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The Brahmanical Critique of Buddhism A Sociological and Historical Perspective
The aim of my dissertation is to trace the lines of the Buddhist-Briihmatta philosophical debate and 10shy
cate it in its social and historical context as clearly as I can The debate between exponents of Buddhdarshy
sana and upholders of Brahmanical orthodoxy has been presented almost entirely in both Indian and
Western histories of Indian philosophy as a matter of doctrines and arguments divested of their social reshy
lations This debate is immensely interesting in itself representing as it does one of the great achieveshy
ments of sustained human inluiry remarkable in its ingenuity subtlety and depth A good part of my
work will involve simply unfolding it It is evident however that this debate also has a social signifishy
cance a contour and direction shaped by the course of South Asian history This social economic and
political shaping can be delineated in a way that illuminates an important and neglected aspect of the
meaning of these doctrines and arguments After surveying in more precise detail the field of the Budshy
dhist-Brahmava debate its chronology periodization affiliations and oppositions the point and countershy
point of argumentation and the threads of similarity and divergence I will then try to map the field of the
debate onto politico-economic changes to determine to what extent it can be seen to track them
My dissertation is therefore intended as a contribution to the sociology of knowledge in India and an
effort at historicization that begins with the question what was the ideological function and significance
of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate the social dynamic at work in it the materiality of intellectual proshy
duction supporting it and the reasons why the Buddhists appear to have lost it
I will look at several kinds of texts a preliminary survey of reports by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims to
the Holy Land literary and dramatic descriptions of Buddhists mostly of a critical and often satiric nashy
ture and smarta references that give us a vivid picture of Buddhism in practice how Buddhists were acshy
tually living and how they were viewed by their critics but primarily through the most important iistika
refutations of Buddhist ideas in Sanskrit This will be the centerpiece of my dissertation presenting a deshy
tailed critical analysis of the main lines of sastric argumentation outlining its dialogical interaction with
Buddhist thought I will translate the essential sections of the relevant Nyilya Silmkhya Yoga Mimilmsil
and Vedilntic texts sticking to the big names among siitrakaras bha~akaras varttikakaras and samgrashy
hakaras These texts will be discussed together with the relevant Buddhist texts and a wide range of hisshy
torical and cultural evidence to socially and historically contextualize the symbolic-ideational contest as it
develops between the Buddhists and their Brahmanical critics
The period from Nilgarjuna in the second century CB to Silntarak~ita in the 8th century CE is the
greatest age of philosophical creativity in Indian philosophy The only comparable one is the ferment of
the sramana movement of 700-400 BCE out of which emerged the sages of the Upanishads the Budshy
dhists the Jains and the Ajrvikas After 200 CE we see the crystallization ofthe sutras concentrated texshy
tual production in the commentarial form and the appearance on the scene of named personalities The
reason for this is clearly the expanding use and standardizing effect of writing and large-scale manuscript
production and dissemination which was superceding oral transmission The circulation of manuscripts
gives rise to a symbiotic attention space of shared protocols codes of discourse and problems in which
intellectual exchange and argument is carried on The language of this discursive space is Sanskrit A
classical Sanskritic education becomes the price of entry The material bases that support this space of
intellectual activity are laid down during the Gupta era The Hindul challenge to Buddhist thought and the
Buddhist response is the energizing stimulus driving the burst of creativity that follows from 400-800 CB
The problem with the standard histories of Indian philosophy is that they are not sufficiently historical
This is mainly due to the poor documentation and lack of evidence for the lives and times of Indian phishy
losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy
construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers
from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of
iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us
We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are
produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy
ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy
tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted
Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian
intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact
most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in
different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy
though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy
hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy
turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of
Sanskrit textual production
Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy
books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and
static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive
reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six
darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy
ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy
terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought
The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this
compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and
this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases
overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are
to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in
Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic
approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy
bution to these efforts
More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy
nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated
elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention
has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp
demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya
began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did
not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a
modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely
outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans
and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the
varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers
have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus
have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy
tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it
is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of
2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court
those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700
CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6
Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed
caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the
varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand
world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that
Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of
today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy
tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the
outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy
ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and
legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and
propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological
force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy
dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The
Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and
practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given
the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction
Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of
varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became
a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas
Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the
PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy
6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali
BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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I will look at several kinds of texts a preliminary survey of reports by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims to
the Holy Land literary and dramatic descriptions of Buddhists mostly of a critical and often satiric nashy
ture and smarta references that give us a vivid picture of Buddhism in practice how Buddhists were acshy
tually living and how they were viewed by their critics but primarily through the most important iistika
refutations of Buddhist ideas in Sanskrit This will be the centerpiece of my dissertation presenting a deshy
tailed critical analysis of the main lines of sastric argumentation outlining its dialogical interaction with
Buddhist thought I will translate the essential sections of the relevant Nyilya Silmkhya Yoga Mimilmsil
and Vedilntic texts sticking to the big names among siitrakaras bha~akaras varttikakaras and samgrashy
hakaras These texts will be discussed together with the relevant Buddhist texts and a wide range of hisshy
torical and cultural evidence to socially and historically contextualize the symbolic-ideational contest as it
develops between the Buddhists and their Brahmanical critics
The period from Nilgarjuna in the second century CB to Silntarak~ita in the 8th century CE is the
greatest age of philosophical creativity in Indian philosophy The only comparable one is the ferment of
the sramana movement of 700-400 BCE out of which emerged the sages of the Upanishads the Budshy
dhists the Jains and the Ajrvikas After 200 CE we see the crystallization ofthe sutras concentrated texshy
tual production in the commentarial form and the appearance on the scene of named personalities The
reason for this is clearly the expanding use and standardizing effect of writing and large-scale manuscript
production and dissemination which was superceding oral transmission The circulation of manuscripts
gives rise to a symbiotic attention space of shared protocols codes of discourse and problems in which
intellectual exchange and argument is carried on The language of this discursive space is Sanskrit A
classical Sanskritic education becomes the price of entry The material bases that support this space of
intellectual activity are laid down during the Gupta era The Hindul challenge to Buddhist thought and the
Buddhist response is the energizing stimulus driving the burst of creativity that follows from 400-800 CB
The problem with the standard histories of Indian philosophy is that they are not sufficiently historical
This is mainly due to the poor documentation and lack of evidence for the lives and times of Indian phishy
losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy
construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers
from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of
iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us
We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are
produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy
ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy
tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted
Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian
intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact
most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in
different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy
though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy
hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy
turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of
Sanskrit textual production
Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy
books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and
static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive
reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six
darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy
ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy
terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought
The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this
compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and
this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases
overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are
to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in
Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic
approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy
bution to these efforts
More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy
nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated
elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention
has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp
demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya
began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did
not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a
modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely
outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans
and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the
varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers
have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus
have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy
tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it
is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of
2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court
those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700
CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6
Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed
caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the
varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand
world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that
Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of
today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy
tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the
outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy
ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and
legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and
propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological
force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy
dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The
Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and
practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given
the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction
Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of
varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became
a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas
Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the
PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy
6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali
BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy
construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers
from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of
iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us
We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are
produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy
ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy
tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted
Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian
intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact
most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in
different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy
though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy
hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy
turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of
Sanskrit textual production
Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy
books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and
static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive
reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six
darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy
ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy
terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought
The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this
compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and
this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases
overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are
to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in
Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic
approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy
bution to these efforts
More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy
nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated
elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention
has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp
demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya
began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did
not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a
modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely
outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans
and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the
varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers
have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus
have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy
tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it
is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of
2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court
those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700
CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6
Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed
caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the
varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand
world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that
Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of
today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy
tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the
outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy
ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and
legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and
propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological
force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy
dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The
Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and
practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given
the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction
Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of
varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became
a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas
Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the
PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy
6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali
BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases
overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are
to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in
Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic
approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy
bution to these efforts
More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy
nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated
elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention
has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp
demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya
began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did
not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a
modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely
outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans
and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the
varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers
have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus
have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy
tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it
is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of
2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court
those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700
CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6
Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed
caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the
varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand
world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that
Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of
today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy
tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the
outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy
ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and
legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and
propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological
force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy
dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The
Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and
practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given
the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction
Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of
varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became
a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas
Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the
PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy
6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali
BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700
CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6
Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed
caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the
varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand
world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that
Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of
today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy
tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the
outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy
ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and
legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and
propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological
force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy
dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The
Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and
practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given
the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction
Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of
varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became
a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas
Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the
PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy
6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali
BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers
and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by
the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture
from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy
manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian
culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out
(
the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at
this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy
ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy
position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical
traditions through debate with the Buddhists
The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are
dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy
tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy
riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate
reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based
thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point
Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences
of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas
Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate
Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers
Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to
speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of
contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a
debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy
consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy
lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy
plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and
Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity
and culminates in the Advaita tipping point
In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges
as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of
Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an
orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing
of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE
things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy
dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of
Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-
rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive
works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its
intellectual dominance 8
7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism
Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by
I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
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Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
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Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
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Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
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Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
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Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
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Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
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Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
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I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in
the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy
tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the
cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist
symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval
feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded
Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy
zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the
time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely
extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest
of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy
The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy
cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical
opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy
sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The
Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political
economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy
ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material
bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline
as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy
tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism
and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that
Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a
Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position
Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
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Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
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Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological
method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre
Bourdieus model of cultural production1o
Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will
elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of
affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy
ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an
unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy
tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia
as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy
dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of
trade
The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that
it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule
Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This
process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy
tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy
litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy
pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence
and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila
realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha
yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support
Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy
ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm
9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy
cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal
Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the
swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy
sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu
Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-
em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically
Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around
the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth
lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious
traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents
I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized
II Review of the Scholarship
III Cultural Contestation
A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle
B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic
C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists
1 Selected translations and studies of texts
a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava
b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya
d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata
e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta
IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option
A Discussion and translation of relevant passages
1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata
a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya
b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika
c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari
d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii
e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
a Sabara SabarabhC4ya
b Kumari1a Slokavarttika
c Prabhakara Brhatf
3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata
a Badarayana Brahmasiitras
b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya
4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata
a Patafijali Yogasiitras
b Vyasa YogabhC4ya
c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi
d Yuktidrpikii
e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya
B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate
V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual
A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought
1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita
B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy
C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage
D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism
E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization
VI Buddhist Thought and Caste
A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism
1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta
2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina
3 Vajrasiicf
4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna
1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists
D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate
V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift
1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade
2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo
3 Buddhism as ideological currency
VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought
A Loss ofan independent social space
B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital
VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo
1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism
A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege
B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas
C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized
VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy
IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750
A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation
B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell
1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism
Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
Bibliography
Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts
Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita
Asvaghosa Vajrasuci
Badarayana Brahmasiltras
Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava
Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam
Caturbhijni or Sringarahata
DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita
Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac
Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf
Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii
Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra
Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka
Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya
Ksemendra Narma-Miilii
Kumiirila Slokaviirttika
The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995
Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press
Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha
Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana
Patafijali Yogasiltras
Prabhakara Brhan
Sabara SabarabhiiSiya
Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa
Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630
Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon
Press
Udayana Atmatattvaviveka
U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika
Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii
Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi
Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa
Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja
Vyasa YogabhiiSya
Yuktidfpikii
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
Secondary Sources
Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press
Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications
Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~
sity Press
Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press
Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213
Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press
Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press
Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House
1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi
Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University
Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper
---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press
Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251
Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd
Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press
Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press
Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press
Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute
Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
sityPress
Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press
Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble
Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press
Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan
Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge
Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books
Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press
--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press
---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press
Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49
Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press
Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press
Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society
Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal
Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press
---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press
Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications
Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge
Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications
King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press
--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press
--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge
Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene
Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press
--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press
Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press
Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375
Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press
Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas
--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press
--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press
Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati
Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press
-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan
OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press
Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press
Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications
Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass
Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co
Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court
--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall
Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press
Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press
Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications
Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP
Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften
Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University
Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press
Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell
Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press
Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University
---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan
Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press
Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press
Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930
--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta
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Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas
Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)
Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books
Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian
Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
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Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House
Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association
Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL
Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press
Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill
Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill
---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge