bud sculpture from song dynasty

8/9/2019 Bud Sculpture From Song Dynasty

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Buddhist Sculptures from the Song Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, SichuanAuthor(s): Henrik H. SrensenSource: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 55, No. 3/4 (1995), pp. 281-302Published by: Artibus Asiae PublishersStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3249752

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HENRIK H. SORENSENENRIK H. SORENSEN

BUDDHIST SCULPTURES FROM THE SONG DYNASTYAT MINGSHAN TEMPLE IN ANYUE, SICHUAN

IntroductionD A uring the past decade Sichuan province in southwestern China has become known as the home

of a vast treasure house of religious sculptures in stone. These carvings, which range in agefrom the late Nanbei Chao period to the Qing dynasty, a span covering some fourteen-hundred years,are scattered over more than one hundred sites throughout the province, with the largestconcentrationsoundin the areato the south and southwest of Chengdu,and to the east in thecounties ituatedmidwaybetween heprovincial apitalandChongqing.Thestudyof the religiouscarvings of Sichuan has provided concerned scholars worldwide with a new understanding of Chinesesculptural art and has done much to promote an appreciation for the significance of regional andprovincial tyles.Especiallyhelargenumber fhigh qualitySongdynasty culptures ndthewealthof newiconographicalypesthat haveemerged,havechallenged he commonlyheld notionof laterChineseBuddhistartasbeinginferior o thesculptures roduced nder heTangdynasty.

Alongsidethe now well-knownreligious sculptures romDazu, those of neighboringAnyuecounty stand out for their fine quality, fair state of preservation, longer time-span, and their greaterdiversity.I Hitherto the Anyue carvings, which are mainly dominated by large-scale Buddhistsculptures from the Song dynasty, have been largely ignored because of their location in theunderdeveloped and remote countryside of eastern Sichuan. However, recently a number of articles,mainly written by local Chinese scholars,have brought forth much new material and informationonthe sculpturalsites, and it is only a question of time before the Anyue carvingsbecome as famous asthose in Dazu.2

The purpose of the present study is to give a detailed description of the Buddhist stone sculpturesfound at Mingshan Temple, one of the important but little known sculptural sites in Anyue county.In the course of the presentation I shall endeavour to account for the style and iconography seen inthese sculptures, as well as showing how they fit into the local sculptural tradition. I will deal onlywith the well-preserved Song dynasty sculptural groups found on the site and shall otherwise ignorethe later images and other replicasof questionableartistic merit that can also be found there.

General information on the sculptures of Anyue county can be found in the local gazetteers, Anyuexianzhi, I836; 1897 (in sixteenjuan),andAnyuexianxuzhi, 897 (in fourJuan).Forsurveysof, and studieson, the Anyue carvings, eeWangiaoyou,eeWangiaoyou, "Anyueshiku caoxiang (The Images in the Stone Caves of Anyue)," Dunhuangyanjiu I989.I, 45-53; Wang Yizhu, Zhongguoojiao yu Anyueshiku yishu (Chinese Buddhism and the Art of the Anyue Stone Carvings) (Beijing: Zhongguo liiyou chubanshe, 1989 [revisededition, 991i]);and Yun Anzhi, "Anyue shiku si diao cha jiyao (Essential Record of Investigating the Carvings in the Stone CaveTemples of Anyue)," Kaoguyu wenwuI986.6, 45-52. See also Henrik H. Sorensen, A Surveyof theReligiousSculptures f Anyue, EastAsian Institute Occasional apers3(1989);and Angela F. Howard, "Tang Buddhist Sculpture of Sichuan: Unknown and Forgotten,"Bulletin of the MuseumofFar EasternAntiquities,60 (I988), I-I64. In addition, several of the individual sculptural sites have beenthe subject of reports, most of which have been published in Sichuanwenwzu.So far the best general studies on the Dazu carvings are, Dazu shikeyanjiu (hereafter DSY) (Studies on the Dazu Stone Carvings),compiled and edited by Liu Zhangjiu, Hu Wenhe, and LiYongqiao (Chengdu: Sichuan sheng shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, I985);and Li Fanglang, Dazu shikuyishu(The Art of the Dazu Stone Caves)(Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, I990).

BUDDHIST SCULPTURES FROM THE SONG DYNASTYAT MINGSHAN TEMPLE IN ANYUE, SICHUAN

IntroductionD A uring the past decade Sichuan province in southwestern China has become known as the home

of a vast treasure house of religious sculptures in stone. These carvings, which range in agefrom the late Nanbei Chao period to the Qing dynasty, a span covering some fourteen-hundred years,are scattered over more than one hundred sites throughout the province, with the largestconcentrationsoundin the areato the south and southwest of Chengdu,and to the east in thecounties ituatedmidwaybetween heprovincial apitalandChongqing.Thestudyof the religiouscarvings of Sichuan has provided concerned scholars worldwide with a new understanding of Chinesesculptural art and has done much to promote an appreciation for the significance of regional andprovincial tyles.Especiallyhelargenumber fhigh qualitySongdynasty culptures ndthewealthof newiconographicalypesthat haveemerged,havechallenged he commonlyheld notionof laterChineseBuddhistartasbeinginferior o thesculptures roduced nder heTangdynasty.

Alongsidethe now well-knownreligious sculptures romDazu, those of neighboringAnyuecounty stand out for their fine quality, fair state of preservation, longer time-span, and their greaterdiversity.I Hitherto the Anyue carvings, which are mainly dominated by large-scale Buddhistsculptures from the Song dynasty, have been largely ignored because of their location in theunderdeveloped and remote countryside of eastern Sichuan. However, recently a number of articles,mainly written by local Chinese scholars,have brought forth much new material and informationonthe sculpturalsites, and it is only a question of time before the Anyue carvingsbecome as famous asthose in Dazu.2

The purpose of the present study is to give a detailed description of the Buddhist stone sculpturesfound at Mingshan Temple, one of the important but little known sculptural sites in Anyue county.In the course of the presentation I shall endeavour to account for the style and iconography seen inthese sculptures, as well as showing how they fit into the local sculptural tradition. I will deal onlywith the well-preserved Song dynasty sculptural groups found on the site and shall otherwise ignorethe later images and other replicasof questionableartistic merit that can also be found there.

General information on the sculptures of Anyue county can be found in the local gazetteers, Anyuexianzhi, I836; 1897 (in sixteenjuan),andAnyuexianxuzhi, 897 (in fourJuan).Forsurveysof, and studieson, the Anyue carvings, eeWangiaoyou,eeWangiaoyou, "Anyueshiku caoxiang (The Images in the Stone Caves of Anyue)," Dunhuangyanjiu I989.I, 45-53; Wang Yizhu, Zhongguoojiao yu Anyueshiku yishu (Chinese Buddhism and the Art of the Anyue Stone Carvings) (Beijing: Zhongguo liiyou chubanshe, 1989 [revisededition, 991i]);and Yun Anzhi, "Anyue shiku si diao cha jiyao (Essential Record of Investigating the Carvings in the Stone CaveTemples of Anyue)," Kaoguyu wenwuI986.6, 45-52. See also Henrik H. Sorensen, A Surveyof theReligiousSculptures f Anyue, EastAsian Institute Occasional apers3(1989);and Angela F. Howard, "Tang Buddhist Sculpture of Sichuan: Unknown and Forgotten,"Bulletin of the MuseumofFar EasternAntiquities,60 (I988), I-I64. In addition, several of the individual sculptural sites have beenthe subject of reports, most of which have been published in Sichuanwenwzu.So far the best general studies on the Dazu carvings are, Dazu shikeyanjiu (hereafter DSY) (Studies on the Dazu Stone Carvings),compiled and edited by Liu Zhangjiu, Hu Wenhe, and LiYongqiao (Chengdu: Sichuan sheng shehui kexueyuan chubanshe, I985);and Li Fanglang, Dazu shikuyishu(The Art of the Dazu Stone Caves)(Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, I990).

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I. On the Location and History of Mingshan Temple. On the Location and History of Mingshan TempleMingshan Temple is situated in the remote, eastern-most part of Anyue county, on the summit ofMount Hutou overlooking the deep valleys of the surrounding countryside. This sanctuary, alsoknown as "Hutou Temple" after the mountain on which it is situated, is located some sixtykilometers to the southeast of the county capital near Mindong village in Dingxin district. On thesummit of the mountain, essentially a steep rocky out-crop with a flat top, are the remains of an oldfortified temple, now partly restored.3 The location, as well as the remaining walls, some of whichstill stand over three meters high, show that Mingshan Temple was built on the site of an old fortressthat probably dates from the late Tang dynasty (fig. I).4 The sculptures, most of which are

comparatively large, are found in several niches located at irregular intervals along a narrow ledgerunning around the summit of the mountain (fig. 2). The concept of Buddhist sculptures carved asdivine protection for a military installation, preferably on the cliffs below the fortress itself, ismanifest in numerous places in Sichuan province. In Dazu and Anyue counties alone the remains ofeight such fortified hills or mountain tops with sculptures can be found, including the famous site ofMount Bei.5

There are presently thirteen numbered sculptural groups at Mingshan Temple, with a total ofsixty-three large and small images. In addition there are nineteen stele inscriptions, all of which datefrom the mid- to late-Qing dynasty. However, with the possible exception of one stele, none of theseis relevant for a study of the sculptures, as they mainly contain poetic and literary compositionsregarding the beauty of the landscape surrounding Mount Hutou. A Qianlong-period stele inscrip-tion situated near Group No. 8 states that the earliest Buddhist activities on the mountain took placeduring the later half of the Tang dynasty in connection with the Chan School.6 However, the Songinscription I located, on the left wall of the niche containing Group No. 8, has been so severelydamaged by centuries of wind and rain that almost nothing of the text is presently legible (fig. 3).This unfortunate lack of contemporary records containing information about the history of thesculptures, ostensibly written by those who commissioned them, forces us to piece together aplausible historical scenario on the basis of iconographical and stylistic evidence alone. Fortunatelythe task is not quite as complicated as I was initially led to believe. On the basis of their distinct styleand iconography, which, as I hope to show below compare very well with other Song carvings inAnyue and Dazu counties, all the main sculptural groups in the Mingshan Temple would seem tohave been carved during the middle period of the Song dynasty.

With the above information in mind, I consider it fairly certain that the Mingshan Temple was afairly important religious center during the Song period. Furthermore, the close affinity with thesculptural centers in Dazu and Anyue would seem to indicate that this site was part of a largerregional network of sanctuaries and pilgrim centers which had grown out of the strong Buddhist

3 At the time of my visit to the temple in the Summer of I993, the place had been turned into a thriving center of syncretic folkreligion with numerous worshippers crowding the courtyardon full moon and new moon days.4 So far the best information on the site can be found in Tang Chengcha's brief survey, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang (TheCliff-side Images at Mingshan Temple in Anyue)," Sichuanwenwu(hereafterSW ) 1990.6, 46. My brief note on the site in, A SurveyoftheReligiousSculptures fAnyue. East Asian InstituteOccasionalPapers3(1989),I2, is too superficial to be of much value.5 In Dazu such an arrangement can be found at Mount Baoding, Mount Shizhuan, and at Mount Shimen; in Anyue at QianfoFortress,Yuanjue Cave, and at Pilu Cave.6 Cf. Tang Chengcha, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang," 46.

Mingshan Temple is situated in the remote, eastern-most part of Anyue county, on the summit ofMount Hutou overlooking the deep valleys of the surrounding countryside. This sanctuary, alsoknown as "Hutou Temple" after the mountain on which it is situated, is located some sixtykilometers to the southeast of the county capital near Mindong village in Dingxin district. On thesummit of the mountain, essentially a steep rocky out-crop with a flat top, are the remains of an oldfortified temple, now partly restored.3 The location, as well as the remaining walls, some of whichstill stand over three meters high, show that Mingshan Temple was built on the site of an old fortressthat probably dates from the late Tang dynasty (fig. I).4 The sculptures, most of which arecomparatively large, are found in several niches located at irregular intervals along a narrow ledgerunning around the summit of the mountain (fig. 2). The concept of Buddhist sculptures carved asdivine protection for a military installation, preferably on the cliffs below the fortress itself, ismanifest in numerous places in Sichuan province. In Dazu and Anyue counties alone the remains ofeight such fortified hills or mountain tops with sculptures can be found, including the famous site ofMount Bei.5

There are presently thirteen numbered sculptural groups at Mingshan Temple, with a total ofsixty-three large and small images. In addition there are nineteen stele inscriptions, all of which datefrom the mid- to late-Qing dynasty. However, with the possible exception of one stele, none of theseis relevant for a study of the sculptures, as they mainly contain poetic and literary compositionsregarding the beauty of the landscape surrounding Mount Hutou. A Qianlong-period stele inscrip-tion situated near Group No. 8 states that the earliest Buddhist activities on the mountain took placeduring the later half of the Tang dynasty in connection with the Chan School.6 However, the Songinscription I located, on the left wall of the niche containing Group No. 8, has been so severelydamaged by centuries of wind and rain that almost nothing of the text is presently legible (fig. 3).This unfortunate lack of contemporary records containing information about the history of thesculptures, ostensibly written by those who commissioned them, forces us to piece together aplausible historical scenario on the basis of iconographical and stylistic evidence alone. Fortunatelythe task is not quite as complicated as I was initially led to believe. On the basis of their distinct styleand iconography, which, as I hope to show below compare very well with other Song carvings inAnyue and Dazu counties, all the main sculptural groups in the Mingshan Temple would seem tohave been carved during the middle period of the Song dynasty.

With the above information in mind, I consider it fairly certain that the Mingshan Temple was afairly important religious center during the Song period. Furthermore, the close affinity with thesculptural centers in Dazu and Anyue would seem to indicate that this site was part of a largerregional network of sanctuaries and pilgrim centers which had grown out of the strong Buddhist

3 At the time of my visit to the temple in the Summer of I993, the place had been turned into a thriving center of syncretic folkreligion with numerous worshippers crowding the courtyardon full moon and new moon days.4 So far the best information on the site can be found in Tang Chengcha's brief survey, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang (TheCliff-side Images at Mingshan Temple in Anyue)," Sichuanwenwu(hereafterSW ) 1990.6, 46. My brief note on the site in, A SurveyoftheReligiousSculptures fAnyue. East Asian InstituteOccasionalPapers3(1989),I2, is too superficial to be of much value.5 In Dazu such an arrangement can be found at Mount Baoding, Mount Shizhuan, and at Mount Shimen; in Anyue at QianfoFortress,Yuanjue Cave, and at Pilu Cave.6 Cf. Tang Chengcha, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang," 46.

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movement that flourishedin the central and easternpartsof Sichuanprovince during the eleventh-twelfth centuries.7

2. Group No. I: Rocana Buddha and Heavenly DignitaryMoving clockwise around the crest of the summit of Mount Hutou below the fortified temple

itself, one encountersthe group of sculpturesdesignatedNo. I in a largedeep niche measuring5.o by8.0 meters. The niche contains a pairof 4.0 meter-high seatedimages:a crowned Buddhaanda deityclad in imperial robes (fig. 4). Both sculptures are extremely well preservedand are seated next toeachother on a largestone dais.In the left side of the niche the crowned Buddha is seated in full lotus posture with hands heldagainst his chest in a local variantof the abhiseka-mudrdguandingyin), in which the left hand claspsthe right fist.8The round,full facewith its tiny mouth shows the deity in a deeply concentratedstateof absorption. Over the tightly curled bee-hive hair the Buddha wears a large, ornate openworkcrown, featuringa small, meditating Buddha in its crest.9This image is clad in loose-fitting monk'srobes,with the kAsdya eld in place by the usualclaspat the left shoulder.'oThe lower undergarmentis held in place by a belt tied in a bow below the chest, which is otherwise naked. From the point ofview of Song dynasty iconographythis image should be identified as Vairocana/Rocana,he absoluteform of Sakyamuni.nNearly identical images can be found at Pilu Cave(fig. 5),HuayanCave(fig. 6),both situated near Shiyang, and at Dafo Temple in the vicinity of Gaosheng Village (fig. 7), all inAnyue County, and in several locations in Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding, such as in the artificialcaveof GroupNo. I4, known as "PiluDaochang (The VairocanaRitual Site),"and in that found at MountGuangda."

7 Buddhism was extremely popular in Sichuan during most of the Song dynasty. The movement involved people from all walks oflife, including severalprominent government officials. In fact, it would seem that members of the local gentry were the main forcein the spreadand popularization of Buddhism in the region. The development of the numerous centers of religious sculptures thatarose between A.D. I000-120 are the physical manifestation of this popularity. Cf. Wu Juefei, "Sichuan de moyai caoxiang(Discussing the Making of Sichuan's Cliff Carved Images),"SW Shikeyanjiu zhuaji (Special Issue on the Study of Stone Carvings)(1986), 8-I3; and Zhang Hua, "Songdai Dazu shike jueqi neiyin tantao (An Inquiry into the Causes of the Rise of the Dazu StoneCarvings during the Song Period)," SW 1991.2, 40-44. See also Wang Jiayou, "LiuBenzun yu mijiao (Liu Benzun and EsotericBuddhism)," DSY, I68-74.8 A number of variations of this otherwise popular mudrd an be seen in Song sculptures from Sichuan. Forunknown reasons, by theSong dynasty the vajramustimudrd usually associatedwith Tang dynasty Vairocanaimages, had fallen entirely out of use. Instead,the abhisekamudrdbecame widely used, as can be seen in the sculptures from Anyue andDazu.9 The small Buddha image in the crown has led some scholars to believe that the sculpture represents the bodhisattvaAvalokitesvara, but such an identification is certainly incorrect. The sculpture clearly is a Buddha, as can be seen by the hair, thekasaya,aswell as by the lack of jewelry, which would have adorned a bodhisattva.

iO This feature identifies the image beyond any doubt as that of a Buddha.Strictly speaking Rocana Buddha represents the sambhogakaya, r bliss-body in accordance with the trikdyadoctrine, which is whythe deity is ornamented like a bodhisattva. However, there is little evidence that the trikdyateachings everplayed a significant rolein Chinese Buddhism before the advent of Tibetan Buddhism. Prior to the Song, Vairocana was commonly encountered amongChinese Buddhist images both in the form of a common Buddha, such as in the large image in Fengxian Temple at Longmen,Henan, and sometimes as a crowned Buddha, as seen in the niche-cave no. 102o n Guangyuan, Sichuan, and in the Leigutai Caves,also at Longmen. Some change appears to have taken place during the tenth century, after which time Vairocana/Rocana in thecrowned and ornamented form became dominant to the exclusion of the older form. In any case, Vairocana/Rocana should be seenas representing more or less the same Buddha. This also holds true for the Buddha Amitabha/Amitayus, who is generally seen asone and the same, although their respective iconography sometimes differs.

I2 Fora description of this image, cf. DSY, 515-I6.

movement that flourishedin the central and easternpartsof Sichuanprovince during the eleventh-twelfth centuries.7

2. Group No. I: Rocana Buddha and Heavenly DignitaryMoving clockwise around the crest of the summit of Mount Hutou below the fortified temple

itself, one encountersthe group of sculpturesdesignatedNo. I in a largedeep niche measuring5.o by8.0 meters. The niche contains a pairof 4.0 meter-high seatedimages:a crowned Buddhaanda deityclad in imperial robes (fig. 4). Both sculptures are extremely well preservedand are seated next toeachother on a largestone dais.In the left side of the niche the crowned Buddha is seated in full lotus posture with hands heldagainst his chest in a local variantof the abhiseka-mudrdguandingyin), in which the left hand claspsthe right fist.8The round,full facewith its tiny mouth shows the deity in a deeply concentratedstateof absorption. Over the tightly curled bee-hive hair the Buddha wears a large, ornate openworkcrown, featuringa small, meditating Buddha in its crest.9This image is clad in loose-fitting monk'srobes,with the kAsdya eld in place by the usualclaspat the left shoulder.'oThe lower undergarmentis held in place by a belt tied in a bow below the chest, which is otherwise naked. From the point ofview of Song dynasty iconographythis image should be identified as Vairocana/Rocana,he absoluteform of Sakyamuni.nNearly identical images can be found at Pilu Cave(fig. 5),HuayanCave(fig. 6),both situated near Shiyang, and at Dafo Temple in the vicinity of Gaosheng Village (fig. 7), all inAnyue County, and in several locations in Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding, such as in the artificialcaveof GroupNo. I4, known as "PiluDaochang (The VairocanaRitual Site),"and in that found at MountGuangda."

7 Buddhism was extremely popular in Sichuan during most of the Song dynasty. The movement involved people from all walks oflife, including severalprominent government officials. In fact, it would seem that members of the local gentry were the main forcein the spreadand popularization of Buddhism in the region. The development of the numerous centers of religious sculptures thatarose between A.D. I000-120 are the physical manifestation of this popularity. Cf. Wu Juefei, "Sichuan de moyai caoxiang(Discussing the Making of Sichuan's Cliff Carved Images),"SW Shikeyanjiu zhuaji (Special Issue on the Study of Stone Carvings)(1986), 8-I3; and Zhang Hua, "Songdai Dazu shike jueqi neiyin tantao (An Inquiry into the Causes of the Rise of the Dazu StoneCarvings during the Song Period)," SW 1991.2, 40-44. See also Wang Jiayou, "LiuBenzun yu mijiao (Liu Benzun and EsotericBuddhism)," DSY, I68-74.8 A number of variations of this otherwise popular mudrd an be seen in Song sculptures from Sichuan. Forunknown reasons, by theSong dynasty the vajramustimudrd usually associatedwith Tang dynasty Vairocanaimages, had fallen entirely out of use. Instead,the abhisekamudrdbecame widely used, as can be seen in the sculptures from Anyue andDazu.9 The small Buddha image in the crown has led some scholars to believe that the sculpture represents the bodhisattvaAvalokitesvara, but such an identification is certainly incorrect. The sculpture clearly is a Buddha, as can be seen by the hair, thekasaya,aswell as by the lack of jewelry, which would have adorned a bodhisattva.

iO This feature identifies the image beyond any doubt as that of a Buddha.Strictly speaking Rocana Buddha represents the sambhogakaya, r bliss-body in accordance with the trikdyadoctrine, which is whythe deity is ornamented like a bodhisattva. However, there is little evidence that the trikdyateachings everplayed a significant rolein Chinese Buddhism before the advent of Tibetan Buddhism. Prior to the Song, Vairocana was commonly encountered amongChinese Buddhist images both in the form of a common Buddha, such as in the large image in Fengxian Temple at Longmen,Henan, and sometimes as a crowned Buddha, as seen in the niche-cave no. 102o n Guangyuan, Sichuan, and in the Leigutai Caves,also at Longmen. Some change appears to have taken place during the tenth century, after which time Vairocana/Rocana in thecrowned and ornamented form became dominant to the exclusion of the older form. In any case, Vairocana/Rocana should be seenas representing more or less the same Buddha. This also holds true for the Buddha Amitabha/Amitayus, who is generally seen asone and the same, although their respective iconography sometimes differs.

I2 Fora description of this image, cf. DSY, 515-I6.

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The deity on the right, clad in the wide-sleeved and flowing robes of a heavenly dignitary, sitswith both feet touching the ground. He has a youthful expression on his face and he wears animperial hat of the traditional shape, i.e., featuring a high crown surmounted by a flat, rectangulartop. Both hands, held beforehis chest under a piece of stylized cloth, may originally have claspedanow-lost tablet. In his brief report, Tang Chengcha identifies this image as the Daoist divinity"Dongyue Dadi"(The GreatEmperorof the EasternMarchmount), .e., the Lordof Mount Tai,I3butwithout providing anyevidence for his identification.'4In anycase, it is quite obvious that this imageis not a Buddhist divinity. There is an image of The Lordof Mount Tai at ShuchengCliff in Zhongaoin Dazu,I5which bears some resemblance to the one we have here, but otherwise a close icono-graphicalaffinitybetween these two images can not be established. Hence I am more inclined to lookelsewhere for a comparableexample. It so happensthat a nearlyidentical image can be found in thecavehousing GroupNo. 2 at Mount Miaogao, Dazu. Here we see a centralVairocanaBuddha flankedby an image of Laojun, the deified Laozi, on the right, and King Wenxuan, the semi-legendaryprogenitorof the Zhou dynasty(ca.I050-256 B.C.),I6on the left.17Although not identical, I considerthese two sculpturesto be much closer in terms of iconographythan a comparisonbetween the LordTai at Shucheng Cliff and the deity at Mingshan Temple. Unfortunately, the material at hand doesnot allow for a definite identification, but it is clear that no matter whom the sculpture in questionwas intended to represent,it was seen as a deity or heavenlydignitary on the same religious level asRocana Buddha. Hence the group under discussion would seem to reflect the Three Teachings, orSanjiaoideology, in which the doctrines of Buddhism, Confucianism,and Daoism areharmonized.This tradition had gained great popularity in China by the Northern Song dynasty and it is onlynatural that it should also findits expressionin the religious art of that time.I8

Regardlessof the actual identity of the deity, this group presentsyet anotherinteresting exampleof a Sichuanese stone carved shrine dedicated to the joint worship of Buddhist and a Confuciansage(orDaoist god). Earliershrinesand cult sites whereworshipof all three religions took placeare foundin a number of other locations in Anyue,19and Song dynasty sculptural sites for Buddho-Daoist andConfucianworshipare located in Dazu county, especially in Mount Shimen, at Mount Shizhuan,andat Mount Miaogao.20

13 Mount Tai, one of the five holy mountains in China, figures prominently in Daoist lore as the gateway to the netherworld. Hencethe Lord of Mount Tai plays a highly prominent role in the Daoist pantheon. For a short description, see Huang Haide and LiGang, Daojiao cidian(A Dictionary of Daoism) (Chengdu: Sichuan Daxue chubanshe, 1991), 90-91. An earlyTang manuscript of anapocryphal scripture from Dunhuang also places the deity in a Buddhist context. Cf. Stein 1924 described in Lionel Giles,DescriptiveCataloguzefthe ChineseManuscriptsromTunhuang n the British MuseumLondon:British Museum, 1957), I97a.

I4 SeeTang Chengcha, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang,"46.Is For a description of this image, cf. DSY, 56I-62. See also Dazu RockCarvings of China ed. by Dazu Rock Carvings Museum in

Chongqing (Hong Kong: Wanli Book Co. and Chongqing Press, 199I), I74.6 King Wenxuan is traditionally considered the epitome of a Confucian "SageRuler", hence he figures in this Sanjiaogroup as therepresentative of Confucianism.

17 SeeDSY, 554-55. For a good illustration of the entire group, cf. Dazu RockCarvingsofChina, I85-86.8 For further information on the Sanjiaobelief during the Song, cf. Yamada Takashi, "Hoku So no sanchi ni tsuite (Concerning theThree Teachings Thought of Zhenzong of the Northern Song)," Nihon bunkakenkyu o kenkyuhokoku28 (1991), I69-9I. See alsoMorten Schliitter, "China's Three Teachings and the Thought of Emperor Xiaozong (r. II62-89)," East Asian Institute OccasionalPapers6 (I990), I51-60.19 At Yuanjue Cave, Xuanmiao Temple, and at Pilu Cave.20 Cf. DSY, 526-32, 540-50, 554-59.

The deity on the right, clad in the wide-sleeved and flowing robes of a heavenly dignitary, sitswith both feet touching the ground. He has a youthful expression on his face and he wears animperial hat of the traditional shape, i.e., featuring a high crown surmounted by a flat, rectangulartop. Both hands, held beforehis chest under a piece of stylized cloth, may originally have claspedanow-lost tablet. In his brief report, Tang Chengcha identifies this image as the Daoist divinity"Dongyue Dadi"(The GreatEmperorof the EasternMarchmount), .e., the Lordof Mount Tai,I3butwithout providing anyevidence for his identification.'4In anycase, it is quite obvious that this imageis not a Buddhist divinity. There is an image of The Lordof Mount Tai at ShuchengCliff in Zhongaoin Dazu,I5which bears some resemblance to the one we have here, but otherwise a close icono-graphicalaffinitybetween these two images can not be established. Hence I am more inclined to lookelsewhere for a comparableexample. It so happensthat a nearlyidentical image can be found in thecavehousing GroupNo. 2 at Mount Miaogao, Dazu. Here we see a centralVairocanaBuddha flankedby an image of Laojun, the deified Laozi, on the right, and King Wenxuan, the semi-legendaryprogenitorof the Zhou dynasty(ca.I050-256 B.C.),I6on the left.17Although not identical, I considerthese two sculpturesto be much closer in terms of iconographythan a comparisonbetween the LordTai at Shucheng Cliff and the deity at Mingshan Temple. Unfortunately, the material at hand doesnot allow for a definite identification, but it is clear that no matter whom the sculpture in questionwas intended to represent,it was seen as a deity or heavenlydignitary on the same religious level asRocana Buddha. Hence the group under discussion would seem to reflect the Three Teachings, orSanjiaoideology, in which the doctrines of Buddhism, Confucianism,and Daoism areharmonized.This tradition had gained great popularity in China by the Northern Song dynasty and it is onlynatural that it should also findits expressionin the religious art of that time.I8

Regardlessof the actual identity of the deity, this group presentsyet anotherinteresting exampleof a Sichuanese stone carved shrine dedicated to the joint worship of Buddhist and a Confuciansage(orDaoist god). Earliershrinesand cult sites whereworshipof all three religions took placeare foundin a number of other locations in Anyue,19and Song dynasty sculptural sites for Buddho-Daoist andConfucianworshipare located in Dazu county, especially in Mount Shimen, at Mount Shizhuan,andat Mount Miaogao.20

13 Mount Tai, one of the five holy mountains in China, figures prominently in Daoist lore as the gateway to the netherworld. Hencethe Lord of Mount Tai plays a highly prominent role in the Daoist pantheon. For a short description, see Huang Haide and LiGang, Daojiao cidian(A Dictionary of Daoism) (Chengdu: Sichuan Daxue chubanshe, 1991), 90-91. An earlyTang manuscript of anapocryphal scripture from Dunhuang also places the deity in a Buddhist context. Cf. Stein 1924 described in Lionel Giles,DescriptiveCataloguzefthe ChineseManuscriptsromTunhuang n the British MuseumLondon:British Museum, 1957), I97a.

I4 SeeTang Chengcha, "Anyue Mingshan si moyai caoxiang,"46.Is For a description of this image, cf. DSY, 56I-62. See also Dazu RockCarvings of China ed. by Dazu Rock Carvings Museum in

Chongqing (Hong Kong: Wanli Book Co. and Chongqing Press, 199I), I74.6 King Wenxuan is traditionally considered the epitome of a Confucian "SageRuler", hence he figures in this Sanjiaogroup as therepresentative of Confucianism.

17 SeeDSY, 554-55. For a good illustration of the entire group, cf. Dazu RockCarvingsofChina, I85-86.8 For further information on the Sanjiaobelief during the Song, cf. Yamada Takashi, "Hoku So no sanchi ni tsuite (Concerning theThree Teachings Thought of Zhenzong of the Northern Song)," Nihon bunkakenkyu o kenkyuhokoku28 (1991), I69-9I. See alsoMorten Schliitter, "China's Three Teachings and the Thought of Emperor Xiaozong (r. II62-89)," East Asian Institute OccasionalPapers6 (I990), I51-60.19 At Yuanjue Cave, Xuanmiao Temple, and at Pilu Cave.20 Cf. DSY, 526-32, 540-50, 554-59.

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3. Group No. 2: Seated Images of Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta. Group No. 2: Seated Images of Avalokitesvara and MahasthamapraptaProceeding further along the ledge encircling the summit of the mountain one reaches the

carvings constituting Group No. 2. The seated images of the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara (to theright of the spectator), and Mahasthamaprapta (on the left), the companions of Amitabha, theBuddha of the Western Pure Land, are placed in a large, slightly irregularly carved niche. Bothbodhisattvas, measuring ca. 4. meters high, are sitting in the lotus posture on individual, plinth-like, unadornedthrones(fig. 8).

Avalokitesvara turns slightly towards the other bodhisattva and holds a printed sfitra in his hands.A standing image of Amitabha is visible in the fine, intricately carved crown on the deity's head. Theplump, distinctly masculine face is calm and peaceful, exuding an air of benevolence anddetachment. The small mouth is delicately formed with fine, curving lines, while the large ears havefat lobes that flatten at the ends: a characteristic that can be observed on most of the sculptures atMingshan (fig. 9). Avalokitesvara is clad in loose robes which cover the entire body with theexception of the baredchest. The small crossedlegs areout of proportion.Mahasthamaprapta, who is depicted with a somewhat feminine expression on his face, holds asmall bowl in his lap. Like Avalokitesvara he wears a large and extremely detailed crown, mainlyconsisting of openwork floral scrolls. In the center of the crown is a seven-storied pagoda with a smallimage of a Buddha in front (fig. IO). Both bodhisattvas wear identical necklaces in the form ofstylized clouds. Iconographic features similar to those found on the attributes held by these twobodhisattvas,including the symbols in their crowns,occur in the monumental sculpturesin the twoGroupsNo. 52I and No. i8,22 n Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding.

The flat, or angular, style of carving (lidao) so typical of Song dynasty Sichuanese sculptures isparticularly prominent with this group. This stylistic feature, characterizedby distinct and sharpcuts dividing the levels of carving, is most clearly visible where the naked chests meet the hem of therobes (figs. 9-IO). The upper parts of both sculptures were carved with great detail, but for somereason little attention was paid to the portions below the waists, including the thrones, which appearstrangely primitive. The disproportion and poor execution of the lower parts of both bodhisattvas,including their seats, may indicate that they were carved at a later date. In fact, it is not unlikely thatthe original carvings were left unfinished and completed much later. In any case, there is a markeddifference n the quality of the upperand lowerportionsof both images.

4. Group No. 3: The MafijuSri SanctuaryGroup No. 3 consists of a large standing image of the bodhisattva Manjusri, s.o meters high, and

eight minor images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas sculpted in relief on the cliff wall to the right andleft of the main carving (fig. II). Manjusrl has a benign expression and wears an elaborate, fine carved"Five Buddha Crown"(fig. I2).23 His body is drapedin a long wide robe, open at the front to expose21 For a description, see DSY, 470. This Dazu triad has long been mistaken for "Huayansansheng xiang," i.e., images of the "Three

Holy Ones of the Avatamsaka Sutra," however, in my opinion the triad represents Amitabha flanked by Avalokitesvara andMahasthamaprapta n accordancewith the Guan wu liangshou o jing (Amitayus Dhyana Sutra).T. 365.22 Cf. DSY,480-83.

23 For a good color photograph of this group, cf. Zhongguomeishuquanji,diaosubian,Sichuanshiku diaosu(Complete Collection ofChinese Art, Sculptural section; Stone Cave Sculptures of Sichuan [hereafterZMQ]) (Beijing: Renmin meishu chubanshe, I988),vol. 12, pi. 129.

Proceeding further along the ledge encircling the summit of the mountain one reaches thecarvings constituting Group No. 2. The seated images of the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara (to theright of the spectator), and Mahasthamaprapta (on the left), the companions of Amitabha, theBuddha of the Western Pure Land, are placed in a large, slightly irregularly carved niche. Bothbodhisattvas, measuring ca. 4. meters high, are sitting in the lotus posture on individual, plinth-like, unadornedthrones(fig. 8).

Avalokitesvara turns slightly towards the other bodhisattva and holds a printed sfitra in his hands.A standing image of Amitabha is visible in the fine, intricately carved crown on the deity's head. Theplump, distinctly masculine face is calm and peaceful, exuding an air of benevolence anddetachment. The small mouth is delicately formed with fine, curving lines, while the large ears havefat lobes that flatten at the ends: a characteristic that can be observed on most of the sculptures atMingshan (fig. 9). Avalokitesvara is clad in loose robes which cover the entire body with theexception of the baredchest. The small crossedlegs areout of proportion.Mahasthamaprapta, who is depicted with a somewhat feminine expression on his face, holds asmall bowl in his lap. Like Avalokitesvara he wears a large and extremely detailed crown, mainlyconsisting of openwork floral scrolls. In the center of the crown is a seven-storied pagoda with a smallimage of a Buddha in front (fig. IO). Both bodhisattvas wear identical necklaces in the form ofstylized clouds. Iconographic features similar to those found on the attributes held by these twobodhisattvas,including the symbols in their crowns,occur in the monumental sculpturesin the twoGroupsNo. 52I and No. i8,22 n Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding.

The flat, or angular, style of carving (lidao) so typical of Song dynasty Sichuanese sculptures isparticularly prominent with this group. This stylistic feature, characterizedby distinct and sharpcuts dividing the levels of carving, is most clearly visible where the naked chests meet the hem of therobes (figs. 9-IO). The upper parts of both sculptures were carved with great detail, but for somereason little attention was paid to the portions below the waists, including the thrones, which appearstrangely primitive. The disproportion and poor execution of the lower parts of both bodhisattvas,including their seats, may indicate that they were carved at a later date. In fact, it is not unlikely thatthe original carvings were left unfinished and completed much later. In any case, there is a markeddifference n the quality of the upperand lowerportionsof both images.

4. Group No. 3: The MafijuSri SanctuaryGroup No. 3 consists of a large standing image of the bodhisattva Manjusri, s.o meters high, and

eight minor images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas sculpted in relief on the cliff wall to the right andleft of the main carving (fig. II). Manjusrl has a benign expression and wears an elaborate, fine carved"Five Buddha Crown"(fig. I2).23 His body is drapedin a long wide robe, open at the front to expose21 For a description, see DSY, 470. This Dazu triad has long been mistaken for "Huayansansheng xiang," i.e., images of the "Three

Holy Ones of the Avatamsaka Sutra," however, in my opinion the triad represents Amitabha flanked by Avalokitesvara andMahasthamaprapta n accordancewith the Guan wu liangshou o jing (Amitayus Dhyana Sutra).T. 365.22 Cf. DSY,480-83.

23 For a good color photograph of this group, cf. Zhongguomeishuquanji,diaosubian,Sichuanshiku diaosu(Complete Collection ofChinese Art, Sculptural section; Stone Cave Sculptures of Sichuan [hereafterZMQ]) (Beijing: Renmin meishu chubanshe, I988),vol. 12, pi. 129.

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his naked chest, which is decorated with an inter-connected triple necklace. Underneath the outerrobe can be glimpsed a dhotiheld in place by a belt. The deity holds what appears o be a book in hisleft hand, which is extended at an angle from the body, while the right hand, placed against theabdomen, is slightly damaged.The lines andcurves used in the treatment of the robe arerealisticallyrendered,providing for the high degree of plasticity evident in the image. On the cliff wall behindandabovethe bodhisattvais an inscriptionin largestylized charactersreading:Xian shilifashen(TheManifestation of the Dharmakayaof Mafnjusri)".conographicallythis form of Manjusriis very rareand no otherexamplesare known from the area.On the cliff on both sides of Manijusri reeight images of Buddhasand bodhisattvasrenderedinlow relief and in varioussizes, set inside shallow round niches.24The largest niche is 2.0 meters indiameter. Each of these reliefs has been given a distinct number but, for obvious reasons, I havechosen to treat them aspart of GroupNo. 3. Most of the carvingsto the right of Manjusrihave beenerodedconsiderablyby the elements, while some of the smallercarvingsto the left of the bodhisattvawere destroyed during construction ofrom thearo e summit of the mountain (fig. I3).However, the three remaining carvings on the left side are nearly all intact. The largest and top-mostimage, a meditating Buddha with his hands in the dhydna-mudra, appears to be a representation ofAmitabha (fig. I4). The deity is shown as a full-bodied, slightly stocky individual, features that areaccentuatedby the soft, almost sensual mode of carving. The Buddha is seated on a large lotus seatconsisting of a double row of petals, part of which are covered in a realistic manner by the lowerportion of his robes. As is commonly seen in other Song dynasty sculptures of the Buddha, the usn-sais indicated by a small, flat bump. Otherwise the hair is rendered in the traditional bee-hive mode.

Below Amitabha, a bare-chested monk holding a bowl in his raised left hand is seated in a smallercircular niche (fig. I4). The monk's long hair, an iconographical feature commonly seen incontemporary representations of monks from Dazu, has parallels in images on the walls in the hall atXiaofo Wan,25 or from the large ruined pagoda at Mount Baoding (fig. 15).26

Another Buddha in a circular niche of the same size appears below the monk. The Buddha's fulllotus posture, with the left hand resting in the lap and the other hand (now damaged) in whatprobably was the bhumisparsa-mudra, identify him as Sakyamuni (fig. 16). As was the case with thelarger image of Amitabha, Sakyamuni is slightly chubby with a pleasant facial expression, and theusnsa and the hair are treated in the same manner. The upper part of Sakyamuni's body is rendered indeep relief, while his legs and the long robe covering them are indicated by delicate - almostsymmetrical - flowing lines executed in low relief. The eroded images on the right side of ManFijusriare more or less symmetrical with those on the left and also include a larger Buddha image at the top.To the best of my knowledge, the unusual iconographical arrangement of Group No. 3 has noequal elsewhere in China. The unorthodox idea of having a bodhisattva as the main icon and Buddhasas secondary images in a sculptural group not only breaks with the standard norm whereby a Buddhais the main object of worship, but also provides testimony of the high regard Manjusri Bodhisattva24 This iconographical feature is frequently encountered among the Dazu carvings, with the best examples provided by those on thewalls of Shaofo Wan, and on the upper levels of the ruined pagoda to the north of Dafo Wan, both at Mount Baoding. For a

description of these carvings, cf. DSY, 500-05. Forphotographs of these images, see Dazu shiku(The Dazu Stone Caves), ed. byDazu wenwu baoguan (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1984), pls. 111-13; ndZMQ, pls. I76-80.15 Forphotographs of these images, see ZMQ, pls. 178-80.26 Cf. ibid., pls. I76-77. Forlong-haired monk sculptures, see also my article, "A Study of the 'Ox-herding Theme' as Sculptures atMt. Baoding in Dazu County, Sichuan,"ArtibusAsiae51,3/4 (1991), 207-33, esp. fig. 19.

his naked chest, which is decorated with an inter-connected triple necklace. Underneath the outerrobe can be glimpsed a dhotiheld in place by a belt. The deity holds what appears o be a book in hisleft hand, which is extended at an angle from the body, while the right hand, placed against theabdomen, is slightly damaged.The lines andcurves used in the treatment of the robe arerealisticallyrendered,providing for the high degree of plasticity evident in the image. On the cliff wall behindandabovethe bodhisattvais an inscriptionin largestylized charactersreading:Xian shilifashen(TheManifestation of the Dharmakayaof Mafnjusri)".conographicallythis form of Manjusriis very rareand no otherexamplesare known from the area.On the cliff on both sides of Manijusri reeight images of Buddhasand bodhisattvasrenderedinlow relief and in varioussizes, set inside shallow round niches.24The largest niche is 2.0 meters indiameter. Each of these reliefs has been given a distinct number but, for obvious reasons, I havechosen to treat them aspart of GroupNo. 3. Most of the carvingsto the right of Manjusrihave beenerodedconsiderablyby the elements, while some of the smallercarvingsto the left of the bodhisattvawere destroyed during construction ofrom thearo e summit of the mountain (fig. I3).However, the three remaining carvings on the left side are nearly all intact. The largest and top-mostimage, a meditating Buddha with his hands in the dhydna-mudra, appears to be a representation ofAmitabha (fig. I4). The deity is shown as a full-bodied, slightly stocky individual, features that areaccentuatedby the soft, almost sensual mode of carving. The Buddha is seated on a large lotus seatconsisting of a double row of petals, part of which are covered in a realistic manner by the lowerportion of his robes. As is commonly seen in other Song dynasty sculptures of the Buddha, the usn-sais indicated by a small, flat bump. Otherwise the hair is rendered in the traditional bee-hive mode.

Below Amitabha, a bare-chested monk holding a bowl in his raised left hand is seated in a smallercircular niche (fig. I4). The monk's long hair, an iconographical feature commonly seen incontemporary representations of monks from Dazu, has parallels in images on the walls in the hall atXiaofo Wan,25 or from the large ruined pagoda at Mount Baoding (fig. 15).26

Another Buddha in a circular niche of the same size appears below the monk. The Buddha's fulllotus posture, with the left hand resting in the lap and the other hand (now damaged) in whatprobably was the bhumisparsa-mudra, identify him as Sakyamuni (fig. 16). As was the case with thelarger image of Amitabha, Sakyamuni is slightly chubby with a pleasant facial expression, and theusnsa and the hair are treated in the same manner. The upper part of Sakyamuni's body is rendered indeep relief, while his legs and the long robe covering them are indicated by delicate - almostsymmetrical - flowing lines executed in low relief. The eroded images on the right side of ManFijusriare more or less symmetrical with those on the left and also include a larger Buddha image at the top.To the best of my knowledge, the unusual iconographical arrangement of Group No. 3 has noequal elsewhere in China. The unorthodox idea of having a bodhisattva as the main icon and Buddhasas secondary images in a sculptural group not only breaks with the standard norm whereby a Buddhais the main object of worship, but also provides testimony of the high regard Manjusri Bodhisattva24 This iconographical feature is frequently encountered among the Dazu carvings, with the best examples provided by those on thewalls of Shaofo Wan, and on the upper levels of the ruined pagoda to the north of Dafo Wan, both at Mount Baoding. For a

description of these carvings, cf. DSY, 500-05. Forphotographs of these images, see Dazu shiku(The Dazu Stone Caves), ed. byDazu wenwu baoguan (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1984), pls. 111-13; ndZMQ, pls. I76-80.15 Forphotographs of these images, see ZMQ, pls. 178-80.26 Cf. ibid., pls. I76-77. Forlong-haired monk sculptures, see also my article, "A Study of the 'Ox-herding Theme' as Sculptures atMt. Baoding in Dazu County, Sichuan,"ArtibusAsiae51,3/4 (1991), 207-33, esp. fig. 19.

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commanded at the time the image was carved. For this reasonwe should see this sanctuaryas yetanotherexampleof local Buddhist belief during the Song dynasty.

5. Group No. 5:Rocana BuddhaAt the edge of the cliff facing west one encounters another large standing image of the crowned

Buddha, Rocana or Vairocana,rising to a height of 6.3 meters (fig. I7). Part of the cliff above thisimposing sculpture has collapsed, causing minor damage to the upper part of the areaof carvingabove the Buddha's head. The face is roundand hasrathersoft features,andthe largeearshave thick,pendulous lobes. The expression on the Buddha's face, with its introverted eyes and small, finelycurvedmouth, indicatesthat he is in a state of deep absorption.The deity's crownconsists of a wreathof stylized flowers and openwork scrolls, in the crest of which sits a small image in meditation (fig.I7). Issuing from this image are two wisps of "light" that may originally have connected with aBuddha image above to indicate the benzun tatus of the being below.27Clearlyvisible beneath theornate crown is the bee-hive style hair. The Buddha is clad in a long, toga-like outer robe whichhangs over his shoulders, while his chest is naked above a dhoti which reaches to his feet. Thenaturalistic rendering of the linear folds in the garments provides the image with a comparativelyplastic appearance. Both hands are held in front of the chest to form the abhiseka-muzdra,aniconographicaldetail also seen in the RocanaBuddha image of Group No. I. The only other visibleornamentsworn by the Buddha in addition to his crownare two braceletsaroundhis wrists.The fact that the Buddha is standing makes it a very rare, if not unique, image among ChineseBuddhist sculptures. Standing images of Vairocanaas the "CosmicBuddha"are known from earlierperiods,2 including the giant, fifth-century Buddha image in Cave*No.I8 in Yungang,29 no otherstanding sculpture has been identified afterthe late Nanbei Chaoperiod. In addition to the fact thatRocana is shown standing, this sculpturehasanotherhighly interesting iconographicalfeature. Closeexamination revealsthe small figurein the crest of the crown to be an image of LiuBenzun (855-942),the esoteric lay-masterandBuddhist culturalhero of medievalSichuan,ratherthana Buddha.3?Thisiconographical trait is unique to the Song dynasty sculptures of central Sichuan.31Perhapsthe bestexampleof this canbe found in the largebust of RocanaBuddha in GroupNo. 27 at Mount Baoding,where a fairly well preserved image of Liu Benzun is seated in the crest of the Buddha's crown(fig. I8).3227 Benzun means "original worthy", a common appellation of Vairocana Buddha, but in Sino-Japanese esoteric Buddhism it alsoindicates the true forms of certain bodhisattvas, divinities, and spirit-protectors. In other words, the "higher" truth behind

physical appearances of certain beings. Cf. Omura Chokaku et al., Mikkyo daijiten(Taibei: Xinwen Feng reprint, 1979), 2o86b.During the Song dynasty this concept was firmly integrated in Chinese Buddhism and we see it everywhere in the sculpturalgroups in Sichuan dating from that time.28 For a study of "Cosmic Buddha" images, see Angela F. Howard, The Imageryof the CosmologicalBuddha. Studies in South AsianCulture13(Leiden: E.J. Brill, I986).29 Ibid,pl 59.30 Fora highly useful study of this important figure in Sichuanese Buddhist history, see Wang Jiayou, "LiuBenzun yu mizong (LiuBenzun and Esoteric Buddhism)," DSY, 168-74. See also his stele inscription, Song li Tang Liu Benzun chuan bei (The SteleInscription with the History of Liu Benzun Set Up during the Song),Jinshi yuan (Garden of Metal and Stone), ch. 5. The text hasbeen edited, punctuated and reset in simplified characters n DSY, 294-98.31 Among the Rocana carvings in Anyue we find an image of Liu Benzun in the crown of the Buddhas in Huayan Cave, in Pilu Cave,and at Dafo Cliff.32 Fora description of this monumental carving, cf. DSY, 495-96.

commanded at the time the image was carved. For this reasonwe should see this sanctuaryas yetanotherexampleof local Buddhist belief during the Song dynasty.

5. Group No. 5:Rocana BuddhaAt the edge of the cliff facing west one encounters another large standing image of the crowned

Buddha, Rocana or Vairocana,rising to a height of 6.3 meters (fig. I7). Part of the cliff above thisimposing sculpture has collapsed, causing minor damage to the upper part of the areaof carvingabove the Buddha's head. The face is roundand hasrathersoft features,andthe largeearshave thick,pendulous lobes. The expression on the Buddha's face, with its introverted eyes and small, finelycurvedmouth, indicatesthat he is in a state of deep absorption.The deity's crownconsists of a wreathof stylized flowers and openwork scrolls, in the crest of which sits a small image in meditation (fig.I7). Issuing from this image are two wisps of "light" that may originally have connected with aBuddha image above to indicate the benzun tatus of the being below.27Clearlyvisible beneath theornate crown is the bee-hive style hair. The Buddha is clad in a long, toga-like outer robe whichhangs over his shoulders, while his chest is naked above a dhoti which reaches to his feet. Thenaturalistic rendering of the linear folds in the garments provides the image with a comparativelyplastic appearance. Both hands are held in front of the chest to form the abhiseka-muzdra,aniconographicaldetail also seen in the RocanaBuddha image of Group No. I. The only other visibleornamentsworn by the Buddha in addition to his crownare two braceletsaroundhis wrists.The fact that the Buddha is standing makes it a very rare, if not unique, image among ChineseBuddhist sculptures. Standing images of Vairocanaas the "CosmicBuddha"are known from earlierperiods,2 including the giant, fifth-century Buddha image in Cave*No.I8 in Yungang,29 no otherstanding sculpture has been identified afterthe late Nanbei Chaoperiod. In addition to the fact thatRocana is shown standing, this sculpturehasanotherhighly interesting iconographicalfeature. Closeexamination revealsthe small figurein the crest of the crown to be an image of LiuBenzun (855-942),the esoteric lay-masterandBuddhist culturalhero of medievalSichuan,ratherthana Buddha.3?Thisiconographical trait is unique to the Song dynasty sculptures of central Sichuan.31Perhapsthe bestexampleof this canbe found in the largebust of RocanaBuddha in GroupNo. 27 at Mount Baoding,where a fairly well preserved image of Liu Benzun is seated in the crest of the Buddha's crown(fig. I8).3227 Benzun means "original worthy", a common appellation of Vairocana Buddha, but in Sino-Japanese esoteric Buddhism it alsoindicates the true forms of certain bodhisattvas, divinities, and spirit-protectors. In other words, the "higher" truth behind

physical appearances of certain beings. Cf. Omura Chokaku et al., Mikkyo daijiten(Taibei: Xinwen Feng reprint, 1979), 2o86b.During the Song dynasty this concept was firmly integrated in Chinese Buddhism and we see it everywhere in the sculpturalgroups in Sichuan dating from that time.28 For a study of "Cosmic Buddha" images, see Angela F. Howard, The Imageryof the CosmologicalBuddha. Studies in South AsianCulture13(Leiden: E.J. Brill, I986).29 Ibid,pl 59.30 Fora highly useful study of this important figure in Sichuanese Buddhist history, see Wang Jiayou, "LiuBenzun yu mizong (LiuBenzun and Esoteric Buddhism)," DSY, 168-74. See also his stele inscription, Song li Tang Liu Benzun chuan bei (The SteleInscription with the History of Liu Benzun Set Up during the Song),Jinshi yuan (Garden of Metal and Stone), ch. 5. The text hasbeen edited, punctuated and reset in simplified characters n DSY, 294-98.31 Among the Rocana carvings in Anyue we find an image of Liu Benzun in the crown of the Buddhas in Huayan Cave, in Pilu Cave,and at Dafo Cliff.32 Fora description of this monumental carving, cf. DSY, 495-96.

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6. Group No. 8: Standing Images ofAvalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta. Group No. 8: Standing Images ofAvalokitesvara and MahasthamapraptaThe largest niche at Mingshan Temple, designed Group No. 8, measures 6.3 by 6.9 meters and is

3.3 meters deep.33The main sculptures are a pair of standing bodhisattvas, each measuring ca. 6.2meters high. Iconographically they bear considerable resemblance to the standing Maitreya of GroupNo. 3. Due to exposure to natural elements, both images in Group No. 8 have sustained someweathering,which is especially pronounced n the layeredstone stripeson their faces.The bodhisattvaon the left can readilybe identified as Avalokitesvarabecauseof the small imageof Amitabha Buddha in his crown (fig. I9). The bodhisattva's face has a dignified, almost sternexpression, which is further underscored by the massive head set on a short neck and the large,ornately decorated crown (fig. I9). The outer, frock-like robe which covers both shoulders hangsheavily over thebody of the image, while the voluminous dhoti that reaches to the ground conveysafurther sense of heaviness. The garment folds are rather stylized and stiff, lacking the degree ofplasticity seen in the Rocanaimage of Group No. 5. A multi-sectioned necklace or jeweled garlandadorns the deity's naked chest. In his right hand Avalokitesvaraholds afuzi, or flywhisk, while in theleft hand there is what appears to be a neat stack of lotus leaves, an iconographical feature not usuallyassociated with this bodhisattva.

The other bodhisattva standing to theight,ikelystandingo the rightrepresents Mah,ikely represents Mahasthamaprapta, a prominentfigure in Pure Land lore and, iconographically, usually seen as Avalokitesvara's counterpart (fig. 20).Like Avalokitesvara, Mahasthamaprapta wears a high, ornate crown with a vase or incense burnerin the crest and with trailing bands hanging down on both sides of the head. The fleshy face withits fairly prominent nose and tiny mouth has a withdrawn expression (fig. 20). The long andvoluminous outer robe draped over the left shoulder is rendered in the same manner as on theAvalokitesvara image, leaving the chest bare and the abdomen protruding slightly. In his right hand,which is raised under the robe, the deity holds an unidentified object. The bodhisattva places hisbared right arm against his side and, with the right hand, he holds the hem of his robe.Mahasthamaprapta also wears garland ornaments in the form of a net of inter-connected rows ofpearls. Nearly identical chest ornaments, as well as the protruding abdomen, can also be seen on theManjusri sculpture in Group No. 3.

As was noted with the seated images of Group No. 2, it is somewhat strange to see these twobodhisattvas as a pair without the presence of Amitabha Buddha. In fact, this sculptural arrangementdoes not appear elsewhere in Anyue or in Dazu. The iconography of the paired bodhisattvas isonly partly in accordance with traditional norms. The Buddha image in Avalokitesvara's crown andthe fly whisk are well established attributes, even though the lotus leaves (if that is what they are) areuncommon. The attributes of Mahasthamaprapta, on the other hand, appear somewhat unortho-dox.34 On the basis of these features, we must conclude that the Avalokitesvara/Mahasthamapraptagroup has no scriptural source, but that its appearance was a product of local imagination at thattime. Stylistically the pair of sculptures is otherwise in full agreement with the other carvings atthe site.33 Previously part of the rock-wall above the two sculptures fell down, exposing the images to the elements. However, recently a roofwas constructed to cover them.34 The closest comparable image is the sculpture of Mahasthamaprapta n Group No. 18 in Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding; that deitywears an almost identical crown and holds a book in the raised left hand. However, the Dafo Wan image is part of a sculptural

group that otherwise conforms to the established iconography pertaining to the "Three Holy Ones from the Pure Land". For adescription, cf. DSY, 480-83.

The largest niche at Mingshan Temple, designed Group No. 8, measures 6.3 by 6.9 meters and is3.3 meters deep.33The main sculptures are a pair of standing bodhisattvas, each measuring ca. 6.2meters high. Iconographically they bear considerable resemblance to the standing Maitreya of GroupNo. 3. Due to exposure to natural elements, both images in Group No. 8 have sustained someweathering,which is especially pronounced n the layeredstone stripeson their faces.The bodhisattvaon the left can readilybe identified as Avalokitesvarabecauseof the small imageof Amitabha Buddha in his crown (fig. I9). The bodhisattva's face has a dignified, almost sternexpression, which is further underscored by the massive head set on a short neck and the large,ornately decorated crown (fig. I9). The outer, frock-like robe which covers both shoulders hangsheavily over thebody of the image, while the voluminous dhoti that reaches to the ground conveysafurther sense of heaviness. The garment folds are rather stylized and stiff, lacking the degree ofplasticity seen in the Rocanaimage of Group No. 5. A multi-sectioned necklace or jeweled garlandadorns the deity's naked chest. In his right hand Avalokitesvaraholds afuzi, or flywhisk, while in theleft hand there is what appears to be a neat stack of lotus leaves, an iconographical feature not usuallyassociated with this bodhisattva.

The other bodhisattva standing to theight,ikelystandingo the rightrepresents Mah,ikely represents Mahasthamaprapta, a prominentfigure in Pure Land lore and, iconographically, usually seen as Avalokitesvara's counterpart (fig. 20).Like Avalokitesvara, Mahasthamaprapta wears a high, ornate crown with a vase or incense burnerin the crest and with trailing bands hanging down on both sides of the head. The fleshy face withits fairly prominent nose and tiny mouth has a withdrawn expression (fig. 20). The long andvoluminous outer robe draped over the left shoulder is rendered in the same manner as on theAvalokitesvara image, leaving the chest bare and the abdomen protruding slightly. In his right hand,which is raised under the robe, the deity holds an unidentified object. The bodhisattva places hisbared right arm against his side and, with the right hand, he holds the hem of his robe.Mahasthamaprapta also wears garland ornaments in the form of a net of inter-connected rows ofpearls. Nearly identical chest ornaments, as well as the protruding abdomen, can also be seen on theManjusri sculpture in Group No. 3.

As was noted with the seated images of Group No. 2, it is somewhat strange to see these twobodhisattvas as a pair without the presence of Amitabha Buddha. In fact, this sculptural arrangementdoes not appear elsewhere in Anyue or in Dazu. The iconography of the paired bodhisattvas isonly partly in accordance with traditional norms. The Buddha image in Avalokitesvara's crown andthe fly whisk are well established attributes, even though the lotus leaves (if that is what they are) areuncommon. The attributes of Mahasthamaprapta, on the other hand, appear somewhat unortho-dox.34 On the basis of these features, we must conclude that the Avalokitesvara/Mahasthamapraptagroup has no scriptural source, but that its appearance was a product of local imagination at thattime. Stylistically the pair of sculptures is otherwise in full agreement with the other carvings atthe site.33 Previously part of the rock-wall above the two sculptures fell down, exposing the images to the elements. However, recently a roofwas constructed to cover them.34 The closest comparable image is the sculpture of Mahasthamaprapta n Group No. 18 in Dafo Wan at Mount Baoding; that deitywears an almost identical crown and holds a book in the raised left hand. However, the Dafo Wan image is part of a sculptural

group that otherwise conforms to the established iconography pertaining to the "Three Holy Ones from the Pure Land". For adescription, cf. DSY, 480-83.

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Fig. I. The summit of MountHutou with the fortifiedMingshanTemple.ig. I. The summit of MountHutou with the fortifiedMingshanTemple.

V18~1N X

10 meters mJT .' .'! .... .

..- .7...: . .. .

Fig. 2. Locationof the sculpturalnicheson Mount Hutou.

V18~1N X

10 meters mJT .' .'! .... .

..- .7...: . .. .

Fig. 2. Locationof the sculpturalnicheson Mount Hutou. Fig. 3.EffacedSong dynasty nscriptionon the left wallof GroupNo. 8. MingshanTemple.Fig. 3.EffacedSong dynasty nscriptionon the left wallof GroupNo. 8. MingshanTemple.

*Allphotographs ytheauthor.Allphotographs ytheauthor.


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Fig. 4. Rocana Buddha and Heavenly Dignitary, possibly King Wenxuan. Group No. i, Mingshan Temple.ig. 4. Rocana Buddha and Heavenly Dignitary, possibly King Wenxuan. Group No. i, Mingshan Temple.

Fig. 6. Main mageofVairocana/RocananHuayanCaveAnyue.Note the small mageof Liu Benzun n the crown.Fig. 6. Main mageofVairocana/RocananHuayanCaveAnyue.Note the small mageof Liu Benzun n the crown.

Fig. 5.Main mageof RocanaBuddhanGroupNo. 6 atPiluCave,Anyue.Fig. 5.Main mageof RocanaBuddhanGroupNo. 6 atPiluCave,Anyue.

Fig.7. RocanaBuddhaatDafoTemple,Anyue.Fig.7. RocanaBuddhaatDafoTemple,Anyue.


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Fig. 8. Seated pair of bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta, in Group No. 2. Mingshan Temple.ig. 8. Seated pair of bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta, in Group No. 2. Mingshan Temple.

Fig. io. Detail of Mahasthamaprapta,Group No. 2. MingshanTemple.Fig. io. Detail of Mahasthamaprapta,Group No. 2. MingshanTemple.

Fig. 9. Detail of Avalokitesvara,Group No. 2. Mingshan Temple.ig. 9. Detail of Avalokitesvara,Group No. 2. Mingshan Temple.


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Fig. II. Standing MafijusriBodhisattva,Group No. 3. MingshanTemple.Fig. II. Standing MafijusriBodhisattva,Group No. 3. MingshanTemple.

Fig. I2. Detail of Mafijusri,Group No. 3. Mingshan Temple.ig. I2. Detail of Mafijusri,Group No. 3. Mingshan Temple.

Fig. I3.Mafijusriand the left partof GroupNo. 3. Mingshan Temple. Fig. 14.Detail of Group No. 3 showing Amitabha Buddha andlong-haired monk/arhat.Mingshan Temple.

Fig. I3.Mafijusriand the left partof GroupNo. 3. Mingshan Temple. Fig. 14.Detail of Group No. 3 showing Amitabha Buddha andlong-haired monk/arhat.Mingshan Temple.


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Fig. I6. Detail of Group No. 3 showing Sakyamuni Buddha in bas-relief. Mingshan Temple.Fig. I6. Detail of Group No. 3 showing Sakyamuni Buddha in bas-relief. Mingshan Temple.

Fig. 15.Relief image of long-haired monk/arhatin the ruinedpagoda at Mount Baoding, Dazu.Fig. 15.Relief image of long-haired monk/arhatin the ruinedpagoda at Mount Baoding, Dazu.

Fig. I7. Detail of Rocana.Group No. 5,Mingshan Temple.ig. I7. Detail of Rocana.Group No. 5,Mingshan Temple. Fig. I8. Detail of Group No. 27 in Dafo Wan at Mount Baodingshowing Liu Benzun in the crown of RocanaBuddha, Dazu.Fig. I8. Detail of Group No. 27 in Dafo Wan at Mount Baodingshowing Liu Benzun in the crown of RocanaBuddha, Dazu.


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Fig.I9.StandingmageofAvalokitesvara. roupNo. 8,Mingshan Fig. 20. Standing mageofMahasthamapripta. roupNo. 8,Temple. MingshanTemple.Fig.I9.StandingmageofAvalokitesvara. roupNo. 8,Mingshan Fig. 20. Standing mageofMahasthamapripta. roupNo. 8,Temple. MingshanTemple.


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Fig. 21. The Nine Spirit Kings. Left side of Group No. 12,Mingshan Temple.ig. 21. The Nine Spirit Kings. Left side of Group No. 12,Mingshan Temple.

Fig. 22. The Nine Spirit Kings. Right side of Group No. I2, Mingshan Temple.ig. 22. The Nine Spirit Kings. Right side of Group No. I2, Mingshan Temple.


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Fig.23.TheNine SpiritKings. GroupNo. 2 in DafoWanatMountBaoding,Dazu.ig. 23.TheNine SpiritKings. GroupNo. 2 in DafoWanatMountBaoding,Dazu.

Fig.24.DetailofGroupNo. 2 inDafoWan atMountBaoding,Dazu. Fig.25.TheDragonKing.GroupNo. 13,MingshanTemple.ig.24.DetailofGroupNo. 2 inDafoWan atMountBaoding,Dazu. Fig.25.TheDragonKing.GroupNo. 13,MingshanTemple.


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A large Song dynasty inscription on the left side of the niche unfortunatelyis so weatheredthat it isalmost entirely illegible (fig. 3).There are severalotherBuddhist images in this niche, but they are allof inferiorquality and date from more recent times.

7. Group No. I2: The Nine Spirit KingsThe last group of carvings at Mount Mingshan features the images of nine spirit-protectorsexecuted in high relief. The group is located on a ledge of the cliff several meters higher than theother carvingson the site, directly below the temple walls on the summit (fig. I). The average imageis 1.8 meters high, while the niche itself measures2.3 by 9.6 meters and is 0.8 meters deep. All the

carvings here have been subjected to erosion by the elements, which has taken its toll on the lowerpartsof all the images in the group. These semi-human spirit-protectorsareclad in military outfits,consisting of largefrocks overvarioustypes of armour,andmanifest martialdemeanor. Most of thembrandishsome kind of weaponor standin threatening poses (figs. 21-22).

Going from left to right we first encounter a protector with a widely gaping mouth and largesunken eyes, who holds some sort of cudgel in his raised left hand. His large, bulky abdomen isdistended. Next to him is a bearded warrior wearing a high hat and brandishing a large plantain fanin his raised right hand. Following him on the right stands a scowling protector with a strangelysunken face and the same large eyes as seen in the first image. On his head is a hexagonal helmetsurmounted by a small tuft. He stands in a slightly twisted pose, holding his right arm across hisabdomen, while the left hand supports a large, curved sword that rests against his shoulder. Next tohim stands aspirit-protectorwho turns towardthe right. He wears a peculiar, high curving cap andholds a twisting snake in his raised left hand,while the right is clenched against his side. On his leftstands a spirit with a sword. His face is damaged but the image is otherwise in fair condition. Hewears a helmet and a flowing scarf is draped over his shoulders. Further to the right is a protectorwith a lance. The image has the face of a monkey and a large, broad collar, but is otherwise toodamaged to properlydiscern more details. The next image, a spirit-king with a wrathful expressionon his noseless face, is fairly well preserved. He wears a round helmet with side flaps and raises hisright arm above his head while grasping a severed head (almost indistinct) in his left hand. The nextspirit on the right wearsa helmet in the form of a stylized animal head. Holding in his mouth thesword used to slit open his chest, he pulls open his chest cavity with both hands to reveal a Buddhahead, indicating the spirit's true identity as a benevolentprotector.35The finalguardianspirit standswith his right arm raised in a threatening gesture. Like the other spirits he has a grotesque head witha toad-like face and protruding eyes. In addition, large fangs can be seen in his half-opened mouth. Incontrast to the other images of the group, his garments and coat of mail arerendered n great detail.As a whole the group is well carved with great emphasis on movement and the immediate expressionof power.

Although the identity of the images inhemain his sculptural group is unclear, we find among thecarvings at Mount Baoding in Dazu an almost identical set of nine images. They constitute GroupNo. 2 in Dafo Wan, which are clearly conceived as an ensemble of protectors controlling the TwelveSpirits of the Zodiac (fig. 23). Although none of the images of the zodiacal spirits remains in the35 This iconographical feature is fairly common in East Asian Buddhism, where it is most often found in connection with the arhats.A fine late Ming example can be seen in the main hall ofMampukuji in Uji, Japan.

A large Song dynasty inscription on the left side of the niche unfortunatelyis so weatheredthat it isalmost entirely illegible (fig. 3).There are severalotherBuddhist images in this niche, but they are allof inferiorquality and date from more recent times.

7. Group No. I2: The Nine Spirit KingsThe last group of carvings at Mount Mingshan features the images of nine spirit-protectorsexecuted in high relief. The group is located on a ledge of the cliff several meters higher than theother carvingson the site, directly below the temple walls on the summit (fig. I). The average imageis 1.8 meters high, while the niche itself measures2.3 by 9.6 meters and is 0.8 meters deep. All the

carvings here have been subjected to erosion by the elements, which has taken its toll on the lowerpartsof all the images in the group. These semi-human spirit-protectorsareclad in military outfits,consisting of largefrocks overvarioustypes of armour,andmanifest martialdemeanor. Most of thembrandishsome kind of weaponor standin threatening poses (figs. 21-22).

Going from left to right we first encounter a protector with a widely gaping mouth and largesunken eyes, who holds some sort of cudgel in his raised left hand. His large, bulky abdomen isdistended. Next to him is a bearded warrior wearing a high hat and brandishing a large plantain fanin his raised right hand. Following him on the right stands a scowling protector with a strangelysunken face and the same large eyes as seen in the first image. On his head is a hexagonal helmetsurmounted by a small tuft. He stands in a slightly twisted pose, holding his right arm across hisabdomen, while the left hand supports a large, curved sword that rests against his shoulder. Next tohim stands aspirit-protectorwho turns towardthe right. He wears a peculiar, high curving cap andholds a twisting snake in his raised left hand,while the right is clenched against his side. On his leftstands a spirit with a sword. His face is damaged but the image is otherwise in fair condition. Hewears a helmet and a flowing scarf is draped over his shoulders. Further to the right is a protectorwith a lance. The image has the face of a monkey and a large, broad collar, but is otherwise toodamaged to properlydiscern more details. The next image, a spirit-king with a wrathful expressionon his noseless face, is fairly well preserved. He wears a round helmet with side flaps and raises hisright arm above his head while grasping a severed head (almost indistinct) in his left hand. The nextspirit on the right wearsa helmet in the form of a stylized animal head. Holding in his mouth thesword used to slit open his chest, he pulls open his chest cavity with both hands to reveal a Buddhahead, indicating the spirit's true identity as a benevolentprotector.35The finalguardianspirit standswith his right arm raised in a threatening gesture. Like the other spirits he has a grotesque head witha toad-like face and protruding eyes. In addition, large fangs can be seen in his half-opened mouth. Incontrast to the other images of the group, his garments and coat of mail arerendered n great detail.As a whole the group is well carved with great emphasis on movement and the immediate expressionof power.

Although the identity of the images inhemain his sculptural group is unclear, we find among thecarvings at Mount Baoding in Dazu an almost identical set of nine images. They constitute GroupNo. 2 in Dafo Wan, which are clearly conceived as an ensemble of protectors controlling the TwelveSpirits of the Zodiac (fig. 23). Although none of the images of the zodiacal spirits remains in the35 This iconographical feature is fairly common in East Asian Buddhism, where it is most often found in connection with the arhats.A fine late Ming example can be seen in the main hall ofMampukuji in Uji, Japan.

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group at Mingshan Temple because of extreme weathering, a cursory comparison between the twogroups of sculptures reveals that they match each other, image for image, indicating that they werebased on the same composition. Iconographically and stylistically they also are closely related; soclosely, in fact, that it is possible to argue that they are the work of the same, or related, group ofartisans working from the same iconographic model. Note also that the same warrior-like imagesabove the Nine Protector-kings, of which faint traces remain in Group No. 12, are intact in theBaoding group (fig. 24).

Groups of nine spirit-protectors are relatively rare in the Buddhist pantheon and, to myknowledge, no other comparable groups as sculptures can be found elsewhere in China, or, for thatmatter, in East Asia. This makes an identification of this particular group of protectors very difficult.Among the scriptural sources my search only yielded two possible groups, neither of which, however,provides much detail. One group of nine spirits can be found in the Guanding baijie shenwang hushenzhoujing (Abhiseka of a Hundred Contracted Spirit Kings Protecting the Body Dharani Stitra),36anesoteric Buddhist scripture of uncertain origin. It consists of several lists of names of protectingspirits, among which we find one such group of nine spirit-kings.37 However, the chief problem withthis group is that there is virtually no evidence that the scripture in which the group is found everplayed any significant role in Chinese Buddhism. Hence it is rather unlikely that this group of spirit-kings should have been singled out for a sculptural group. The second group of nine protectors comesfrom the Gandavyuha chapter of the long version of the Avatanmsakaszutra.38Here we find a list offourteen spirits and nine non-human kings, all protectors of the dharma.39The nine spirit-kings areas follows:

I.GreatDragonKing2.YaksaKing3.Gandharva ing4. KumbhandaKing5.GarudaKing6. AsuraKing7. MahoragaKing8. GreatHeavenlyKing9. BrahmaKing

36 Included as the fourth chapter in the composite Guanding qiwan erqianshenwanghu biqiu zhou ing (Sutraof the Abhiseka of theSeventy-two Thousand Spirit Kings who Protect Monks Dharani), T. 1331. t is said to have been translated by a certain Srimitraduring heEasternindynasty317-22),butit ismostcertainly laterapocryphalomposition.

37 The textpassagenquestion eads:The Buddha addressed the god Indra saying: "There are one hundred spirit kings who now dwell on the peak of Mt. Meru.With my majestic spiritual power I will summon them here. When in front of me I will order the spirit kings to protect you all.Theyshouldnot becommanded arshly, butin order] o bind them [tooneself]clearly alltheirpersonalnames.Thenall thesespiritkingswill constantly tayonyour eft andrightin order o protectyou."ThegodIndra aid:"Whatare heir names?" heBuddhaanswered: [The irst s called]Yilimenti,and hispersonalname s VirtueWithoutObstruction. Thesecond s called]Niwuchuzhe, and his personal name is Rejecting Oneself Greatly. [The third is called] Boluonatou, and his personal name isSporting in Calm and Peace. [The fourth is called] Wuhezhelou, and his personal name is Returning to the True Transformation.[The fifth is called] Saduoboluo, and his personal name is Seeking to Abandon Peril. [The sixth is called] Ximahetou, and hispersonalname s RadiantandBrightIllumination. Theseventh s called]Tianluomouju,nd hispersonalname s Proclaimingthe Wordsof the Doctrine.[Theeighthis called]Aluohouju,and his personalname s ReachingEnlightenment. Theninth iscalled]Naluonayi,andhispersonal ame s Accordingwith Others.These nine spirit kings with their majestic spiritual powers will protect you anddo awaywith evil andannihilate all vexations.Excessive emonsandspiritswill not beable o function."T. I33I, h.4, 5o5a.38 T. 279.39 Ibid., ch. 6I, 330C.

group at Mingshan Temple because of extreme weathering, a cursory comparison between the twogroups of sculptures reveals that they match each other, image for image, indicating that they werebased on the same composition. Iconographically and stylistically they also are closely related; soclosely, in fact, that it is possible to argue that they are the work of the same, or related, group ofartisans working from the same iconographic model. Note also that the same warrior-like imagesabove the Nine Protector-kings, of which faint traces remain in Group No. 12, are intact in theBaoding group (fig. 24).

Groups of nine spirit-protectors are relatively rare in the Buddhist pantheon and, to myknowledge, no other comparable groups as sculptures can be found elsewhere in China, or, for thatmatter, in East Asia. This makes an identification of this particular group of protectors very difficult.Among the scriptural sources my search only yielded two possible groups, neither of which, however,provides much detail. One group of nine spirits can be found in the Guanding baijie shenwang hushenzhoujing (Abhiseka of a Hundred Contracted Spirit Kings Protecting the Body Dharani Stitra),36anesoteric Buddhist scripture of uncertain origin. It consists of several lists of names of protectingspirits, among which we find one such group of nine spirit-kings.37 However, the chief problem withthis group is that there is virtually no evidence that the scripture in which the group is found everplayed any significant role in Chinese Buddhism. Hence it is rather unlikely that this group of spirit-kings should have been singled out for a sculptural group. The second group of nine protectors comesfrom the Gandavyuha chapter of the long version of the Avatanmsakaszutra.38Here we find a list offourteen spirits and nine non-human kings, all protectors of the dharma.39The nine spirit-kings areas follows:

I.GreatDragonKing2.YaksaKing3.Gandharva ing4. KumbhandaKing5.GarudaKing6. AsuraKing7. MahoragaKing8. GreatHeavenlyKing9. BrahmaKing

36 Included as the fourth chapter in the composite Guanding qiwan erqianshenwanghu biqiu zhou ing (Sutraof the Abhiseka of theSeventy-two Thousand Spirit Kings who Protect Monks Dharani), T. 1331. t is said to have been translated by a certain Srimitraduring heEasternindynasty317-22),butit ismostcertainly laterapocryphalomposition.

37 The textpassagenquestion eads:The Buddha addressed the god Indra saying: "There are one hundred spirit kings who now dwell on the peak of Mt. Meru.With my majestic spiritual power I will summon them here. When in front of me I will order the spirit kings to protect you all.Theyshouldnot becommanded arshly, butin order] o bind them [tooneself]clearly alltheirpersonalnames.Thenall thesespiritkingswill constantly tayonyour eft andrightin order o protectyou."ThegodIndra aid:"Whatare heir names?" heBuddhaanswered: [The irst s called]Yilimenti,and hispersonalname s VirtueWithoutObstruction. Thesecond s called]Niwuchuzhe, and his personal name is Rejecting Oneself Greatly. [The third is called] Boluonatou, and his personal name isSporting in Calm and Peace. [The fourth is called] Wuhezhelou, and his personal name is Returning to the True Transformation.[The fifth is called] Saduoboluo, and his personal name is Seeking to Abandon Peril. [The sixth is called] Ximahetou, and hispersonalname s RadiantandBrightIllumination. Theseventh s called]Tianluomouju,nd hispersonalname s Proclaimingthe Wordsof the Doctrine.[Theeighthis called]Aluohouju,and his personalname s ReachingEnlightenment. Theninth iscalled]Naluonayi,andhispersonal ame s Accordingwith Others.These nine spirit kings with their majestic spiritual powers will protect you anddo awaywith evil andannihilate all vexations.Excessive emonsandspiritswill not beable o function."T. I33I, h.4, 5o5a.38 T. 279.39 Ibid., ch. 6I, 330C.

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Although we are admittedly on uncertain ground, it is possible that the nine spirit-kingsmentioned in the sutra are identical with the Mingshan group.40In anycase, the Avatamsaka utra sknown to have held a centralposition in Sichuanese Buddhism during the Song dynasty, as is amplyattested in the many sculptural groups "illustrating"scenes from this scripture.4xHence it is perhapsnot so unlikely that a group of spirit-protectorsmentioned there should be sculpted in stone as well.If this suggestion is correct, it indicates that during the Song dynasty a "new"group of spirits wassuddenly elevated to primary status as major protectors; so important, in fact, that they wereincluded among the sculptures of two local Buddhist sites in central Sichuan.42 Of course thetypological connection between this group of nine spirit-kings and the traditional Tianlong Babuz(Eight-fold Group of Gods and Dragons),asprotectorsof the Buddha'sassembly, is ratherobvious.43The latter group of protectors is a common feature in numerous Tang dynasty sculptural groupsfound throughout Sichuanprovince, thereforeit is not so surprisingto find a later substitute of thisgroup in the form of the Nine Spirit Kings as seen at Mingshan Temple.As the Baoding sculptures in Group No. 2 areknown to date from the late twelfth century to ca.A.D. 1220, we may infer that the sculptures of the Nine Protector-kings at Mingshan were carvedaround that time or,perhaps, slightly ear

bud sculpture from song dynasty

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