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Concreteandmetalrebarusedtobuildafloor
BuildingmaterialFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Buildingmaterialisanymaterialwhichisusedforconstructionpurposes.Manynaturallyoccurringsubstances,suchasclay,rocks,sand,andwood,eventwigsandleaves,havebeenusedtoconstructbuildings.Apartfromnaturallyoccurringmaterials,manymanmadeproductsareinuse,somemoreandsomelesssynthetic.Themanufactureofbuildingmaterialsisanestablishedindustryinmanycountriesandtheuseofthesematerialsistypicallysegmentedintospecificspecialtytrades,suchascarpentry,insulation,plumbing,androofingwork.Theyprovidethemakeupofhabitatsandstructuresincludinghomes.[1]
Contents
1Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials1.1Economiccosts1.2Ecologicalcosts1.3Energycosts1.4Socialcosts
2Naturallyoccurringsubstances2.1Brush2.2Iceandsnow2.3Mudandclay
2.3.1Wetlaidclaywalls2.3.2Structuralclayblocksandbricks
2.4Sand2.5Stoneorrock2.6Thatch2.7Woodandtimber
3Manmadesubstances3.1Firedbricksandclayblocks3.2Cementcomposites3.3Concrete3.4Fabric3.5Foam3.6Glass3.7Gypcrete3.8Metal3.9Plastics3.10Papersandmembranes3.11Ceramics
4Buildingproducts5Testingandcertification6Seealso7References8Externallinks
Thetotalcostofbuildingmaterials
Inhistorytherearetrendsinbuildingmaterialsfrombeing:naturaltobecomingmoremanmadeandcompositebiodegradabletoimperishableindigenous(local)tobeingtransportedgloballyrepairabletodisposableandchosenforincreasedlevelsoffiresafety.Thesetrendstendtoincreasetheinitialandlongtermeconomic,ecological,energy,andsocialcostsofbuildingmaterials.
Economiccosts
Theinitialeconomiccostofbuildingmaterialsisthepurchaseprice.Thisisoftenwhatgovernsdecisionmakingaboutwhatmaterialstouse.Sometimespeopletakeintoconsiderationtheenergysavingsordurabilityofthematerialsandseethevalueofpayingahigherinitialcostinreturnforalowerlifetimecost.Forexampleanasphaltshingleroofcostslessthanametalrooftoinstall,butthemetalroofwilllastlongersothelifetimecostislessperyear.Riskswhenconsideringlifetimecostofamaterialisifthebuildingisdamagedsuchasbyfireorwind,orifthematerialisnotasdurableasadvertised.Thecostofmaterialsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationtobeartherisktobuycombustivematerialstoenlargethelifetime.Itissaidthat,'ifitmustbedone,itmustbedonewell'.
Ecologicalcosts
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ViewofagroupofMohavesinabrushhut
SodbuildingsinIceland
Pollutioncostscanbemacroandmicro.Themacro,environmentalpollutionofextractionindustriesbuildingmaterialsrelyonsuchasmining,petroleum,andloggingproduceenvironmentaldamageattheirsourceandintransportationoftherawmaterials,manufacturing,transportationoftheproducts,retailing,andinstallation.Anexampleofthemicroaspectofpollutionistheoffgassingofthebuildingmaterialsinthebuildingorindoorairpollution.RedListbuildingmaterialsarematerialsfoundtobeharmful.Alsothecarbonfootprint,thetotalsetofgreenhousegasemissionsproducedinthelifeofthematerial.Alifecycleanalysisalsoincludesthereuse,recycling,ordisposalofconstructionwaste.Twoconceptsinbuildingwhichaccountfortheecologicaleconomicsofbuildingmaterialsaregreenbuildingandsustainabledevelopment.
Energycosts
Initialenergycostsincludetheamountofenergyconsumedtoproduce,deliverandinstallthematerial.Thelongtermenergycostistheeconomic,ecological,andsocialcostsofcontinuingtoproduceanddeliverenergytothebuildingforitsuse,maintenance,andeventualremoval.Theinitialembodiedenergyofastructureistheenergyconsumedtoextract,manufacture,deliver,install,thematerials.Thelifetimeembodiedenergycontinuestogrowwiththeuse,maintenance,andreuse/recycling/disposalofthebuildingmaterialsthemselvesandhowthematerialsanddesignhelpminimizethelifetimeenergyconsumptionofthestructure.
Socialcosts
Socialcostsareinjuryandhealthofthepeopleproducingandtransportingthematerialsandpotentialhealthproblemsofthebuildingoccupantsifthereareproblemswiththebuildingbiology.Globalizationhashadsignificantimpactsonpeoplebothintermsofjobs,skills,andselfsufficiencyarelostwhenmanufacturingfacilitiesareclosedandtheculturalaspectsofwherenewfacilitiesareopened.Aspectsoffairtradeandlaborrightsaresocialcostsofglobalbuildingmaterialmanufacturing.
Naturallyoccurringsubstances
Brush
BrushstructuresarebuiltentirelyfromplantpartsandwereusedinprimitiveculturessuchasNativeAmericans,[2]pygmypeoplesinAfrica[3]Thesearebuiltmostlywithbranches,twigsandleaves,andbark,similartoabeaver'slodge.Thesewerevariouslynamedwikiups,leantos,andsoforth.
Anextensiononthebrushbuildingideaisthewattleanddaubprocessinwhichclaysoilsordung,usuallycow,areusedtofillinandcoverawovenbrushstructure.Thisgivesthestructuremorethermalmassandstrength.Wattleanddaubisoneoftheoldestbuildingtechniques.[4]Manyoldertimberframebuildingsincorporatewattleanddaubasnonloadbearingwallsbetweenthetimberframes.
Iceandsnow
Snowandoccasionallyice,[5]wereusedbytheInuitpeoplesforigloosandsnowisusedtobuiltasheltercalledaquinzhee.Icehasalsobeenusedforicehotelsasatouristattractioninnorthernclimates.[6]
Mudandclay
Claybasedbuildingsusuallycomeintwodistincttypes.Onebeingwhenthewallsaremadedirectlywiththemudmixture,andtheotherbeingwallsbuiltbystackingairdriedbuildingblockscalledmudbricks.
Otherusesofclayinbuildingiscombinedwithstrawstocreatelightclay,wattleanddaub,andmudplaster.
Wetlaidclaywalls
Wetlaid,ordamp,wallsaremadebyusingthemudorclaymixturedirectlywithoutformingblocksanddryingthemfirst.Theamountofandtypeofeachmaterialinthemixtureusedleadstodifferentstylesofbuildings.Thedecidingfactorisusuallyconnectedwiththequalityofthesoilbeingused.Largeramountsofclayareusuallyemployedinbuildingwithcob,whilelowclaysoilisusuallyassociatedwithsodhouseorsodroofconstruction.Theothermainingredientsincludemoreorlesssand/gravelandstraw/grasses.Rammedearthisbothanoldandnewertakeoncreatingwalls,oncemadebycompactingclaysoilsbetweenplanksbyhandnowadaysformsandmechanicalpneumaticcompressorsareused.[7]
Soil,andespeciallyclay,providesgoodthermalmassitisverygoodatkeepingtemperaturesataconstantlevel.Homesbuiltwithearthtendtobenaturallycoolinthesummerheatandwarmincoldweather.Clayholdsheatorcold,releasingitoveraperiodoftimelikestone.Earthenwallschangetemperatureslowly,soartificiallyraisingorloweringthetemperaturecanusemoreresourcesthaninsayawoodbuilthouse,buttheheat/coolnessstayslonger.[7]
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Todatribehut
AwoodframedhouseunderconstructioninTexas,UnitedStates
Peoplebuildingwithmostlydirtandclay,suchascob,sod,andadobe,createdhomesthathavebeenbuiltforcenturiesinwesternandnorthernEurope,Asia,aswellastherestoftheworld,andcontinuetobebuilt,thoughonasmallerscale.Someofthesebuildingshaveremainedhabitableforhundredsofyears.[8][9]
Structuralclayblocksandbricks
Mudbricks,alsoknownbytheirSpanishnameadobeareancientbuildingmaterialswithevidencedatingbackthousandsofyearsBC.Compressedearthblocksareamoremoderntypeofbrickusedforbuildingmorefrequentlyinindustrializedsocietysincethebuildingblockscanbemanufacturedoffsiteinacentralizedlocationatabrickworksandtransportedtomultiplebuildinglocations.Theseblockscanalsobemonetizedmoreeasilyandsold.
Structuralmudbricksarealmostalwaysmadeusingclay,oftenclaysoilandabinderaretheonlyingredientsused,butotheringredientscanincludesand,lime,concrete,stoneandotherbinders.Theformedorcompressedblockisthenairdriedandcanbelaiddryorwithamortarorclayslip.
Sand
Sandisusedwithcement,andsometimeslime,tomakemortarformasonryworkandplaster.Sandisalsousedasapartoftheconcretemix.AnimportantlowcostbuildingmaterialincountrieswithhighsandcontentsoilsistheSandcreteblock,whichisweakerbutcheaperthanfiredclaybricks.[10]
Stoneorrock
Rockstructureshaveexistedforaslongashistorycanrecall.Itisthelongestlastingbuildingmaterialavailable,andisusuallyreadilyavailable.Therearemanytypesofrockthroughouttheworld,allwithdifferingattributesthatmakethembetterorworseforparticularuses.Rockisaverydensematerialsoitgivesalotofprotectiontooitsmaindrawbackasamaterialisitsweightandawkwardness.Itsenergydensityisalsoconsideredabigdrawback,asstoneishardtokeepwarmwithoutusinglargeamountsofheatingresources.
Drystonewallshavebeenbuiltforaslongashumanshaveputonestoneontopofanother.Eventually,differentformsofmortarwereusedtoholdthestonestogether,cementbeingthemostcommonplacenow.
ThegranitestrewnuplandsofDartmoorNationalPark,UnitedKingdom,forexample,providedampleresourcesforearlysettlers.CircularhutswereconstructedfromloosegraniterocksthroughouttheNeolithicandearlyBronzeAge,andtheremainsofanestimated5,000canstillbeseentoday.GranitecontinuedtobeusedthroughouttheMedievalperiod(seeDartmoorlonghouse)andintomoderntimes.Slateisanotherstonetype,commonlyusedasroofingmaterialintheUnitedKingdomandotherpartsoftheworldwhereitisfound.
StonebuildingscanbeseeninmostmajorcitiessomecivilizationsbuiltentirelywithstonesuchastheEgyptianandAztecpyramidsandthestructuresoftheIncacivilization.
Thatch
Thatchisoneoftheoldestofbuildingmaterialsknowngrassisagoodinsulatorandeasilyharvested.ManyAfricantribeshavelivedinhomesmadecompletelyofgrassesandsandyearround.InEurope,thatchroofsonhomeswereonceprevalentbutthematerialfelloutoffavorasindustrializationandimprovedtransportincreasedtheavailabilityofothermaterials.Today,though,thepracticeisundergoingarevival.IntheNetherlands,forinstance,manynewbuildingshavethatchedroofswithspecialridgetilesontop.
Woodandtimber
Woodhasbeenusedasabuildingmaterialforthousandsofyearsinitsnaturalstate.Today,engineeredwoodisbecomingverycommoninindustrializedcountries.
Woodisaproductoftrees,andsometimesotherfibrousplants,usedforconstructionpurposeswhencutorpressedintolumberandtimber,suchasboards,planksandsimilarmaterials.Itisagenericbuildingmaterialandisusedinbuildingjustaboutanytypeofstructureinmostclimates.Woodcanbeveryflexibleunderloads,keepingstrengthwhilebending,andisincrediblystrongwhencompressedvertically.Therearemanydifferingqualitiestothedifferenttypesofwood,evenamongsametreespecies.Thismeansspecificspeciesarebettersuitedforvarioususesthanothers.Andgrowingconditionsareimportantfordecidingquality.
"Timber"isthetermusedforconstructionpurposesexcepttheterm"lumber"isusedintheUnitedStates.Rawwood(alog,trunk,bole)becomestimberwhenthewoodhasbeen"converted"(sawn,hewn,split)intheformsofminimallyprocessedlogsstackedontopofeachother,timberframeconstruction,andlightframeconstruction.Themainproblemswithtimberstructuresarefireriskandmoisturerelatedproblems.
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TheGliwiceRadioTower(thesecondtallestwoodenstructureintheworld)inPoland(2012).
Apileoffiredbricks.
Clayblocks(sometimescalledclayblockbrick)beinglaidwithanadhesiveratherthanmortar
Inmoderntimessoftwoodisusedasalowervaluebulkmaterial,whereashardwoodisusuallyusedforfinishingsandfurniture.HistoricallytimberframestructureswerebuiltwithoakinwesternEurope,recentlydouglasfirhasbecomethemostpopularwoodformosttypesofstructuralbuilding.
Manyfamiliesorcommunities,inruralareas,haveapersonalwoodlotfromwhichthefamilyorcommunitywillgrowandharvesttreestobuildwithorsell.Theselotsaretendedtolikeagarden.Thiswasmuchmoreprevalentinpreindustrialtimes,whenlawsexistedastotheamountofwoodonecouldcutatanyonetimetoensuretherewouldbeasupplyoftimberforthefuture,butisstillaviableformofagriculture.
Manmadesubstances
Firedbricksandclayblocks
Bricksaremadeinasimilarwaytomudbricksexceptwithoutthefibrousbindersuchasstrawandarefired("burned"inabrickclamporkiln)aftertheyhaveairdriedtopermanentlyhardenthem.Kilnfiredclaybricksareaceramicmaterial.Firedbrickscanbesolidorhavehollowcavitiestoaidindryingandmakethemlighterandeasiertotransport.Theindividualbricksareplaceduponeachotherincoursesusingmortar.Successivecoursesbeingusedtobuildupwalls,arches,andotherarchitecturalelements.Firedbrickwallsareusuallysubstantiallythinnerthancob/adobewhilekeepingthesameverticalstrength.Theyrequiremoreenergytocreatebutareeasiertotransportandstore,andarelighterthanstoneblocks.RomansextensivelyusedfiredbrickofashapeandtypenowcalledRomanbricks.[11]Buildingwithbrickgainedmuchpopularityinthemid18thcenturyand19thcenturies.Thiswasduetolowercostswithincreasesinbrickmanufacturingandfiresafetyintheevercrowdingcities.
Thecinderblocksupplementedorreplacedfiredbricksinthelate20thcenturyoftenbeingusedfortheinnerpartsofmasonrywallsandbythemselves.
Structuralclaytiles(clayblocks)areclayorterracottaandtypicallyareperforatedwithholes.
Cementcomposites
Cementbondedcompositesaremadeofhydratedcementpastethatbindswood,particles,orfiberstomakeprecastbuildingcomponents.Variousfiberousmaterials,includingpaper,fiberglass,andcarbonfiberhavebeenusedasbinders.
Woodandnaturalfibersarecomposedofvarioussolubleorganiccompoundslikecarbohydrates,glycosidesandphenolics.Thesecompoundsareknowntoretardcementsetting.Therefore,beforeusingawoodinmakingcementbondedcomposites,itscompatibilitywithcementisassessed.
Woodcementcompatibilityistheratioofaparameterrelatedtothepropertyofawoodcementcompositetothatofaneatcementpaste.Thecompatibilityisoftenexpressedasapercentagevalue.Todeterminewoodcementcompatibility,methodsbasedondifferentpropertiesareused,suchas,hydrationcharacteristics,strength,interfacialbondandmorphology.Variousmethodsareusedbyresearcherssuchasthemeasurementofhydrationcharacteristicsofacementaggregatemix[12][13][14]thecomparisonofthemechanicalpropertiesofcementaggregatemixes[15][16]
andthevisualassessmentofmicrostructuralpropertiesofthewoodcementmixes.[17]Ithasbeenfoundthatthehydrationtestbymeasuringthechangeinhydrationtemperaturewithtimeisthemostconvenientmethod.Recently,Karadeetal.[18]havereviewedthesemethodsofcompatibilityassessmentandsuggestedamethodbasedonthematurityconcepti.e.takinginconsiderationbothtimeandtemperatureofcementhydrationreaction.
BrickswerelaidinlimemortarfromthetimeoftheRomansuntilsupplantedbyPortlandcementmortarintheearly20thcentury.Cementblocksalsosometimesarefilledwithgroutorcoveredwithapargecoat.
Concrete
Concreteisacompositebuildingmaterialmadefromthecombinationofaggregateandabindersuchascement.ThemostcommonformofconcreteisPortlandcementconcrete,whichconsistsofmineralaggregate(generallygravelandsand),portlandcementandwater.
Aftermixing,thecementhydratesandeventuallyhardensintoastonelikematerial.Whenusedinthegenericsense,thisisthematerialreferredtobytheterm"concrete".
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FalkirkWheel
FoamedplasticsheettobeusedasbackingforfirestopmortaratCIBCbankinToronto.
Foraconcreteconstructionofanysize,asconcretehasaratherlowtensilestrength,itisgenerallystrengthenedusingsteelrodsorbars(knownasrebars).Thisstrengthenedconcreteisthenreferredtoasreinforcedconcrete.Inordertominimiseanyairbubbles,thatwouldweakenthestructure,avibratorisusedtoeliminateanyairthathasbeenentrainedwhentheliquidconcretemixispouredaroundtheironwork.Concretehasbeenthepredominantbuildingmaterialinthemodernageduetoitslongevity,formability,andeaseoftransport.Recentadvancements,suchasinsulatingconcreteforms,combinetheconcreteformingandotherconstructionsteps(installationofinsulation).Allmaterialsmustbetakeninrequiredproportionsasdescribedinstandards.
Fabric
Thetentisthehomeofchoiceamongnomadicgroupsallovertheworld.Twowellknowntypesincludetheconicalteepeeandthecircularyurt.Thetenthasbeenrevivedasamajorconstructiontechniquewiththedevelopmentoftensilearchitectureandsyntheticfabrics.Modernbuildingscanbemadeofflexiblematerialsuchasfabricmembranes,andsupportedbyasystemofsteelcables,rigidorinternal,orbyairpressure.
Foam
Recently,syntheticpolystyreneorpolyurethanefoamhasbeenusedincombinationwithstructuralmaterials,suchasconcrete.Itislightweight,easilyshaped,andanexcellentinsulator.Foamisusuallyusedaspartofastructuralinsulatedpanel,whereinthefoamissandwichedbetweenwoodorcementorinsulatingconcreteforms.
Glass
Glassmakingisconsideredanartformaswellasanindustrialprocessormaterial.
Clearwindowshavebeenusedsincetheinventionofglasstocoversmallopeningsinabuilding.Glasspanesprovidedhumanswiththeabilitytobothletlightintoroomswhileatthesametimekeepinginclementweatheroutside.
Glassisgenerallymadefrommixturesofsandandsilicates,inaveryhotfirestovecalledakiln,andisverybrittle.Additivesareoftenincludedthemixtureusedtoproduceglasswithshadesofcolorsorvariouscharacteristics(suchasbulletproofglassorlightemittance).
Theuseofglassinarchitecturalbuildingshasbecomeverypopularinthemodernculture.Glass"curtainwalls"canbeusedtocovertheentirefacadeofabuilding,oritcanbeusedtospanoverawideroofstructureina"spaceframe".Theseusesthoughrequiresomesortofframetoholdsectionsofglasstogether,asglassbyitselfistoobrittleandwouldrequireanoverlylargekilntobeusedtospansuchlargeareasbyitself.
Glassbrickswereinventedintheearly20thcentury.
Gypcrete
Gypcreteisamixtureofgypsumplasterandfibreglassrovings.Althoughplasterandfibresfiborousplasterhavebeenusedformanyyears,especiallyforceilings,itwasnotuntiltheearly1990sthatseriousstudiesofthestrengthandqualitiesofawallingsystemRapidwall,usingamixtureofgypsumplasterand300mmplusfibreglassrovings,wereinvestigated.Itwasdiscovered,throughtestingattheUniversityofAdelaide,thatthesewallshadsignificant,loadbearing,shearandlateralresistancetogetherwithearthquakeresistance,fireresistance,andthermalproperties.Withanabundanceofgypsum(naturallyoccurringandbyproductchemicalFGDandphosphogypsums)availableworldwide,gypcretebasedbuildingproducts,whicharefullyrecyclable,offersignificantenvironmentalbenefits.
Metal
Metalisusedasstructuralframeworkforlargerbuildingssuchasskyscrapers,orasanexternalsurfacecovering.Therearemanytypesofmetalsusedforbuilding.MetalfiguresquiteprominentlyinprefabricatedstructuressuchastheQuonsethut,andcanbeseenusedinmostcosmopolitancities.Itrequiresagreatdealofhumanlabortoproducemetal,especiallyinthelargeamountsneededforthebuildingindustries.Corrosionismetal'sprimeenemywhenitcomestolongevity.
Steelisametalalloywhosemajorcomponentisiron,andistheusualchoiceformetalstructuralbuildingmaterials.Itisstrong,flexible,andifrefinedwelland/ortreatedlastsalongtime.
Thelowerdensityandbettercorrosionresistanceofaluminiumalloysandtinsometimesovercometheirgreatercost.
Copperisavaluedbuildingmaterialbecauseofitsadvantageousproperties(see:Copperinarchitecture).Theseincludecorrosionresistance,durability,lowthermalmovement,lightweight,radiofrequencyshielding,lightningprotection,sustainability,recyclability,andawiderangeoffinishes.Copperisincorporatedintoroofing,flashing,gutters,downspouts,domes,spires,vaults,wallcladding,building
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CopperbelfryofSt.Laurentiuschurch,BadNeuenahrAhrweiler
PlasticpipespenetratingaconcretefloorinaCanadianhighriseapartmentbuilding
expansionjoints,andindoordesignelements.
Othermetalsusedincludechrome,gold,silver,andtitanium.Titaniumcanbeusedforstructuralpurposes,butitismuchmoreexpensivethansteel.Chrome,gold,andsilverareusedasdecoration,becausethesematerialsareexpensiveandlackstructuralqualitiessuchastensilestrengthorhardness.
Plastics
Theterm"plastics"coversarangeofsyntheticorsemisyntheticorganiccondensationorpolymerizationproductsthatcanbemoldedorextrudedintoobjects,films,orfibers.Theirnameisderivedfromthefactthatintheirsemiliquidstatetheyaremalleable,orhavethepropertyofplasticity.Plasticsvaryimmenselyinheattolerance,hardness,andresiliency.Combinedwiththisadaptability,thegeneraluniformityofcompositionandlightnessofplasticsensurestheiruseinalmostallindustrialapplicationstoday.
Papersandmembranes
Buildingpapersandmembranesareusedformanyreasonsinconstruction.Oneoftheoldestbuildingpapersisredrosinpaperwhichwasknowntobeinusebefore1850andwasusedasanunderlaymentinexteriorwalls,roofs,andfloorsandforprotectingajobsiteduringconstruction.Tarpaperwasinventedlateinthe19thcenturyandwasusedforsimilarpurposesasrosinpaperandforgravelroofs.Tarpaperhaslargelyfallenoutofusesupplantedbyasphaltfeltpaper.Feltpaperhasbeensupplantedinsomeusesbysyntheticunderlayments,particularlyinroofingbysyntheticunderlaymentsandsidingbyhousewraps.
Thereareawidevarietyofdampproofingandwaterproofingmembranesusedforroofing,basementwaterproofing,andgeomembranes.
Ceramics
FiredclaybrickshavebeenusedsincethetimeoftheRomans.Specialtilesareusedforroofing,siding,flooring,ceilings,pipes,flueliners,andmore.
Buildingproducts
Inthemarketplacetheterm"buildingproducts"oftenreferstoreadymadeparticles/sections,madefromvariousmaterials,thatarefittedinarchitecturalhardwareanddecorativehardwarepartsofabuilding.Thelistofbuildingproductsexcludesthebuildingmaterialsusedtoconstructthebuildingarchitectureandsupportingfixtures,likewindows,doors,cabinets,etc.Buildingproducts,rather,supportandmakebuildingmaterialsworkinamodularfashion.
"Buildingproducts"mayalsorefertoitemsusedtoputsuchhardwaretogether,suchascaulking,glues,paint,andanythingelseboughtforthepurposeofconstructingabuilding.
Testingandcertification
ASTMInternationalUL(safetyorganization)ETLSEMKOBuildingProductTestingLaboratoryintheUSA,partofIntertek,basedinLondonNTAIncBuildingProductCertificationAgencybasedinNappanee,Indiana,USA
Seealso
BiocidalnaturalbuildingmaterialListofbuildingmaterialsPhenomenology(architecture)Materiality(architecture)ThermalemittanceThermalmassPrefabrication
References1. "building"def.2and4,"material"def.1.OxfordEnglishDictionarySecondEditiononCDROM(v.4.0)OxfordUniversityPress2009
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Externallinks
MediarelatedtoBuildingmaterialsatWikimediaCommons
MaterialesdeConstruccin(http://materconstrucc.revistas.csic.es)Bilingual(Spanish/English)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejoSuperiordeInvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.InformesdelaConstruccin(http://informesdelaconstruccion.revistas.csic.es)ScientificjournalpublishedbyConsejoSuperiordeInvestigacionesCientficas,Spain.
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