaments would be decided

on 2014 in Brazil, 2018 Russia and 2022 Qatar. However, the usually competition

period would be in summer, at the same time Brazil and Qatar might reflect the high

temperature, it is a hard and arduous challenge for the players, referees and spectators.

The FIFA should communicate with the hosting countries and the relevant groups that

reinforce the awareness of the health and safety issues and make sure that the event

progress smoothly and safely.

Another concern is about the public security. As the criminal issues were happened in

South Africa 2010 World Cup period, it is necessarily to avoid the situation just like

the gruel a bad mouse droppings. Football World Cup is worth that public keep the

positive and affirmative impressions in their mind. The possible ways that mobilize

the adequate and qualified manpower and confirm the security systems are worked

and effective.


45

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7. Appendix

Appendix A. World Cup Semi Finalists 1990-2006

Year Winner Runners-Up Third Fourth

Italy 1990 West

Germany

Argentina Italy England

USA 1994 Brazil Italy Sweden Bulgaria

France 1998 France Brazil Croatia Holland

Korea / Japan 2002 Brazil Germany Turkey South Korea

Germany 2006 Italy France Germany Portugal