business research methods
TRANSCRIPT
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WELCOME TO BUSINESS
RESEARCH METHODS
EMGT 416
Zin-Eddine Dadach
Fall 2007-2008
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THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
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WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?
Process of getting activities completed efficiently with and through other people
( Robins, 1994)
Set of activities directed at the efficient and effective utilization of resources in the pursuit of one or more goals ( Van fleet, 1991)
THE PRIMARY ACTIVITY OF A MANAGER INVOLVES COORDINATING AND FACILITATING THE MANAGEMENT OF PEOPLE AND RESOURCES IN AN
ORGANIZATION
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TODAY’S MANAGER’S CHALLENGES
During the last two decades, we have
witnessed a dramatic changes in the business.
From the historic economic role, the business
has now evolved in response to social and
political changes, explosive technology growth,
innovations in global communication
These dramatic changes have created new
knowledge needs for the MANAGER and new
publics to consider when evaluating any
DECISION
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MANAGER NEEDS MORE AND
BETTER INFORMATION
BECAUSE: More variables to consider
More knowledge exist in any field of
management
Global and local competition is more vigorous
Quality of theories and models to make
decisions is improving
More concerns from the governments about
public protection
Public more informed wants to be included in
company decision making
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THE IMPACT OF COMPUTERS
AND INTERNET ON THE
INFORMATION Data mining is becoming important: Extract
meaningful knowledge from volumes of data
Easier to analyze study data stored in computer
Techniques of quantitative analysis become
more important with new powerful computers
The number and power of the tools used to
conduct research ( INTERNET) has increased
fitting the complexity of the new business
environment
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INFORMED DECISIONS
GOOD INFORMATION LEAD TO GOOD DECISION
In this very complex and competitive new business environment, managers should understand how to identify quality information and to recognize the solid, reliable research on which their high-risk decisions can be based
Managers need also to know how to conduct such research to get only the valuable information
These skills need understanding of the scientific methods used for decision making
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TO GET VALUABLE INFORMATION YOU
NEED GOOD BUSINESS RESEARCH
METHODS
The study of business research methods
provides us the knowledge and skills to
solve problems and meet the challenges
of a fast-paced decision-making
environment
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OBJECTIVES OF
THIS COURSE
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THEORY PART OF THE
COURSE
WHY RESEARCH IS IMPORTANT?
WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS DURING THE RESEARCH PROCESS
ETHICAL BEHAVIOR OF THE RESEARCHER AND THE RESPONDENT
DISCUSS THE ROLE OF LITERATURE REVIEW AND THE CONCEPTS OF REFERENCING
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STATISTICAL PART OF THE
COURSE ( SPSS PROGRAM)
EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING
THE ROLE AND NEED OF CAREFUL RESEARCH
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CAUSAL AND CO RELATIONAL ANALYSIS
RESEARCH VARIABLES AND SURVEY RESEARCH TOOLS
DISCUSS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY AND DATA COLLECTION METHODS
ANALYSIS OF DATA BY SPSS
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FINAL PROJECT
AT THE END OF THE COURSE, YOU WILL HAVE A CASE STUDY AND SUBMIT A COMPLETE REPORT
REPORT INCLUDE RESEARCH DESIGN, PROCEDURES, DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS IN LIGHT OF THEORY
IDENTIFY THE SIGNIFICANT COMPONENTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS FOR ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT DECISION MAKING
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MANAGER IN BUSINESS
RESEARCH
A CRITICAL CONSUMER OF INFORMATION
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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Manager should be able to conduct business
research
Manager should find out the research process
of the information he wants to analyze
The kind of research and its outcome depend
mainly on the research process:
WHY RESEARCH IS DONE?
WHO PAID FOR THE RESEARCH?
WHO DID THE RESEARCH?
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WHO DOES RESEARCH ?
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ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Every university has a scientific lab with
full time professors and graduated
students
They are mainly two kinds of research
basic research
Practical research
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WHAT IS BASIC RESEARCH?
A typical basic research is usually has a
theoretical background and is done in a
lab for theory building
Basic research is done mainly by
graduate students and supervised by a
professor or a group of professors
Basic research is financed by a
professor or an academic department or
the university
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OUTCOME OF BASIC RESEARCH
The results of any basis research are to be published in a journal, magazine, newspaper, book
In order to accept paper for publication, scholars reviewing of the journal ensure the level of quality of the research and the theory and methods used.
All the researchers in science and engineering dream to publish in the journals NATURE or SCIENCE
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APPLIED RESEARCH
A typical basic research has a little theoretical background and is practically oriented
The practical research is done mainly by researchers in a lab and/or plant for practical results to be used in industries or agencies
Practical research is financed by industries or agencies to solve a practical problem or a particular issue
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OUTCOMES OF APPLIED RESEARCH
The results of any practical research are
not for publication.
All the results should be submitted to the
industry or agency who financed the
research
A contract including non-divulgation
between the industry and the professor
who supervise the research is signed in
the beginning of the research process
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GOVERNMENTAL RESEARCH
ORGANIZATIONS
In GENERAL, Government organizations
have their “in house” research agencies
The objective of governmental research
agencies is to use statistical research to
find solutions related to social, economic
and market issues .
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EXAMPLE OF UAE GOVERNMENT
RESEARCH AGENCIES
The Economic & Policy Research of the
government of UAE
This unit was developed to provide
applied research aimed at supporting the
UAE's growth and development.
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WHAT RESEARCH DOES EPRU
UNDERTAKE?
The quality and reliability of UAE economic
statistics and their use for forecasting purposes.
The international competitiveness, efficiency
and productivity of the UAE economy, including
the public and private sectors.
Diversification of the UAE economy.
International trade, including customs reform
and trade relations with GCC members.
UAE labor market dynamics, including the issue
of Emiratization of the labor market.
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EXAMPLES OF CURRENT
RESEARCH PROJECTS OF EPRU
An evaluation of the quality of UAE Economic Statistics & Indicators.
Trade Facilitation between GCC Member States.
The International Competitiveness of the Countries of the MENA Region.
The Efficiency of the Abu Dhabi Securities Market and the Dubai Financial Market.
The Efficiency and Productivity of UAE Banks.
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ECONOMIC RESEARCH
METHODS USED BY EPRU
Economic models for time-series cross-
section and panel data.
Non-parametric models including Data
Envelope Analysis and Structural
Equation Modeling.
Computable General Equilibrium (CGE)
Modeling.
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The CGE MODEL IS USED TO
HELP ANSWER QUESTIONS
SUCH AS: How important are the contributions of the different emirates to
the UAE economy?
What will happen to the economy if trade barriers are removed between GCC countries?
How well placed is the UAE economy to cope with the end of oil exports?
What can the UAE government do to increase the labor market participation rates and employment rates for Emiratis?
What can the UAE government do to keep the economy growing and diversifying?
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CONSULTANTS RESEARCH
Provide research & advisory services to industry and government and government
Some consultant agencies are multinational companies involved in accountancy, finance, management and business consultancy in general
Examples of consultant agencies are Price Water house Coopers and Ernest & Young
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CONSULTANT RESEARCH FOR
OIL INDUSTRIES PLANNING
The oil and gas industry is driven by the
development and delivery of natural
resources of unknown quality, quantity,
and origin.
In this environment, it’s vital that industry
participants conduct risk management
planning.
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ERNST & YOUNG CONSULTANT
RESEARCH AGENCY
To help the oil companies kick off their own scenario planning exercises, the Ernst & Young Global Oil & Gas Center brings the oil companies through nine scenarios and possible outcomes.
From evaluating hydrocarbon reserves to assessing limited supplies within specific countries and states, we provide food for thought on several “what ifs,” including:
What if the global economy experienced a recession?
What if alternatives became a major part of the energy mix?
What if there was no longer a secure supply of oil and gas?
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MANAGERS RESEARCH
Managers should see research as part of their
job
Successful management depends on high
quality information
A great deal of information like sales figures is
routinely available to the manager and does not
need research
However, THE CREATIVE UTILIZATION of
such data ( like establishing market trends) can
be a research project
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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH
FOR MANAGERS
Clients
Potential clients
Staffing
Performance
Competitors
Legal issues
Sales
Information technology
Organizational environment
Organization development
Products
Culture
Productivity
Strategy
Quality
Policy
Finance
Training & Staff development
Managerial effectiveness
communication
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MANAGERS AND RESEARCH
RESULTS EVALUATION
Managers need to conduct or
commission research if they require
information and understanding to aid in
their decision-making
Managers who are familiar with research
process will be able to commission
research and evaluate results
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WHY STUDY RESEARCH
GOOD BUSINESS RESEARCH
REDUCES THE RISK IN DECISION-
MAKING
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DECISION MAKING CASE #1
You are a new head of a machinery
manufacturer.
Some of the old and well trained sales and
services staff left the company.
Complaints from customers regarding poor
after sales services are on the increase
HOW DO YOU BEGIN TO THINK ABOUT
HOW TO SOLVE THIS PROBLEM?
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DECISION MAKING CASE #2
The head of the department chairs the
committee that is responsible to buy the
textbook for EMGT 316
HOW IS HE GOING TO BEGIN TO
EVALUATE THE COMMITTEE
OPTIONS?
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CASE #3 : HOW DO YOU SET UP A
RESEARCH PROJECT?
How will you come with a problem
statement ( problem & questions) ?
How are you going to answer these
problem question?
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Why do managers study
research?
The manager’s DECISIONS need more
and better information
The availability of improved techniques
and tools to meet this need
The resulting information overload if
discipline is not employed in process
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MANAGER NEEDS MORE AND
BETTER INFORMATION
BECAUSE: More variables to consider
More knowledge exist in any field of
management
Global and local competition is more vigorous
Quality of theories and models to make
decisions is improving
More concerns from the governments about
public protection
Public more informed wants to be included in
company decision making
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GOOD INFORMATION LEAD
TO GOOD DECISION
In this very complex and competitive new
business environment, managers should
understand how to identify quality information
and to recognize the solid, reliable research on
which their high-risk decisions can be based
Managers need also to know how to conduct
such research to get only the valuable
information
These skills need understanding of the scientific
methods used for decision making
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EFFECTS OF CONSUMERS
MAGAZINES ON BUSINESS
Consumer magazines are independent and public satisfaction oriented ( quality, durability, ease to use, safety and price)
Therefore, Consumer magazine (ex: “WHICH” in UK) have a significant impact on consumer’s buying behavior AND AFFECT THE SALES OF ANY COMPANY
Companies whose products receive unsatisfactory marks in consumer magazine will withdraw their products from the market
POSITIVE MARKS MAKES THE COMPANY INVEST MORE ON ADVERTISEMENT
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WHAT IS BUSINESS
RESEARCH
THE FIRST STEP FOR ANY
DECISION MAKING : GETTING
INFORMATION
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DEFINITION
A systematic inquiry whose objective is
to provide information to solve
managerial problems
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CASE #1: WHICH BUSINESS
PARTNERS?
AIR SWISS IS LOOKING FOR
INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS
YOU ARE ASKED TO INVESTIGATE
SIX POTENTIAL COMPANIES
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YOUR RESEARCH TEAM
INVESTIGATION
PERTINENT DATA ARE COLLECTED FROM
PUBLIC SOURCES
YOU WILL EXAMINE
ANNUAL REPORTS,
ARTICLES IN BUSINESS JOURNALS,
TRADE MAGAZINES
NEWSPAPERS
FINANCIAL ANALYST’S ASSESSMENTS
COMPANY ADVERTISEMENTS
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FINAL RESEARCH REPORT
YOUR RESEARCH TEAM DEVELOP
SUMMARY PROFILE OF EACH
COMPANY
THE FINAL REPORT HIGHLIGHTS THE
OPPORTUNITIES AND PROBLEMS
THAT THE ACQUISITION OF THE
TARGET COMPANY WILL BRING TO
ALL AREAS OF THE BUSINESS
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THE MANAGER DILEMMA
THE SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT OF
SWISS AIR WILL READ YOUR
REPORT AND MUST MAKE A FINAL
PROPOSAL ABOUT WHICH IS THE
PREFERRED PARTNER WITH WHICH
TO JOIN FORCES
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CASE #2: BUYING A NEW
EQUIPMENT?
A prominent manufacturer of medical
equipment contacts you to buy a new-
generation MRI scanner.
The doctor committee is waiting for your
recommendations to decide either to buy
it or not
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YOUR INVESTIGATION
Mining data from patients files from other
hospitals which are using the equipment
to find :
How the new equipment is used
For what kind of diagnosis it can be used
Your try to confirm your data with
professional and associations journals
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FINAL RESEARCH REPORT
Develop a profile that details the number
of patients that could be treated
Estimate the overheads after buying the
equipment
Estimate potential revenue that would be
realized after buying the equipment
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THE MANAGER DILEMMA
AFTER READING THE REPORT, THE
DOCTORS COMMITTEE MUST
DECIDE WHETHER TO BUY A NEW
MRI SCANNER
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CASE #3 : CHECKING
DEPARTMENT EFFICIENCY
A color manufacturer can not maintain
good profit level.
The owner believes the inventory
management is weak area of the
company
You are asked to make some
recommendations
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GET THE FIRST IMPRESSION
You look at the present warehousing and
shipping operations and find excessive
sales loss and delivery delays because
of out-stock conditions
An informal poll of customers confirm
your impression
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TRAINING NEEDED
Based on this impression, you familiarize
yourself with the latest inventory
management techniques in a local
college library
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COLLECTING DATA
You ask the warehouse manager to take
an accurate inventory
You review the incoming orders of the
last year
The owner shows you the production run
of last year and the method he uses to
assess the need for a particular color
paint
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SELECTING THE BEST
TECHNIQUE
Modeling the last year business using production, order and inventory management technique, you select the method that give you, in theory, the best profit
After two months, the new technique used show a much lower inventory and a higher order fulfillment
Your recommend the new technique to the owner
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THE MANAGER DILEMMA
The owner must decide whether to
implement a new inventory management
system
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WHAT MUST A
RESEARCHER
ACCOMPLISH
DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES OF
BUSINESS RESEARCH
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RESEARCH STUDY
OBJECTIVES
REPORTING
DESCRIPTIVE
EXPLANATORY
EVALUATIVE
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OBJECTIVE #1 : REPORTING
At the elementary level, a reporting study may
be produced simply to provide an account or
summation of some data or to generate some
statistics
Reporting study call for knowledge and skills in
using information sources and dealing with their
gatekeepers
Reporting research calls for little in the way of
inference or conclusion drawing
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REPORTING=GETTING
INFORMATION
Sometimes the task might be quite
simple and the data readily available
Sometimes the information are difficult to
get
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CASE STUDY : SWISS AIR
The researcher needs to know which
information should be assessed in order
to value the company
Knowing the type of information needed,
the researcher identifies possible
sources of information, like trade press
articles and annual reports
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THE VALUABLE SOURCES
The public takes airplanes: the public
feedback is the most important source of
information
Because of the evaluation of the
potential partners on the company
stock’s prices, only public sources are
used
Other less sensitive reporting studies
could be interviewing the gatekeepers
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OBJECTIVE #2: DESCRIPTIVE
A Descriptive study seeks to find out and describe but not necessarily to explain
A descriptive study try the answer the following questions:
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
How?
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WHO CAN DO DESCRIPTIVE
STUDY?
This is the nature of much research produced by governmental statistical agencies
Examples are: collecting information regarding the population, Households, Medical care expenditure,…
Such descriptive research is conducted on a regular basis to monitor social and economic changes
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES COLLECT THESE DATA AND OTHERS CAN USE IT FOR POLICY, ACADEMIC OR POLITICAL PURPOSES
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DESCRIPTIVE STUDY IS
STATISTICAL
Descriptive studies may involve the
collection of data and an examination of
the distribution and the number of times
the researcher observes a single event
or characteristic (research variable)
Descriptive studies may also involve an
assessment (study) of the interaction of
two or more variables
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CASE STUDY: BUYING A NEW
EQUIPMENT IS A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
The researcher must present data that reveal:
Who is affiliated with the insurer
Who uses managed healthcare programs ( both
doctors and patients)
General trends (TENDENCY) in the use of MRI
in diagnosis illness and relationship with patient
characteristics
Doctor referrals
Technology use patterns
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
DEFICIENCY
Descriptive research may or may not
have the potential for drawing powerful
inferences ( link between data and the
decision to make)
Some organizations that have databases
of their employees , customers, suppliers
do not mine them regularly to take
advantage of the decision-making insight
they may provide
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH FOR
NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
Descriptive research can not explain why an event has occur and why some variables interact in the research
Descriptive research is popular in business research because of its versatility across disciplines
For non-profit organizations, descriptive research has broad appeal to administrators and policy analysts for planning, monitoring, and evaluating
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OBJECTIVE #3
:EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
Explanatory research moves beyond
description to seek to explain the
patterns, relationships and trends
observed or discovered
intend to describe why and how
something work or to make something
easier to understand
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EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
NEEDS CAUSALITY
Why a particular product is so popular?
How staff bonuses bring about increases in efficiency?
Such questions raise the difficult issue of causality ( NOTHING CAN NOT HAPPEN WITHOUT A CAUSE)
To establish causality ( link between two events) requires the researcher to be rigorous in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data
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OBJECTIVE #4: EVALUATIVE
RESEARCH
Aims to make judgment on the success or effectiveness of policies, practices, strategies or programs
Example #1: if an advertising campaign has been cost effective
Example #2: if a particular program is meeting required performance standards
In the private sectors, this research could be done for profitability purposes
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BUSINESS RESEARCH:
APPROACHES OR
PARADIGM
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WHAT IS PARADIGM ?
One that serves as a pattern or model.
Since the 1960s, paradigm has been used in science to refer to a theoretical framework, as when Nobel Laureate David Baltimore cited the work of two colleagues that "really established a new paradigm for our understanding of the causation of cancer."
Thereafter, researchers in many different fields, including sociology and literary criticism, often saw themselves as working in or trying to break out of paradigms.
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PARADIGM IN BUSINESS
RESEARCH
PARADIGM provides guidelines and
principles concerning the way business
research is conducted
The two most important paradigms in
social science research are
The positivist approach
The critical/ interpretive approach
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POSITIVIST RESEARCH
The researcher is independent on the research and the objective is to describe and explain.
Behavior of individuals, groups or organizations under study is explained on the basis of the facts and observations.
Quantitative data are gathered using theories and models
It consists of the empirical part of the study
It is also known as scientific, empiricist, quantitative, deductive
Mostly used in natural sciences
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CRITICAL/INTERPRETIVE
RESEARCH
Human phenomena can not be studied
as non-human phenomena
The social world is socially constructed
and subjective
The “reality” to be studied is the
perceptions of the actors involved in a
given social milieu and not a social
model imposed by the researcher
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CRITICAL/INTERPRETIVE
RESEARCH
The researchers are part of the research
process
The researcher gets inside the mind of
the his/her subjects to see the world
from their point of view
Provide their own explanations of their
situations and behavior
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POSITIVIST OR CRITICAL
APPROACH
Both approaches make assumptions that
need to be weighted before selecting a
research methodology
Researchers are free to choose one or
another approach however a mix of the
two approaches is recommended
because the findings provide a broader
insight or understanding the issues being
investigated
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QUANTITATIVE &
QUALITATIVE
APPROACH
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DEFINITIONS
Quality is the essential character or nature of
something while Quantity is the amount
Quality is the “WHAT” while Quatity is the
“HOW MUCH”
Qualitative refers to the meaning or model or
analogy or metaphor characterizing something
Quantitative assumes the meaning and refers
to a measure of it
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INTRODUCTION
Most business research involves the collection,
analysis and interpretation of statistical
information
Sometimes the research is quantitative :
number of sick days by employees during one
year or the level of sales of a product
Sometimes the research is qualitative in nature
like level of satisfaction of clients , but it is
represented in a quantitative manner ( scores
between 0 and 5)
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QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Collection of numerical data and their analysis
DATA MAY DERIVE FROM QUESTIONNAIRE-BASED SURVEYS, FROM OBSERVATION OR FROM SECONDARY SOURCES SUCH AS SALES DATA
It relies on numerical evidence to draw conclusions or to test hypotheses
The reliability of the results requires a study of a large number of people or organizations
Computers are used for this kind of study
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SAMPLE LARGE
POPULATION
The aim of such study is to link the
observations in one sample to a more general
population
Example : Testing a new drug for a sample of
people ( paid by the company but their health
history should be known by the pharmaceutical
company)
The conclusions of the research are made for
the general public
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QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Not concerned by statistical analysis
Collecting a great number of data for a
relatively small number of subjects and
not a limited amount of information for a
large number of subjects
The information collected is not in
numerical form and conclusions are not
based on numerical analysis
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QUALITATIVE APPROACH
The objective of the research is to fully understand the experiences and situations of few people
The methods used for gathering qualitative information include: observation
informal and unstructured and in-depth interviewing
participants observation
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QUANTITATIVE VS
QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Some researchers use only one
approach
When both are used, Quantitative
approach should be based on initial ,
exploratory qualitative approach
However, the two approaches could be
used together as computers are
increasingly used to analyze qualitative
data
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INDUCTION AND
DEDUCTION
APPROACH
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INDUCTION APPROACH
RESEARCH PROCESS AS FOLLOWS
A= OBSERVATION,
DESCRIPTION
DATA COLLECTION
B = ANALYSIS
C= EXPLANATION
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
B
C
A
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CONCLUSION EXPLAINS
THE FACTS
FIRST YOU COLLECT DATA
SECOND YOU ANALYZE
THIRD YOU EXPLAIN
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EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION
SUPPOSE YOUR FIRM SPENDS $ 1 MILLION ON
REGIONAL PROMOTIONAL CAMPAIGN HOWEVER
SALES DID NOT INCREASE : WHY?
CONCLUSION : PROMOTION POORLY EXECUTED.
THIS CONCLUSION IS INDUCTIVE SINCE
SALES SHOULD INCREASE AFTER
PROMOTIONAL CAMPAIGN
ALSO WE KNOW BY LOGIC IF THE
PROMOTION IS POORLY EXECUTED ,
SALES WILL NOT INCREASE
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HYPOTHESIS FOR THE
POOR PROMOTION
REGIONAL RETAILERS HAVE NOT
ENOUGH STOCK TO FILL CUSTOMER
REQUESTS
A STRIKE BY THE TRUCKING FIRM
EMPLOYEES PREVENTED STOCKS
TON ARRIVE ON TIME
A HURRICANE CLOSED ALL RETAIL
LOCATIONS
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DEDUCTION APPROACH
RESEARCH PROCESS AS FOLLOWS
C= EXPLANATION
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
A= OBSERVATION,
DESCRIPTION
DATA COLLECTION
B = ANALYSIS
B
C
A
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DATA CONFRONT PRIOR
REASONING: TRUE OR FALSE
FIRST A PRIOR REASONING IS
ASSUMED
SECOND DATA ARE COLLECTED
THIRD COLLECTED DATA WILL
CONFIRM OR NEGATE THE
REASONING
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CASE FOR STUDY
All regular employees are trusted not to
steal ( assuming theory)
John is a regular employee ( collecting
data)
John can be trusted ( conclusion)
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EXPERIMENTAL &
NON-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
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EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DONE IN LABORATORY BY
SCIENTISTS IN FIELD LIKE BIOLOGY
AND ENGINEERING
RESEARCHER HAS CONTROL ON
SOME VARIABLES
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NON-EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
REAL WORLD
PEOPLE
NO CONTROL ON THE VARIABLES
EX: TWO PEOPLE WITH SAME
INCOME CAN DIFFER MARKEDLY IN
PERSONALITIES, FAMILY
SITUATIONS, HEALTH
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PLANNING & DESIGNING
RESEARCH
THE PROCESS INVOLVED
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THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS
THE RESEARCH PROCESS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO EIGHT MAIN ELEMENTS (FIGURE 3.1 PAGE 46)
SELECT TOPIC
REVIEW LITERATURE
INVENT NEW FRAMEWORK
DECIDE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
LIST INFORMATION NEEDS AND ORGANIZE
DECIDE RESEARCH STRATEGY
CONDUCT RESEARCH
REPORT FINDINGS
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INTERACTION IN THE FOUR
FIRST ELEMENTS
THE VARIETY OF APPROACHES TO
RESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT NOT
ALL THE RESEARCH PROJECTS WILL
FOLLOW PRECISELY THE SAME
SEQUENCE
THERE IS A GREAT DEAL OF
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FOUR
ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS (
FIGURE 3.1)
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ELEMENT # 1:
SELECTING A TOPIC FROM
DIFFERENT SOURCES
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I) FROM PERSONAL INTEREST:
IF THE RESEARCHER
RESPONSIBLE FOR A PARTICULAR
FUNCTION IN AN ORGANIZATION
MEMBER OF A SOCIAL GROUP
BASED ON GENDER, ETHNICITY OR
OCCUPATION
LIVE IN A PARTICULAR LOCATION
HAVING SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
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ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
KNOWLEDGE OF
PHENOMENA
EASY ACCESS TO
INFORMATION
FROM INDIVIDUALS
HIGH LEVEL OF
MOTIVATION
DISADVANTAGES:
NON-OBJECTIVE (
PART OF THE
SITUATION)
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II) FROM LITERATURE
MOST COMMON SOURCE OF IDEAS FOR ACADEMIC RESEARCH
THERE ARE A VARIETY OF FORMS:
THEORY TESTED IN USA ONLY
( YOU CAN TRY TO STUDY THE THEORY SOMEWHERE ELSE)
A THEORY DEVELOPED IN RELATION TO MANUFACTURING ( YOU CAN STUDY THE SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS)
WIDELY ACCEPTED THEORY BASED ON MEN ( YOU CAN STUDY IT ON WOMEN)
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A THEORY TESTED LONG TIME AGO
AND NEW TESTING TECHNIQUES
ARE NOW AVAILABLE
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ACADEMIC RESEARCH : MY
MASTER THESIS
A NEW AMINE DEVELOPED BY
MOBILE WAS TESTED AND
COMPARED WITH THE WELL KNOWN
AMINE ( MEA) FOR A SPECIFIC
THERMODYNAMIC BEHAVIOR
I COMPARED THE SAME AMINES BUT
THE COMPARISON WAS DONE FOR
THE ABSORPTION RATE PROPERTY
OF BOTH AMINES
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CRITICAL REVIEWING NEEDED
IN LITERATURE SOURCE
IN THE CASE, SELECTING A TOPIC AND
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE ARE
COMBINED
A GOOD RESEARCHER SHOULD IDENTIFY
NOT ONLY WHAT THE LITERATURE SAYS
BUT ESPECIALLY WHAT IT DOES NOT SAY
MOST RESEARCHERS DO NOT TELL YOU
EVERYTHING ABOUT THEIR WORK : YOU
NEED TO READ CAREFULLY, IMAGINE AND
GUESS
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III) POLICY OR MANAGEMENT
CAN BE SPONSORED BY PRIVATE OR INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS OR DONE BY ACADEMICS
ACADEMICS : RESEARCH RESULTS MADE PUBLIC AND OBJECTIVE IS METHODOLOGY FOR WIDE AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS (PARADIGM)
PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS: RESEARCH FOR A PARTICULAR APPLICATION AND RESULTS REMAIN CONFIDENTIAL
GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS: LIES BETWEEN THE TWO APPROACHES
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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH
TOPICS ( FIGURE 3.2 PAGE 47)
PERSONAL INTEREST
THE LITERATURE
POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
SOCIAL
POPULAR ISSUES
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ELEMENT #2:
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
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OBJECTIVE OF REVIEWING
LITERATURE
IDENTIFYING AND ENGAGING WITH
PREVIOUS WORK RELEVANT TO THE
TOPIC OF INTEREST
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THE ROLE OF THE
LITERATURE REVIEW
THE ENTIRE BASIS OF THE RESEARCH
A SOURCE OF IDEAS ON TOPICS FOR RESEARCH
A SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON RESEARCH DONE BY OTHERS
SOURCE OF METHODOLOGY OR THEORETICAL IDEAS
SOURCE OF COMPARISON BETWEEN YOUR RESEARCH AND OTHERS
SOURCE OF DATA SUPPORTING YOUR RESEARCH ( EX: DATA ON LOCAL MARKET)
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STEPS OF REVIEWING
LITERATURE
THE REVIEWING LITERATURE IN THE BEGINNING OF THE PROJECT IS TEMPORARY (JUST TO START THE PROJECT)
TIME DOES NOT ALWAYS ALLOW COMPLETE LITERATURE REVIEW
PROCEED WITH THE PROPOSED RESEARCH IN THE HOPE THAT ALL THE RELEVANT ELEMENTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED
EXPLORATION OF LITERATURE WILL CONTINUE DURING THE PROJECT
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RISK OF INCOMPLETE
LITERATURE REVIEW
DURING THE PROJECT PROCESS, THE RESEARCHER MAY FIND A PUBLICATION ( OLD OR NEW ) WHICH COMPLETELY NEGATES OR UPSTAGES ( DIMINISH THE VALUE) HIS WORK JUST BEFORE FINISHING
THIS RISK IS VERY HIGH IN NATURAL SCIENCES
BUT MINIMAL IN SOCIAL SCIENCES BECAUSE IN TWO DIFFERENT PLACES, SAME RESEARCH PROJECT GIVES DIFFERENT FINDINGS ( SUBJECTIVE)
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HOW TO GET NEW
LITERATURE SOURCES
FOR FASHIONABLE PROJECTS, LITERATURE REVIEW SHOULD INCLUDE UNPUBLISHED LITERATURE AND ONGOING RESEARCH
KNOWING THE PROJECT, FIND THE CENTERS INVOLVED AND GET INFORMATION THROUGH DIRECT APPROACHES, ANNUAL REPORTS, NEWSLETTERS, WEB SITES,
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FASHIONABLE PROJECTS:
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS ARE
VERY ACTIVE
SEARCH FOR SEMINARS AND
CONFERENCES RELATED TO THE
PROJECT, GET THE MOST RECENT
PAPERS, CONTACTS OTHERS
RESEARCHERS,
POSSIBLE COLLABORATION
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CONCLUSION OF THE
LITERATURE REVIEW
ACADEMIC PROJECTS: COMPARE
METHODOLOGIES AND DISCUSSING
MERITS AND DEFICIENCIES AND
EXPLAIN HOW CONCLUSIONS ARE
RELATED TO YOUR PROJECT
MANAGERIAL PROJECTS: SHORTER
CONCLUSION RELATED TO
RELEVANT AND USEFUL FINDINGS
INSTEAD OF METHODOLOGY USED
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ELEMENT #3
DEVISING A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The development of a conceptual
framework is the most important and the
most difficult element of the project
It is sometimes also the weakest
element in research proposals
Conceptual framework involves concepts
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CONCEPTS
To understand and communicate information
about objects and events, there must be a
common ground on which to do it.
CONCEPT SERVE THIS PURPOSE
Concepts are generally accepted collection of
meanings or characteristics associated with
certain events, objects, situations and
behaviors
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EXAMPLE OF CONCEPTS
IF WE SEE A MAN PASSING, WE
IDENTIFY THAT HE IS
WALKING
SKIPPING ( JUMPING)
CRAWLING ( ON THE KNEE)
HOPPING ( SHORT JUMP)
RUNNING
THIS IS A CONCEPT
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SOURCES OF CONCEPTS
SOME CONCEPTS ARE ACQUIRED
FROM PERSONAL EXPERIENCES
AND IF WE CHANGE SOCIETY, WE
WILL HAVE THE SAME CONCEPTS
BUT IN A DIFFERENT LANGUAGE
SOME CONCEPTS ARE UNIQUE TO A
PARTICULAR CULTURE AND CAN
NOT BE TRANSLATED INTO
ANOTHER LANGUAGE
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BORROWING CONCEPTS
GRAVITATION BORROWED FROM PHYSICS AND USED IN MARKETING TO EXPLAIN WHY PEOPLE SHOP WHERE THEY DO
DISTANCE IS USED IN ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT TO DESCRIBE THE DEGREE OF VARIABILITY BETWEEN ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE
VELOCITY IS USED IN ECONOMY
FLAVOR BORROWED FROM FOOD SCIENCE TO ENGINEERING ( HE DOES NOT HAVE THE FLAVOR OF SCIENCE)
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CONCEPTS IN BUSINESS
RESEARCH
WE DESIGN HYPOTHESES USING
CONCEPTS
( FOR EXAMPLE : WHAT IS A GOOD
COMPANY?)
TWO PEOPLE MAY HAVE TWO
DIFFERENT OPINIONS OR
CONCEPTS
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THE IMPORTANCE OF
CONCEPTS
WE DEVISE MEASUREMENT
CONCEPTS BY WHICH TO TEST OUR
HYPOTHETICAL STATEMENTS
WE GATHER DATA USING THESE
MEASUREMENTS CONCEPTS
SOME PEOPLE INVENT CONCEPTS
TO EXPRESS THEIR IDEAS
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COMMUNICATING OUR
CONCEPTS: THE ART
THE SUCCESS OF RESEARCH
DEPENDS ON HOW CLEARLY WE
CONCEPTUALIZE ( FORM AN IDEA)
THIS IS THE ART PART OF BUSINESS
RESEARCH.
YOUR CONCEPTS ARE THE RESULT OF
YOUR OWN EXPERIENCES.
YOUR OWN ART WILL HELP YOU CHOOSE
THE RIGHT QUESTIONS RELATED TO YOUR
CONCEPTS USED FOR THE RESEARCH
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WE NEED CLEAR
CONCEPTS
HOW OTHERS UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPTS WE USE
WHEN WE NEED TO MEASURE ATTITUDE OR SATISFACTION OF PEOPLE WHICH ARE ABSTRACT
EXAMPLE: SOME PEOPLE DO NOT CONCEPTUALIZE THAT HUNTING IS A CRIME
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EXAMPLE #1 THAT NEEDS
CONCEPT
If you want to know: what will be the employee
reaction to the new flexible work schedule ?
You may ask :
Which employees?
What reaction?
THESE QUESTIONS REQUIRE THE USE OF
CONCEPTS, CONSTRUCTS AND
DEFINITIONS
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CHALLENGE: CONCEPTS THAT OTHER
CLEARLY UNDERSTAND
EXAMPLE : IN YOUR
QUESTIONNAIRE, YOU ARE ASKING
RESPONDENTS : “ FAMILY TOTAL
INCOME”
SEEMS AN EASY QUESTION BUT
YOU WILL HAVE CONFUSING
ANSWERS AND YOU CAN NOT
QUANTIFY THEM
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WE NEED TO BE MORE PRECISEABOUT
TIME PERIOD : WEEKLY, MONTHLY,
ANNUALLY
BEFORE OR AFTER INCOME TAXES
FOR HEAD OF FAMILY ONLY OR ALL THE
FAMILY MEMBERS
FOR SALARY AND WAGES ONLY OR FOR
DIVIDENDS, INTEREST, AND CAPITAL GAIN
INCOME IN KIND SUCH AS FREE RENT,
EMPLOYEE DISCOUNT, OR FOOD STAMP
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EXAMPLE THAT NEED
CONCEPT
Why did the stock market price surge higher when all the normal indicators suggested it will go down
You may ask:
What are the normal indicators
THIS QUESTION ALSO REQUIRE THE USE OF CONCEPTS, CONSTRUCTS AND DEFINITIONS
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FIGURE 3.3 PAGE 50
Examples of concepts encountered in
management research, their definition
and they might be operationalised or
communicated in a qualitatively or
quantitatively assessable or measurable
form
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CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
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IMPORTANCE OF
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A conceptual framework of a researcher
indicates how he views the concepts
involved in his study and also the
relation between concepts.
The conceptual framework is original to
each researcher. It depends on the
researcher CONCEPTS based on his
experiences, education and know-how
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COURSE OF THE STUDY = CONCEPTS
+ CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
THE CONCEPTS IDENTIFIED,
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
DETERMINE ALL THE COURSE OF
STUDY
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
AND TYPES OF RESEARCH
IT IS NECESSARY TO DECIDE FIRST
UPON THE KINDS OF RESEARCH
BEING CONDUCTED IN ORDER TO
ELABORATE ITS CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ARE
DIFFERENT IF THE RESEARCH IS
DESCRIPTIVE, EXPLANATORY OR
EVALUATIVE
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH RARELY
REQUIRES ELABORATE
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK BUT
CLEAR DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS
INVOLVED ARE REQUIRED
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EXPLANATORY/
EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
NEED WELL DEVELOPED
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK THAT
FORMS THE BASIS FOR THE
EXPLANATION AND THE
EXAMINATION REQUIRED FOR THE
RESEARCH
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EXPLANATORY/
EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
EXPLANATION INVOLVES IDEA OF
CAUSE EFFECT
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INPUTS
AND OUTPUTS
ACTIONS AND OUTCOMES
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DEVELOPMENT OF
FRAMEWORK (FIGURE 3.4 P.51)
The development of a framework
involves four elements:
Identification of concepts
Definition of concepts
Exploration of relationships between
concepts
Operationalisation
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The process of devising a
conceptual framework
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Concepts – examples (a)
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Concepts – examples (b)
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APPLIED RESEARCH
IN APPLIED RESEARCH SUCH AS
PLANNING AND MARKETING IN AN
ORGANIZATION READY MADE
IDEAS CAN BE FOUND IN PLANNING
OR MARKETING LITERATURE
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ACADEMIC RESEARCH
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CALLED MODEL IS NEEDED
EXAMPLE : THE LEVEL OF STAFF TURNOVER ( T) IN A COMPANY IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE SIZE OF THE COMPANY ( E) COULD BE EXPRESSED AS :
T= a + B.e
THE RESEARCHER IS ASKED TO FIND THE VALUES OF a AND b
Turnover, in a human resources context refers to the characteristic of a given company or industry, relative to rate at which an employer gains and loses staff.
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FOR THE SAME EXAMPLE:
TURNOVER IN A COMPANY
IMAGINE NOW THAT YOU RELATE THE LEVEL OF STAFF TURNOVER ( T) IN A COMPANY TO :
STAFF EXPECTATIONS
STAFF CHARACTERISTICS
JOB CHARACTERISTICS
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
\
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CONCEPT MAPPING A
A Expectations
Turnover
Jobcharacteristics
Personalcharacteristics
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CONCEPT MAPPING A AND B
A
Personalcharacteristics
Expectations
Jobcharacteristics
Turnover
B Expectations
Jobcharacteristics
Personalcharacteristics
Job satisfaction
Organisational commitment
Turnover
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DECIDING
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
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THE LINK BETWEEN
CONCEPTS AND RESEARCH
DECIDING ON THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
IS ONE OF THE MOST DIFFICULT TASKS IN
THE WHOLE PROCESS
The scope/scale of the resultant project should
be manageable within the time/resources
available.
Questions should be answerable
Questions may be grouped into primary and
subsidiary
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EXAMPLE #1 OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
Research question : What is the relationship
between advertising expenditure and revenue?
Research objective – eg. The aim of the study
is to discover the relationship between
advertising expenditure and revenue.
Hypothesis – eg. There is a positive relationship
between advertising expenditure and revenue
THE RESEARCH RESULTS WILL TELL YOU :
TRUE OR FALSE
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EXAMPLE #2 : STAFF
TURNOVER
WHAT ARE THE RELATIVE
INFLUENCES OF “PERSONAL
CHARACTERISTICS”, PRE-
EMPLOYMENT EXPECTATIONS” AND
“JOB CHARACTERISTICS” ON “JOB
SATISFACTION”
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EXAMPLE #2 : STAFF
TURNOVER
TO WHAT EXTENT DOES “JOB
SATISFACTION” AFFECT “
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT”
TO WHAT EXPECT DOES
“ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT”
INFLUENCE THE LEVEL OF “STAFF
TURNOVER”
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STAFF TURNOVER
CONCEPT MAPPING
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Listing information needs &
operationalisation
Self-esteem Existing scale eg. CSE Questionnaire
Concept/variable Operationalisation Data source
Gender M/F Questionnaire or
records
Job expectations Likert scales Questionnaire
Personal Characteristics
Age Age last birthday Questionnaire or
records
Education Highest degree. Questionnaire or records
Experience # years in employment Questionnaire
Marital status Married, de facto etc. Questionnaire
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Listing information needs &
operationalisation Contd
Type of industry* Suitable classification Secondary
Concept/variable Operationalisation Data source
Job level Suitable classification Questionnaire/records
Job Characteristics
Salary level Age last birthday Questionnaire/records
Involved in decisions Scale or ad hoc measure Questionnaire/records
Size of org.* # of employees Questionnaire
Job satisfaction Existing scale (eg. JDI) Questionnaire
Org. commitment Existing scale (eg. BOCS) Questionnaire
* Not relevant if only one organisation
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HOME WORK FOR
OCTOBER 4TH 2007
ANALYZE THE BUSINESS RESEARCH WORK DONE FOR THE RADIO STATION WKLM AND
WHAT WAS THE PROBLEM?
HOW WKLM WANTS TO SOLVE THIS PROBLEM?
HOW DID THEY SELECT THE SAMPLE?
WHY PHONE SURVEY WAS USED?
WHAT IS THE PROBLEM FACED DURING THIS SURVEY?
SUMMARIZE THE FINDINGS
HOW THE FINDINGS ARE RELATED TO THE OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH?
CAN YOU THINK ABOUT ANOTHER METHODOLOGY? EXPLAIN
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DEVELOPING
RESEARCH
STRATEGY
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STEPS OF RESEARCH
STRATEGY
Decide information ( DATA ) -gathering
methods – See Chs. 5-11
Decide data analysis methods – See
Chs. 12-15
Budget and timetable – See this chapter
Section II
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THURSDAY OCTOBER 4TH : RESEARCH
PROJECT PROPOSAL
THE REPORT SHOULD INCLUDE:
SITUATION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
TYPE OF STUDY
HYPOTHESES ( IF ANY)
HOW ARE YOU GOING TO SELECT YOUR SAMPLE AND WHY?
WHICH DATA ARE YOU GOING TO COLLECT?
WHICH SECONDARY DATA ?
SOME QUESTIONS YOU ARE GOING TO ASK
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SOURCE OF
INFORMATION #1
GATHERING DATA
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GATHERING DATA
As you explore your problem or topic, you may consider many different types of information sources, some much valuable than others
Information sources are generally characterized into:
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Tertiary sources
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WHAT ARE DATA?
Data are facts presented to the
researcher from the study environment
Data can be characterized by their
Abstractness
Verifiability
Elusiveness
Closeness to the phenomena
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Data as Abstractness
Metaphorical ( related to metaphor)
Example of Metaphor : he has a heart of stone ( not real )
Example of Abstractions: the growth of GNP ( Gross National Product) can not be observed directly, only the effects of it can be recorded
GDP measures all production within the country, by whoever happens to be working here;
GNP measures the production of all the nationals, wherever they happen to be working.
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VERIFIABILITY OF DATA
Our data are processed by our senses and can
be limited to the senses of other people
Everything we know about the world and
ourselves has come through our senses.
All our knowledge therefore is the product of
what we have seen, heard, smelt, etc.
When sensory experiences consistently
produce the same results, our data are said
trustworthy because they may be verified
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ELUSIVE DATA
Capturing data is elusive, complicated by
the speed at which events occur and
time-bound nature of observations
Opinions, preferences or attitudes are
not the same from the 80’s to now
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CLOSENESS TO THE
PHENOMENA
Data reflect their truthfulness by
closeness to the phenomena
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PRIMARY VS SECONDARY
DATA
Much of business research involves the
collection and analysis of new data.
Primary data:
new data specifically collected in
current research project
researcher is the primary user.
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KEY TERMS –DEFINITIONS
However, research can also be done by the analysis of existing data that was collected for some other purpose, and the ability to locatesuch secondary data is an important research skill.
Secondary data: data already exist - collected for some other
(primary) purpose
researcher is the secondary user.
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SECONDARY DATA
USES AND ROLES
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USES/ROLES OF
SECONDARY DATA
Background/preparation
Complementary –
comparison/validation of primary data
collected
Whole basis of project – re-analysis
of data
Context setting (in report)
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SOURCES OF SECONDARY
DATA
COMPANY INFORMATION
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
MANAGEMENT RELATED FIELDS
ARCHIVES
INTERNET
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SOURCE OF SECONDARY DATA
#1 : COMPANY INFORMATION
This can be from internal or external sources.
Internal sources comprise the internal records of a company, and include financial accounts and sales information, human resources records , customer complaints, etc.
External sources for public companies are available from their annual reports and other reports on their finances and structure that they are required by law to disclose.
For private companies, newspapers, the financial press and trade journals need to be searched for information.
A number of electronic databases can be searched for company information.
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SOURCE OF SECONDARY DATA
#2 “:GOVERNMENT AGENCIES.
GOVERNMENT Bureau of Statistics,
the GOVERNMENT Trade Commission,
THE Government Index of Publications.
Information from these sources is
available via the Internet.
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SECONDARY DATA FROM UAE
GOVERNMENT STATISTIC
AGENCIES
UAE STATISTICS
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SOURCE #3 OF SECONDARY
DATA: Educational institutions
and specialist centres Many universities have web pages where
information on conferences and publications can be obtained.
Specialist centres, often associated with universities, provide a similar source of information in their specialist areas.
Academic researchers may be contacted for information.
These may be located from their being authors of published papers, or from a number of existing databases
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SOURCE #4 OF SECONDARY
DATA :PROFESSIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS
These include business and professional
associations, societies, and not-for-profit
organisations, and can be located
through the telephone directories.
Databases also exist that contain many
such associations and societies
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SOURCE #5 OF SECONDARY
DATA: Management-related fields
Business research will often require the
seeking of information related to other
disciplines, such as law, psychology,
education, sociology, etc.
Databases and other sources of
information are available for each of
these disciplines.
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SOURCE #6 OF SECONDARY
DATA :Archival material
Archival material available via the
Internet is developing, and is accessed
through some newspaper and university
websites.
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SOURCE #7 OF SECONDARY
DATA : Internet-based resources
.A number of websites are available that
give wide coverage and a large number
of links to other sources.
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SECONDARY DATA
FROM COMPANY
INFORMATION
CASE STUDY
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COMPANY SECONDARY
DATA AVAILABLE
SECONDARY DATA COULD DE
INTERNAL DATA
EXTERNAL DATA
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SECONDARY INTERNAL DATA
FOR A COMPANY OR AN
ORGANIZATION
Financial accounts
Sales data
Prices
Product development
Advertising expenditure
Purchase of supplies
Human resources records
Customer complaint logs
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CASE STUDY FOR INTERNAL DATA :
Employee Turnover & Company
Performance
Data from 100 branches of a Dutch company, for years 1995-98 on: Employee turnover
Branch performance – sales, profits, etc.
Other – absenteeism, average age of staff, regional location
Regression equation:
Y = c + 0.38X1 + 0.32X2 – 0.14X3 – 0.07X4 + 0.44X5 –0.56X6
Y = Change in performance, 1995-98
X1 = Performance ’95 X2 = Emp. Turnover
X3 = Absenteeism X4 = Age
X5 = Region X6 = Employee turnover squared
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SECONDARY EXTERNAL DATA
FOR A COMPANY OR AN
ORGANIZATION Company information is available from a
variety of sources, eg.:
Biz@advantage
www.whowhere.com
www.hoovers.com – 12,000 companies, USA & others
Australian Stock Exchange (www.asx.com.au)
AGSM Annual reports
Dun & Bradstreet (www.dnb.com)
Kompass directories
Fortune 500
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CLASS WORK
Identify as many internal secondary sources of
information relevant to business research that
are available in:
the organisation in which you are employed;
a trade, professional or union organisation with
which you are familiar;
an educational organisation.
Describe each of the sources you identify and
their potential use in a business research study.
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COMPANY’S SECONDARY
DATA AND RESEARCH
DATA : Annual sales (value and volume)
Research Market trends
DATA: Product sales vs costs
Research Product profitability
DATA :Weekly/monthly sales (value and
volume)
Research Seasonality
DATA :Customer information
Research: Catchment area/market analysis
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COMPANY’S SECONDARY
DATA AND RESEARCH
DATA: Advertising expenditures
Research: Advertising effectiveness (with sales data)
DATA: Staff turnover
Research: Personnel policies
DATA: Staff absenteeism
Research: Personnel policies
DATA : Inventory data
Research: Inventory costs
DATA: Customer complaints
Research :Quality issue
DATA: Wastage, returns
Research :Quality, efficiency
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TRADE, PROFESSIONAL,
UNION BODY SECONDARY
DATA AND RESEARCH
DATA: Membership data (e.g. turnover,
gender, location, skill/trade)
Research: Membership trends,
recruitment policies
DATA: Awards/agreements
Research Industrial environment, trends
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Educational Institution
secondary data and research
DATA : Applications for places
Research: Demand trends
DATA: Attrition rates
Research: Quality
DATA: Student evaluations
Research: Teaching quality
DATA: Employment rates
Research: Industry relevance, quality
DATA: Student data
Research: Gender distribution, geographical catchment
DATA: Student grades
Research :Quality
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CLASS WORK: USE THE
INTERNET
identify sources of information which
would assist you to you to prepare a
report on:
the productivity of auto workers in the
USA, Australia, Japan, Canada and
Great Britain over the past decade
Companies that offer training programs
for middle managers in USA AND
EUROPE.
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GROUP WORK
SESSION
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SOURCE OF
INFORMATION #2
OBSERVATION
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THE IMPORTANCE OF
OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation is a generally neglected
technique in business research.
But, it is useful to understand that
systematic observation can be a reliable
and efficient research tool in many
situations.
The observational method has been
used in several areas of management
research.
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WHAT TO OBSERVE?
Time and motion studies are early examples of
research that use this method.
Other forms of workplace behaviour, such as
the amount of work completed, or the times that
people arrive and leave the workplace, can be
studied by observation.
Also, the observation of social behaviours of
employees, or the behaviour of customers in a
store can form a source of data for research.
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Example of time study
In Quebec post-office, when you take the
ticket, the time appears in the ticket
automatically .
This is the time you started to queue and
when you are front of the agent, he will
take the time and record how much you
stayed on-line
Their project could be : how to decrease
the queuing time of costumers
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OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES
Observation can be done by simply ‘looking’ or with the use of still or time-lapse photography, or video recording.
In these above examples, it is possible that questioning the subjects might not yield the same information as might be gained from direct observation.
This could be because the subjects are not aware of the patterns of behaviour that might be observed, or because subjects might tend to under-report negative behaviours, such as lateness or laziness, and over-report positive behaviours.
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OBSERVATION CONTEXTS
Spatial use of sites
Workplace behaviour
Consumer testing
Complementary research
Social behaviour
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CONTEXT: WORKPLACE
BEHAVIOR
What might be observed?
Physical actions
Non-verbal behaviour (eg. Level of
voice, body language
Time taken to complete tasks
Distances between people
Deviant behaviour –
Employee relations, privacy & ethics
issues
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CONTEXT: CONSUMER
TESTING
Sometimes called ‘mystery shopping’
Can be seen as a form of participant
observation
Researcher plays the incognito role of
shopper/user/observer
Examples of what might be observed:
Cleanliness of premises
Information availability
Product availability
Staff availability, courtesy, knowledge
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CONTEXT:
COMPLEMENTARY
For example:
In a sample interview survey at a
site: may be necessary to count
(by observation) the total number
of users of the site and temporal
pattern of use of the site – to
weight the sample
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CONTEXT : SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
Example: an industrial dispute
(especially if there are strikes,
picketing, lockouts, violence
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ELEMENTS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Who/what is to be observed?
Steps in setting up/implementing a
project
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Who/what is to be
observed?
The participants Who are they?
What are their interrelationships?
How many are there?
The setting Appearance?
Behaviours that the setting might encourage, discourage or permit.
The purpose What is the purpose that has brought the participants
together?
What is the official purpose?
Are the goals of all the participants compatible? Contd
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Who/what is to be observed? Contd
Social behaviour
What do participants actually do?
How do they do it?
Stimulus for the behaviour
Objective of the behaviour
Toward what is the behaviour directed?
Qualities of behaviour (intensity, appropriateness, etc.)
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Effects of behaviour (others, responses,
etc.)
Frequency and duration
When did the event occur?
How long did it last?
Does it recur? How frequently does it
recur?
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Case study : Steps in an
observation project
1. Choose site
2. Choose observation point
3. Choose study time period
4. Decide on continuous observation or sampling
5. Decide on number and length of sampling periods
6. Decide what to observe
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Case study
7 Divide into zones
8 Design a recording sheet
9 Conduct study
10 Analyse data
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Step 1: Choice of site
Sites may be fixed by project
brief
If choice is possible, consider:
Appropriate workplace/customer
behaviour
Suitable conditions for
observation
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Step 2: Choice of observation
points
Some site can be observed from
one spot
Other required selection of
observation points to cover the
whole site
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Step 3: Choice of time period
Need to take account of patterns of use by:
Year
Day of the week
Time of day
Weather conditions, season
Public/school holidays
Sampling of time-periods may be necessary
(see Step 4)
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Step 4: Continuous observation or
sampling?
When counting:
Continuous counts – of all people
entering site?
Spot counts – of numbers present at
particular times
Dependent on number of entrances,
resources available, technology available
Qualitative – continuous observation (in
specified periods) more likely.
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Step 5: Determine count
frequency
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Step 6: Decide what to observe
Record visitor numbers?
Also record characteristics?
(male, female, adult, children …)
Behaviour?
Possible to observe people’s
movement through a site
Use site map to record
information – see Figure 6.3
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Step 7: Division of site into
zones
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Step 8: Design a recording
sheet
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Step 9: Conduct the
observation
Avoid boredom by circulating staff
between tasks/locations
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Step 10. Analysis
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Step 10. Analysis - contd
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Step 10. Analysis - contd
Using count data:
From Fig. 6.5: Average number present: 83.5
Number of visitor-hours in the day = 83.5 x 10 = 835
If average length of stay* = 0.5 hours:
No. of visitors = 835/0.5 = 1670
If average length of stay* = 2 hours:
No. of visitors = 835/2 = 417
* average length of stay from interview survey
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Technical aids to observation
Aerial photography
Still photography
Video
Time-lapse photography
Automatic counters
Vehicles
Pedestrians
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Just looking
Whatever type of research project is involved, careful observation of the site, people, behaviour, environment, etc. often pays dividends
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HOMEWORK FOR THE GROUP
:TRY YOUR OBSERVATION
CAPACITIES OUTSIDE: Select a work site (an office block foyer ,a
shopping centre) and position yourself in an unobtrusive location where you can see what is going on.
Over a period of four hours, record what happens.
Conduct interviews with four visitors each hour and ask them how long they have stayed, or expect to stay, at the site.
Establish the average length of stay and, use this information as data and estimate the number of persons visiting the site in the course of the day..
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WRITING A REPORT
Write a report on how the site is used,
who it is used by, how many people use
it, what conflicts there are - if any -
between different groups of users and
how the design aids or hinders the
activity which people engage in on the
site
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HELPFUL IDEAS
Draw a map, as in Figure 6.3, and to construct a data recording sheet, as in Figure 6.4.
Quantitative and qualitative methods might be used.
Suggested report headings:
1. The nature and layout of the site
2. The use of the site:
a. Activities and numbers (quantitative)
b. Observations on the use and mis-use of the site (qualitative)
3. Implications for design, layout and management.
4 Comments on the research experience.
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QUALITATIVE
METHODS
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OBJECTIVE OF THE
CHAPTER
The nature of qualitative research
methods and discussed and some of the
advantages that they might have over
quantitative methods are listed.
A number of qualitative methods are
outlined, and examples of their use in
business research are given.
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THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
Use of qualitative rather than quantitative information:
a large amount of ‘rich’ information about a small number of subjects
Assumes that reality is socially and subjectively constructed
Researcher’s task is to uncover meanings rather than test pre-established hypotheses: usually inductive rather than deductive
Assumes people are best able to describe their own situation, beliefs, motivations etc.
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INDUCTION APPROACH
RESEARCH PROCESS AS FOLLOWS
A= OBSERVATION,
DESCRIPTION
DATA COLLECTION
B = ANALYSIS
C= EXPLANATION
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
B
C
A
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DEDUCTION APPROACH
RESEARCH PROCESS AS FOLLOWS
C= EXPLANATION
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
A= OBSERVATION,
DESCRIPTION
DATA COLLECTION
B = ANALYSIS
B
C
A
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DEFINITION OF
QUALITATIVE METHOD
The term qualitative is used to describe
research methods that use and result in
data that is qualitative, rather than
numerical or statistical in nature.
Qualitative research methods are more
likely to be employed when it is the
perceptions, meanings and
understanding of people that the
research seeks to uncover.
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SAMPLE FOR QUALITATIVE
METHOD
Qualitative research studies tend to
obtain a large amount of ‘rich’
information from a relatively few number
of people or organisations, in contrast to
quantitative methods that usually collect
more limited information from a greater
number of cases.
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PROCESS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
The process of doing qualitative research tends
to be less rigidly structured than for quantitative
research.
In qualitative research a recursive rather than
sequential approach is common.
Here the various components of the research
process, such as hypothesis formation, the
recording and analysis of data and writing, can
overlap and take place simultaneously,
rather than in a fixed non-overlapping order.
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ADVANTAGES OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The researcher’s feelings as well as reasoning, can help shape the research;
Qualitative research focuses on people’s understandings and interpretations, rather than the finding of external causes or ‘laws’ for behaviour;
The results of qualitative studies are usually presented in a narrative form, which makes them more interesting and understandable for those managers not trained in statistics;
Qualitative methods can use a combination of techniques to provide a broad understanding of the social situation.
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Four qualitative methods used
in business research are
In-depth interviews
Group interviews or Focus groups,
Participant observation,
Ethnography ( scientific description).
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IN DEPTH INTERVIEW
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What is an interview?
Interviewing is a skill that needs practice
to develop.
Part of this is the ability to guide the
conversation so that it does not deviate
too far from the purposes of the
research, while not influencing the
interviewee’s responses and maintaining
a friendly atmosphere.
.
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ANALYZING DATA OF
INTERVIEW?
The analysis of interview data can vary, but this should be guided by the conceptual framework and research questions of the research project.
The content of the interviews can be analysed in a fairly holistic and informal manner.
Alternatively, a more systematic approach can be used where sections of the typed transcript are ‘flagged’ with key words, and indexes formed of the locations where certain ideas arise.
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THE USE OF COMPUTER
Specialised computer programs have
been designed to assist in the analysis
of data in this form, and graphical
representations of the results are
possible
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In-depth interviews time and
format
In-depth interviews tend to be much longer than
questionnaire-based interviews and vary in
length from about half and hour to several
hours, with repeat interviews sometimes being
carried out.
The in-depth interview is relatively unstructured,
with the interviewer asking unplanned
supplementary questions and encouraging the
respondent to explain the reasons for their
answers.
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Cases need In-depth interviews
In-depth interviews, rather than questionnaire-based ones, are more appropriate when the information sought is likely to be different for each subject and vary in complex ways, and when it is described in the form of narratives, rather than statistical statements.
They can also be used as a preliminary to a larger questionnaire-based quantitative study.
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Interviews are commonly taped and
sometimes verbatim typed transcripts
produced.
If taping is not possible, then notes must
be taken
Check list
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Example of formal
questionnaire
You want to know from the subject about
the training and educational activities he
took during the last ten years
Answers will be ticking boxes
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In depth interview check list
Topic : training & education
Interviewer will shape the question according to the particular subject
Ex: if the interviewer is interested in the influence of the training on current attitudes in the workplace:
A specific question could be: what useful skills did you obtain ? or how satisfied are you now with your job?
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Example of checklist
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Techniques interviewer could use
to encourage the subject to talk
Non verbal response : Uh-huh
That’s interesting invite to keep talking
Reflection take the last response as a new
question ( ex: so you think you do not need
further training)
Probe ( ex” why don’t you think you do not
need further training?)
Backtracking let’s go back to ….
New topic Can we talk about other kinds of
training?
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CLASS WORK
Interview each other, using a similar
checklist and, if available, tape-
recorders.
Suitable topics might be: career
aspirations; education experiences and
plans; purchasing behaviour in relation
to, say, holidays or computers or
food/drink.
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GROUP INTERVIEWS
OR FOCUS GROUP
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METHOD OF FOCUS GROUP
This method is similar to the in-depth interview except that groups of people are interviewed rather than individuals separately.
The number of people in each group is usually between five and twelve.
The interviewer, or facilitator, not only has the role of guiding the discussion to ensure that all topics are covered, but needs to ensure that all members contribute to the discussion so that it is not dominated by a small number of participants.
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RECORDING/ANALYSIS OF
DATA
The recording and analysis of data is similar to
that for in-depth interviews, although the
production of typed transcripts is less common
for focus groups.
Focus groups are often used as an alternative
to in-depth interviews, especially when the
interaction between people is of interest in
itself, and where this interaction is more likely to
produce ideas than with individual interviews
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CLASS WORK
Focus groups study: Five students + one
interviewer
Select a topic
Topics likely to be of common interest -
eg. films, music, the local environment,
transport.
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PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
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TECHNIQUE USED
Here the researcher becomes a participant in the social processes being studied.
For example, researchers have become members of work teams in order to gain insights into the motives and behaviours of other employees.
This method can be used when complex and detailed information is required on group dynamics and interpersonal relationships, and becoming a member of the group is an effective way of achieving this.
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ETHICAL ISSUES
Ethical issues can arise if deception is
involved by the researcher not informing
the group or others of the research
project, or if a ‘disguise’ of a journalist or
writer is adopted.
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CLASS WORK
Observe certain features of your
workplace or in the educational
institution or at leisure - examples could
be power relationships, perhaps in
relation to gender; or communication
practices.
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QUESTIONNAIRE
SURVEYS
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INTRODUCTION
This part of the course describes the
different types of questionnaire surveys
that are used in business research, as
well as their relative advantages and
disadvantages.
Issues related to the design of
questionnaires, and the processing of
subjects’ responses for statistical
analysis, are also discussed.
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OBJECTIVE OF THIS
CHAPTER
Questionnaire surveys involve the
gathering of information from individuals
using a standard set of questions, called
a questionnaire, or interview schedule.
Surveys use only a part of the population
that the researcher is concerned with,
and the way that such samples can be
chosen to represent populations is the
focus of this chapter.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF ASKING
THE RIGHT QUESTIONS
Questionnaire-based studies rely on
individuals’ answers to the researcher’s
questions, and the information obtained
therefore depends on their ability to
recall information, to correctly interpret
meaning of the questions, and their
honesty.
Samples used in questionnaire surveys
typically vary from about 50 to several
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QUESTIONNAIRE ARE
QUANTITATIVE
Questionnaire surveys are generally
regarded as a quantitative, rather than
qualitative, research methodology.
Individuals’ responses to the
questionnaires are usually transformed,
or coded, into some standard numerical
form that is suitable for later statistical
analysis.
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QUESTIONAIRE FROM
SAMPLE TO POPULATION
Thus, questionnaire surveys are
appropriate in business research where
there is a need for relatively structured
data, and where conclusions need to be
drawn for a large population.
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BEFORE ASKING:
When designing the questions in a
questionnaire a number of basic
principles should apply, including:
avoid jargon
use simple language
avoid ambiguity
avoid leading questions
ask only one question at a time
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The Nature of Questionnaire
Surveys
Data collected via a printed questionnaire or
interview schedule
Usually based on a sample selected from a
population
Reliance on information from individuals –
self-reported data
Often large samples require computer-aided
analysis
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Merits of the Questionnaire
Survey Method Quantified data for decision making
Ideal for providing quantified information for organisations which need quantified information for decision-making.
Transparency Provide a 'transparent' set of research procedures.
Procedures clear for all to see.
Data can be re-analysed for alternative interpretation.
Succinct presentation Quantification can provide complex information in a succinct form.
Comparability Longitudinal and annual surveys enable the study of change over
time.
Capturing complexity An effective means of gathering a wide range of complex information
on individuals or organisations.
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Interviewer-completion vs
Respondent-completion
Interviewer-completion:
Interviewer reads out the questions and writes down answers
Respondent-completion
Respondent reads the questionnaire and writes down the answers
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Interviewer-completion vs Respondent-completion:
Advantages & Disadvantages
Figure 8.1 Interviewer Respondent
Advantages -More accuracy
-Higher response rates
-Fuller, more complete answers
-Design can be less ‘user-
friendly’
-Cheaper
-Quicker
-Relatively anonymous
Disadvantages -Higher cost
-Less anonymity
-Exaggerated desire to please
interviewer
-Patchy response
-Incomplete response
-Risk of frivolous response
More care needed in
layout/presentation
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Types of questionnaire survey
Household surveys – respondents selected on the basis of where
they live and interviewed in their home;
Street/quota/intercept surveys - respondents selected by stopping
in street, shopping malls, etc;
Telephone surveys - interviews are conducted by telephone;
Mail surveys - questionnaires sent and returned by mail;
E-surveys - questionnaires sent and returned by email/Internet;
Customer/visitor on-site intercept surveys – users/customers
surveyed on site;
Captive group surveys - members of groups are surveyed
Organisation surveys - members of an organisation/ organisations
are surveyed
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Types of questionnaire survey:
characteristics
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HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS
In household surveys, people are
selected on the basis of where they live
and are interviewed face-to-face in their
homes.
.
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Household questionnaire
survey
Face-to-face interview – interviewer completion
Variations:
1. Drop-off and collect (eg. national census)
2. Partial interview and partial drop-off & collect
Representative of a defined community – eg. suburb, local govt area, city
Interview can be quite lengthy – eg. 30 minutes +
Relatively expensive
Omnibus surveys:
Different clients buy different questions in a composite questionnaire
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Street/quota intercept surveys
Respondents intercepted in shopping streets/malls etc.
Face-to-face interview – interviewer completion
Interview short
Aim: a sample representative of community, but:
Some groups under-represented
‘Quota sampling’ = specified number of interviews in
particular gender/age groups (based on census)
Failure to achieve quotas can be corrected by
weighting.
Relatively cheap
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STREET SURVEYS
Street surveys use face-to-face
questioning of a fairly short duration, and
respondents are approached on the
street, in shopping malls, and other
public places. Apart from the short time
available for questioning, the other main
disadvantage is that the sample in not
likely to be representative of the larger
population
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STREETS SURVEYS
.To reduce this effect, quota sampling,
may be used where the interviewer is
given quotas of different types of people
to interview, usually based on obvious
characteristics such as age, sex, etc.
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Telephone survey
Common for political/opinion polls
Sampling based on ‘White Pages’
Excludes non-telephone subscribers
Emerging problem of mobile phones
Problem of non-response
Automatic Computer-aided Telephone Interviewing (CATI)
Automatic sampling and dialling
Answers keyed directly into computer (quick, cost-effective)
Interviews typically short – 15-20 mins max.
Respondents cannot be shown lists
Not being face-to-face is an advantage and a disadvantage
Relatively cheap
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TELEPHONE SURVEY
Telephone surveys are becoming
increasingly popular for political polling
and other areas because of the relatively
low cost for a wide coverage, and the
speed at which the data can be collected
and analysed. The interviewer usually
types the responses directly into a
computer so they can be immediately
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CALL TIMING
To obtain more representative samples,
calls need to be made in the evenings
when employed people are more likely to
be home.
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Mail surveys
Questionnaire is mailed to respondents
Sometimes the only practical method – eg.
geographically scattered sample
Relatively cheap
Respondent-completion
Problem of response rates:
70% non-response often reported
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MAIL SURVEY
CHARACTERISTICS
With mail surveys, questionnaires are
distributed and returned by mail, usually
in a reply-paid envelope. Their main
advantage is that a large and widely
distributed population can be sampled at
a relatively low cost. However, the major
problem is the typically low response
rate, which can be around 30% for a
reasonably large questionnaire.
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RESPONSE RATE
The response rate is influenced by a
number of factors, including the
respondents’ level of interest in the topic,
the length and complexity of the
questionnaire, the presence of an
accompanying letter by a known and
respected person, rewards for
responding, and the use of reminders
and follow-up mailings.
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Mail survey response pattern
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EMAIL SURVEY
E-surveys are conducted via email
and/or the Internet and may involved
downloading a questionnaire for
completion or fully on-line completion
and return.
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E-Surveys
A mail survey sent via email
Variations:
Download a questionnaire for completion and
return
Direct completion and submission via the internet
Automatic analysis software
Structured filters etc. (see ‘Questionnaire Design’)
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CUSTOMER SURVEYS
Customer (or visitor, on-site, or user)
surveys are ones where the customers
or users of a facility are surveyed at the
site of the facility. The questionnaire can be either interviewer-completed or
respondent-completed, but when respondent-completed
there are generally staff available to assist in the
distribution and collection of questionnaires, to encourage
people to complete them and to answer questions
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Customer/visitor on-site intercept
survey
Various names:
Customer survey; Visitor survey; On-site survey;
User survey; Intercept survey
Interviews take place on-site
Mostly interviewer-completed but respondent-
completion possible
Relatively cheap
By definition, excludes non-customers
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CAPTIVE GROUP SURVEY
Captive group surveys are ones where
members of a group, such as a club, a
professional organisation, or a class at
an educational institution is surveyed
together, often when all are present in a
room. Usually, questionnaires are
respondent-completed, but response
rates are typically much higher than
when this method is used with mail
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Captive group survey
Survey in an organised setting – participants
may have little choice
But research ethics requires voluntary
participation …
Respondent completion
Very cheap and quick
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ORGANIZATION SURVEYS
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ORGANIZATION SURVEY
Organisation surveys are often used to
obtain employee perceptions and
attitudes, and can take any of the forms
mentioned above.
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Organization surveys
The organisation or organisational unit is the
unit of analysis
Any of the above survey formats may be used
Issue of target informants: CEO or more
specialised, lower level employees?
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DESIGN OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
The careful design of a questionnaire is vital to
the success of the research project, and should
be carried out with the conceptual framework,
aims and hypotheses of the research being
kept firmly in mind.
It is desirable that a draft questionnaire be first
produced and a pilot study carried out to allow
improvements to be made on the design or
wording of the questionnaire.
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Questionnaire design
Topics:
Research problems and information requirements
Types of information
Open-ended and pre-coded questions
Wording of questions
Measuring attitudes and opinions
Ordering of questions
Layout
Filters
Introductory remarks
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Research problems & information
requirements
Questionnaire design/content should
arise from the research problem and
its information needs – see Figure 8.4
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Questionnaire design process
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Type of information
Respondent characteristics Who?
Activities and behaviour What?
Attitudes and motivations Why?
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WHO ?
Characteristics of the respondent and, if
needed, those of the organisation.
These might include the respondent’s
age, gender, profession and position in
the organisation, and the organisation’s
number of employees, industry sector,
annual profit, etc.
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ACTIVITIES & BEHAVIOR
Information of a factual nature on the
activities and behaviour of the
respondent, or of other persons or
groups that can be assumed to be
known to the respondent.
For example, a questionnaire might ask
employees to give information on what
training courses they had attended in the
previous year.
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ATTITUDES & MOTIVATIONS
A variety of attitudes and motivations are
commonly measured, such as how
satisfied a customer is with various
aspects of the service provided, and
what reasons they have for choosing
certain products
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SUMMARY OF TYPES OF INFORMATION IN
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaires used in business research generally seek three types of
information, as follows.
A) Characteristics of the respondent and, if needed, those of the
organisation. These might include the respondent’s age, gender,
profession and position in the organisation, and the organisation’s
number of employees, industry sector, annual profit, etc.
B) Information of a factual nature on the activities and behaviour of the
respondent, or of other persons or groups that can be assumed to be
known to the respondent. For example, a questionnaire might ask
employees to give information on what training courses they had
attended in the previous year.
C) A variety of attitudes and motivations are commonly measured,
such as how satisfied a customer is with various aspects of the service
provided, and what reasons they have for choosing certain products.
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS
There are two broad types of questions that are
used in questionnaires, open-ended and pre-
coded questions.
For an pre-coded question, the respondent has
to chose from a list of alternative responses.
With an open-ended question, no such list is provided
and the respondent tells the interviewer, or writes down
on the questionnaire, their answer to the question.
Open-ended have the disadvantage that they are more
difficult to code, and especially for respondent-completed
questionnaires, frequently not much effort is given to
providing an adequate response.LISTEN...LEARN...THINK....GROW 300
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EXAMPLE OF Open-ended
and pre-coded questions
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Wording of questions
avoid jargon
simplify wherever possible
avoid ambiguity
avoid leading questions
ask only one question at a time (avoid
multi-purpose questions)
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Wording of questions: CHOOSE
THE CORRECT LANGUAGE
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MEASURING ATTITUDES
The measurement of attitudes and
opinions can be done using a variety of
question formats, including open-ended
and pre-coded questions as described
above, items requiring ranking, and a
number of types of rating scales.
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RANKING
Ranking. Here respondents rank a
number of options in order of some
property, such as its importance, or their
level of preference.
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RANKING SCALES
Rating scales. For these items, respondents
indicate their opinions on the degree to which
some object or person has some particular
property, or the extent to which they have some
specified attitude towards some idea, person or
object.
Respondents indicate their opinions or attitudes
by giving a rating on a numerical scale, usually
with between 4 and 10 steps, with larger (or
smaller) numbers indicating a greater level of
whatever opinion or attitude is being measured.
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LIKERT SCALE
Likert scale. A type of rating scale,
where a statement is presented and the
subject indicates the extent to which they
agree with the statement.
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SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
Semantic differential. Another type of
rating scale where pairs of contrasting
descriptors are presented, and the
subject indicates how appropriate each
is to whatever concept or object being
studied by giving a response on a scale.
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Fig. 8.7a/b:
Attitude/opinion question formats
a. OPEN-ENDED/DIRECT: What attracted you to apply for this course?
________________________________
b. CHECKLIST: Of the items on the card, which was the most
important to you in applying for this training course?
A. Good reputation
B. Easy access
C. Curriculum
D. Management pays fees
E. Easy parking
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Fig. 8.7c:
Attitude/opinion question formats
c. Ranking: Please rank the items on the card in terms of their
importance to you in choosing a course. Please
rank them 1 for the most important to 5 for the
least important.
Rank
A. Good reputation ___
B. Easy access ___
C. Curriculum ___
D. Management pays fees ___
E. Easy parking ___
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Fig.8.7d:
Attitude/opinion question formats
d. Likert scales: How important each of the following items in your
decision to choose this training course?
Very Quite Not very Not at all
important important important important
Good reputation □1 □2 □3 □4
Easy Access □1 □2 □3 □4
Curriculum □1 □2 □3 □4
Level of fees □1 □2 □3 □4
Easy parking □1 □2 □3 □4
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Fig. 8.7e:
Attitude/opinion question formats
e. Attitude Statements: Please read the statements below and
indicate your level of agreement or
disagreement with them by ticking the
appropriate box.
Agree Agree No Disagree Disagree
Strongly opinion strongly
The learning experience □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
is more important than
the qualification in education
Graduate course fees are □1 □2 □3 □4 □5
too high
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Fig. 8.7f:
Attitude/opinion question formats
e. Semantic differential: Please look at the list below and tick
the line to indicate where you think
this course falls in relation to each
factor listed.
Difficult |_______|________|________|________| Easy
Irrelevant |_______|________|________|________| Relevant
Professional |_______|________|________|________| Unprofessional
Dull |_______|________|________|________| Interesting
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Questionnaire layout
Be aware of reader/user – interviewer or
respondent?
Special care with mail survey
questionnaires
Compactness (eg. single page) = ease of
handling
Two-column layout often helps
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FILTERING QUESTIONS
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HOMEWORK
PART #1
Prepare a questionnaire concerning one
typical situation creating difficulties in
your company.
The questionnaire should be designed
for mailing to employees by internal
company mail. It should contain six
different question types, similar to those
shown in Figure 8.7.
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HOMEWORK
PART #2
Test the questionnaire on five people
and observe any difficulties or
misunderstandings they experience
when completing the questionnaire.
Modify the questionnaire in light of these
difficulties.
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HOMEWORK
PART #3
Prepare a covering letter for the questionnaire providing:
a the reason for conducting the survey
b a request for assistance in completing the survey
c a statement concerning the confidentiality of survey
responses and results
d details of where further information concerning the
background to the survey can be obtained.
You should give attention to the quality of your covering letter in
relation to presentational style and grammar.
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HOMEWORK
PART#4:
Provide ten people with the covering
letter and the modified questionnaire.
Collect the completed questionnaires.
After developing a coding system, code
the responses on a data sheet similar to
the one shown in Figure 8.11.
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INTRODUCE YOURSELF
Eg. ‘Hallo, my name is _____ : we are conducting a
survey of _______: would you mind answering a few
questions?
Different content/formats for different survey types
Interviewer-completion: include in interviewer
instructions – additional information available if
required
Respondent-completion – printed on questionnaire
Mail survey: this is dealt with in covering letter
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EXAMPLE OF COVER
LETTER
Dear member of staff of ______,
I would be grateful for your assistance with this survey of employees' journey to work patterns. The management team tries to make every aspect of working for the company as trouble-free as possible - and that includes getting here and home again at the end of the day! Accurate information from you will help us in this process, including our dealings with the local council, the Roads and Traffic Authority, the Bus Company and State Rail. The questionnaire is entirely anonymous, so you should feel free to express yourself fully. So please complete the questionnaire as soon as possible and place in the special box at the works entrance. I or my assistant, JJ, would be happy to answer any queries you may have about the survey (on extension 5566). We will circulate to all staff a summary of the overall findings of the survey when complete.
Many thanks for your assistance in this important survey.
Regards
Jo Smith
Personnel Manager
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ORDER OF QUESTIONS
Start with easy questions
Start with 'relevant' questions
Leave sensitive questions until later
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Conducting a pilot survey
Purposes of a pilot survey:
1. Testing questionnaire wording
2. Testing question sequencing
3. Testing questionnaire layout
4. Gaining familiarity with respondents
5. Testing fieldwork arrangements (if required)
6. Training and testing fieldworkers (if required)
7. Estimating response rate
8. Estimating interview or questionnaire completion time
9. Testing analysis procedures
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Validity of questionnaire surveys
Validity: the extent to which the data truly reflect what they
are thought to reflect
Validity may be affected by:
Exaggeration or under-statement (to give good
impression)
Inaccuracy of recall
Desire to please the interviewer
Some checks:
Include ‘dummy’ categories in some questions– eg.
books that do not exist, events that have not happened
As the same question twice – in different way
Repeat interviews – some time later
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Questionnaire-based
interviewing
Ideally interviewer should stick strictly to
the wording on the questionnaire
… especially opinion/attitude questions
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Coding of questionnaire responses
Pre-coded vs Open-ended questions
See Figure 8.5
Pre-coded – codes already exist
Open-ended – coding system must be
devised
See Figure 8.9
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(Fig. 8.10)
Recording coded information – 1
Management Training Survey 2003 | Office Use | # 001
QUESTIONNAIRE NUMBER | qno|
1. What training course are you attending? | |
People Skills 1 |
Global Business 2 | 2 crse
Strategic Management 3 |
Other _______________ 4 |
|
ONLY ONE ANSWER POSSIBLE – ONE CODE – ONE VARIABLE (crse)
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Recording coded information - 2
2. What staff development services have you used in the last six months? ||
Career Planning 1 | 1 cp
Mentoring clinic 1 | 1 ment
Computer training 1 | 0 comp
Performance Appraisal 1 | 0 pa
|
UP TO FOUR POSITIVE ANSWERS POSSIBLE – FOUR VARIABLES
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Recording coded information - 3
3. Please rank the items below in terms of their importance to |you in choosing a training course, from 1 for the most |important down to 5 for the least important. |
Rank |A. Good reputation 1 | 1 rep
B. Easy access 4 | 4 accessC. Curriculum 2 | 2 currD. Management pays fees 3 | 3 feesE. Easy parking 5 | 5 park
FIVE RANKS REQUIRED – FIVE VARIABLES
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Recording coded information – 4/5
4. How much have you spent on books for the training course? ||
ANSWER RECORDED DIRECTLY – NO CODING $ 100 | 100 | cost
|5. Please indicate the importance of the following to you in studying. |
|Very Important Not at all |
important Important |
Good textbook 3 2 1 | 3 text
Knowledgeable lecturer 3 2 1 | 3 lect
Easy assignments 3 2 1 | 1 assgn
THREE ANSWERS REQUIRED – THREE VARIABLES
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Recording coded information - 6
6. Do you have any suggestions for improving the training course? ||| 1 sug1
________Less theory_________________________________ | __ sug2| __ sug3
_________________________________________________ |
OPEN-ENDED (CODING SEE Fig. 8.9) – UP TO THREE ANSWERS RECORDED = THREE VARIABLES
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Data from completed
questionnairesData in Figure 8.11: ready for computer analysis – see Ch. 13
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Summary Questionnaire surveys concern the gathering of information from
individuals using a formally designed schedule of questions called a
questionnaire or interview schedule.
Surveys are useful when:
the research questions indicate the need for relatively structured
data
data are required from samples representative of a defined wider
population.
Questionnaire surveys may be:
interviewer-completed or respondent-completed.
household surveys; street/quota surveys; telephone surveys; mail
surveys;
e-surveys; customer surveys; captive group surveys, organisation
surveys,
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Questionnaire design:
starting point is the project’s management/theoretical research questions
A pilot survey be conducted to:
test questionnaire wording, sequencing and layout
test fieldwork arrangements, including training field workers
estimate response rate and interview or questionnaire completion time.
Validity of questionnaire surveys can be tested by inclusion of dummy categories, repeat questions and repeated interviews
Coding is necessary for analysis by computer.
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SAMPLING AND POPULATIONS
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INTRODUCTION
In many questionnaire-based and
observational studies, measures are not
taken from all members of the population
of interest but from only a portion of the
population.
In other words, a sample of the
population is obtained to represent the
population.
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SOME DEFINITIONS
Population: The total collection of objects, organisations people about which a survey researcher wishes to draw conclusions and
from which a sample might be drawn for study.
Sample: A part of a population, as used in
survey research.
Representative Sample: A sample whose characteristics are the same as, or at least very similar to, the population from which the sample
was drawn.
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SOME DEFINITIONS
Random Sampling: A process of selection
where every member of the population has an
equal change of inclusion in the sample.
Lottery and gambling are random games
Random Sample: A sample that is made up
of elements, each of which is randomly selected
from some population
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SOME DEFINITIONS
Quota Sampling: A form of sampling in
which the numbers (ie. quotas) of
different types of people to be included
in the sample are specified. This is done
so that the proportion of these types of
people in the sample match those in the
population relevant to the study.
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EXAMPLE OF QUOTA
SAMPLING
IF YOUR RESEARCH IS TO STUDY A GIVEN
POPULATION WITH DIFFERENT AGE
RANGES OF PEOPLE ( QUOTAS FOR EACH
TYPE OF AGE)
< 20 YEARS OLD
20-30 YEARS OLD
30-40 YEARS OLD
40-50 YEARS OLD
>50 YEARS OLD
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EXAMPLE OF QUOTA
SAMPLING
THE SAMPLE SHOULD CONTAIN THE
SAME PERCENTAGE OF EACH
RANGE IN THE POPULATION
EX: IF THE POPULATION HAS 30% OF
PEOPLE IN THE RANGE 20-30 YEARS
YOUR SAMPLE SHOULD RESPECT
THE POPULATION QUOTA 30%
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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
A representative sample is one whose properties accurately match the properties of the population from which it was drawn.
A sample that is not representative is called a biased sample.
Random selection of elements from a population ensures that the sample drawn is representative.
However, for practical and other reasons, different sampling methods are commonly used for different types of surveys.
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THE CONCEPT OF A
SAMPLE
We will define the concept of a representative sample.
For various types of surveys, the commonly used methods of sampling will be described, as well as procedures that can be followed to increase the likelihood that a representative sample is obtained.
Also, ways of estimating the sample size required for a study will be outlined.
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KEY ISSUES FOR SAMPLING
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TWO MAIN KEY
What procedures must be followed to
ensure that the sample is representative
of the population from which it is drawn?
How large should the sample be?
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PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING
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RANDOM SAMPLING IN
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
For household surveys, a random selection of
people in a large population over a large area,
(as in a national survey) would be very
inconvenient and costly.
It would require a full list of all people in the
population, and the people selected would be
scattered throughout the whole region, making
travel to interview them expensive.
Instead, multi-stage, or cluster sampling is often
used.
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CLUSTER SAMPLING IN
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
Cluster Sampling: Also termed multi-stage sampling.
A sampling procedure in which the population is divided into sub-populations (or clusters) and a sample of these is first taken.
This procedure may be applied to each of these sub-populations one or more times to obtain a selection of even smaller sub-populations.
Samples are then taken from each of the final sub-populations and combined to form the final sample.
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EXAMPLE
For example, a list of different regions might be first made and a selection of regions made.
Then, from each of the selected regions households might be selected at random using electoral rolls.
In this way, interviewers need only visit the selected regions, with a significant saving in the cost of travel and other expenses.
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Ideally ( NOT PRACTICAL)
Eg. 10 million population – sample of
1000: all 10 m. names put in a drum and
1000 drawn. ( lottery is random)
In practice:
For national/regional surveys – multi-
stage sampling used – see next Figure.
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Multi-stage sampling
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SITE OR USERS SURVEY
With site or user surveys, conditions vary
considerably, and so do therefore
sampling methods.
Site interviews can operate in two ways,
but with both ways, some strict rule
about who to interview is necessary to
avoid obtaining a biased sample.
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FIRST ALTERNATIVE OF
SITE SURVEY
Firstly, the interviewer can be stationary
and the respondents mobile.
For example, the interviewer may stand
at the entrance to a workplace and
interview people as they leave, using the
rule: when one interview is complete and
checked, the next person passing
through the door should be interviewed.
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SECOND ALTERNATIVE FOR
SITE SURVEY
Alternatively, the respondents may be
stationary, and the interviewer mobile.
Here, a sample of respondents might be
chosen at random from a list of
employees, or else, following a set route
through the workplace, every nth person
should be interviewed.
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THIRD ALTENATIVE FOR
SITE SURVEY
Site surveys can also be done using self-
completion questionnaires.
However, response rates for these can
be low, leading to a biased sample,
unless participants are strongly
motivated or encouraged to complete
them.
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QUOTA SURVEY
Can be used when data are available on
key characteristics of population:
Eg. - age/sex/grade structure of workforce
– from records
- age/sex structure of a community – from
Census
Interviewing target numbers determined
by population characteristics
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STREET SURVEYS
Street surveys often use the technique of
quota sampling to increase the
representativeness of the sample that is
obtained.
With quota sampling, interviewers are
given ‘quotas’ of different types of people
to interview, with the quotas being
determined from background information
on the demographics of the population.
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STREET SAMPLING
For example, if it is known that 12% of
the population are retired, then the
interviewer would be required to
interview 12 retired persons for every
100 persons interviewed.
In organisational research, quotas based
on the numbers of people in the different
management levels or professional
groups may be used.
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SIZE OF SAMPLE
ACCURACY
DETAIL
BUDGET
TIME
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APPROPRIATE SIZE
A major element in the design of a survey is the determination of the size of the sample that is required.
The appropriate sample size depends on the following factors.
The level of accuracy required
The level of detail
The budget and the time available for the project
GOOD PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
ON TIME AND IN THE BUDGET BY AVOIDING ABNORMAL SITUATIONS
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POPULATIONS AND
SAMPLES
The basic idea of statistics is simple: you want to extrapolate from the data you have collected to make general conclusions.
Statistical analyses are based on a simple model : There is a large population of data out there, and you have randomly sampled parts of it.
You analyze your sample to make inferences about the population.
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DIFFERENT SAMPLES
Quality control Sample: The items you tested.
Population: The entire batch of items produced.
Political polls Sample: The ones you polled.
Population: All voters.
Clinical studies Sample: Subset of patients who attended Tuesday
morning clinic in August
Population: All similar patients.
Laboratory research Sample: The data you actually collected
Population: All the data you could have collected if you had repeated the experiment many times the same way
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EXAMPLE: OPINION POLLS
Required sample size is not related to
population size (except for small
populations)
EXAMPLE :Political opinion polls
Samples for USA (voting population 156
million) and Australia (voting population
13 million) are of similar size
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SAMPLE SIZE AND LEVEL OF
ACCURACY
Voting intentions Confidence
intervals
USA – Sept ’04 –NBC/WSJ - Voters 156 m. Sample size 1006
Bush/Cheney 48% +3.1%
Kerry/Edwards 45% +3.1%
Nader/Camejo 2% +0.9%
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SAMPLE SIZE AND LEVEL OF
ACCURACY
Voting intentions Confidence
intervals
USA – Sept ’04 - Registered voters 156 m. – Sample size 1006
Bush/Cheney 48% +3.1%
Kerry/Edwards 45% +3.1%
Nader/Camejo 2% +0.9%
Australia – Aug ’04 –Newspoll -Voters 13 m. –Sample size 1047
Liberal/national 39% +3.0%
Labor 42% +3.0%
Greens 6% +1.4%
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LEVEL OF ACCURACY : Why
statistical calculations?
When analyzing data, your goal is
simple: You wish to make the strongest
possible conclusion from limited
amounts of data.
To do this, you need to overcome two
problems:
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PROBLEM #1
Important differences can be obscured
by POPULATION variability and
SAMPLE imprecision.
This makes it hard to distinguish real
differences from random variability
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PROBLEM #2 2
The human brain excels at finding
patterns, even from random data.
Our natural inclination (especially with
our own data) is to conclude that
differences are real, and to minimize the
contribution of random variability.
Statistical rigor prevents you from
making this mistake.
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SIZE OF SAMPLE AND
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
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SITUATION TO STUDY
Get a random sample of smokers and nonsmokers, measure their vitamin C levels, and see how they compare.
In a sample of 40 male smokers, vitamin C levels had a mean of 0.60 mg/dl while in a sample of 40 male nonsmokers, the levels had a mean of 0.90 mg/dl.
The difference in means between nonsmokers and smokers is 0.30 mg/dl. which is impressive
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ANOTHER RANDOM
SAMPLE
But if we were to take another random
sample, the difference wouldn't be
exactly the same.
It might be greater, it might be less.
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QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED
How much larger or smaller might the difference in population means be if we could measure all smokers and nonsmokers?
What kind of population difference is consistent with this observed value of 0.30 mg/dl?
In particular, is 0.30 mg/dl the sort of sample difference that might be observed if there were no difference in the population mean vitamin C levels?
SO WHAT DOES O,30 MG/DL MEANS TO THE RESEARCHER?
THIS IS WHERE STATISTICAL THEORY COMES
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STATISTICS AND
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL (CI)
In statistics, a confidence interval (CI) is an
interval estimate of a population parameter.
Instead of estimating the parameter by a single
value, an interval of likely estimates is given.
How likely the estimates are is determined by
the confidence interval (CI).
The wider is the interval (CI) will be, the more
likely it is for the interval to contain the
parameter.
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RELIABILITY OF THE SURVEY
DEPEND ON THE C.I
Confidence interval (CI) is a statistical
tool used to indicate the reliability of an
estimate.
For example, a CI can be used to
describe how reliable survey results are.
All other things being equal, a survey
result with a small CI is more reliable
than a result with a large CI.
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RELIABILITY OF THE SURVEY
DEPEND ON THE C.I
The width of the confidence interval
gives us some idea about how uncertain
we are about the unknown parameter.
A very wide confidence interval (CI) may
indicate that more data should be
collected before anything very definite
can be said about the parameter.
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FOR OUR EXAMPLE
How much are we confident with the difference in means between nonsmokers and smokers of 0.30 mg/dl.
One way to answer these questions is by reporting a 95% confidence interval.
Here, the 95% confidence interval for the difference in mean vitamin C levels between nonsmokers and smokers is 0.15 to 0.45 mg/dl.
Thus, not only do we estimate the difference to be 0.30 mg/dl, but we are 95% confident it is no less than 0.15 mg/dl or greater than 0.45 mg/dl.
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CONFIDENCE INTERVAL OF
95%
The shorter the confidence interval, the less likely it is to contain the quantity being estimated.
The longer the interval, the more likely to contain the quantity being estimated.
Ninety-five percent (95%) has been found to be a convenient level for conducting scientific research, so it is used almost universally.
Intervals of lesser confidence would lead to too many misstatements. Greater confidence would require more data to generate intervals of usable lengths.
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Normal distribution and
confidence intervals
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WHY 95 % OF CONFIDENCE
There is nothing special about 95%. It is just
convention that confidence intervals are
usually calculated for 95% confidence.
In theory, confidence intervals can be computed
for any degree of confidence.
If you want more confidence, the intervals will
be wider.
If you are willing to accept less confidence, the
intervals will be narrower.
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LEVEL OF ACCURACY IN
OPINION POLLS
This is usually specified in terms of the required confidence interval for the particular variable of interest.
This is the range of values around the measured value, within which there is, say, a 95% chance that the ‘true’ population value is located.
Statistical formulae or tables allow estimates of the confidence interval for different sample sizes ( DONE BY SPECIALISTS).
Larger samples are needed for smaller confidence intervals
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Fig. 11.4a
Confidence intervals & sample size
Sample
size
(N)
Percentages found from sample (‘results’)
50% 40/60
%
30/70
%
20/80% 10/90
%
5/95% 2/98
%
1/99
%
Confidence intervals + %
1000 +3.1 +3.0 +2.8 +2.5 +1.9 +1.3 +0.9 +0.6
NB. CI for p = CI for 100-p
CI for 50% is the largest in absolute terms
This table refers to 95% CIs – other can be calculated – eg. 99%
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Fig. 11.4b
Confidence intervals & sample size
Sample
size
(N)
Percentages found from sample (‘results’)
50% 40/60
%
30/70
%
20/80% 10/90
%
5/95% 2/98
%
1/99
%
Confidence intervals + %
1000 +3.1 +3.0 +2.8 +2.5 +1.9 +1.3 +0.9 +0.6
4000 +1.5 +1.5 +1.4 +1.2 +0.9 +0.7 +0.4 +0.3
NB. To Reduce the CI by half – sample size must be increased x 4
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Fig. 11.4c
Confidence intervals & sample size
Sample
size
(N)
Percentages found from sample (‘results’)
50% 40/60
%
30/70
%
20/80% 10/90
%
5/95% 2/98
%
1/99
%
Confidence intervals + %
50 +13.
9
+ 13.6 +12.7 +11.1 +8.3 * * *
100 +9.8 +9.6 +9.0 +7.8 +5.9 +4.3 * *
200 +6.9 +6.8 +6.3 +5.5 +4.2 +3.0 +1.9 *
250 +6.2 +6.1 +5.7 +5.0 +3.7 +2.7 +1.7 *
1000 +3.1 +3.0 +2.8 +2.5 +1.9 +1.3 +0.9 +0.6
4000 +1.5 +1.5 +1.4 +1.2 +0.9 +0.7 +0.4 +0.3
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Fig. 11.5
Confidence intervals & sample size
Percentages found from sample (‘results’)
Conf.
Interval
50% 40/60
%
30/70
%
20/80
%
10/90
%
5/95% 1/99%
Necessary sample sizes
+1 9600 9216 8064 6144 3456 1824 380
+2 2400 2304 2016 1536 864 456 *
+4 600 576 504 384 216 114 *
+8 150 144 126 96 53 * *
FROM THE PERCENTAGE AND THE CONF INTERVAL
SAMPLE SIZE
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CLASS WORK
PROBLEM #1 :
Go back to the political polls and find out
the confidence intervals
PROBLEM #2 :
In the example comparing PC users and
Mac users given in this chapter, what
would the confidence intervals be if the
sample size was 4000?
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THE LEVEL OF DETAIL
The level of detail of information needed
from the statistical analysis.
More detailed information needs
responses for sub-samples to be
obtained for comparisons.
If the same level of accuracy is required
for the sub-samples, a larger total
sample is therefore needed
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Sample size –
level of detail of analysis
Sample
size
% CI Range, % Comment
200 PC
users
20 +5.5 14.5 – 25.5 Ranges
overlap
Mac
users
30 +6.3 23.7 – 36.3
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Sample size –
level of detail of analysis
Sample
size
% CI Range, % Comment
200 PC users 20 +5.5 14.5 –
25.5
Ranges
overlap
Mac users 30 +6.3 23.7 –
36.3
500 PC users 20 +3.5 16.5 –
23.5
Ranges
do not
overlapMac users 30 +4.0 26.0 –
34.0
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BUDGET FOR THE RESEARCH
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BUDGET FOR RESEARCH
Given that a particular method for the
distribution and collection of data has
been determined, the amount of money
able to be spent will put an upper limit
to the sample size.
Money can be wasted by using a too
large a sample than is needed.
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EXAMPLE OF SAMPE
SIZING
For example, a survey of 40,000 respondent that could cost as much as $1,200,000 to conduct would give a confidence interval of plus or minus 0.5%.
However, if a confidence interval of plus or minus 1%, percent is sufficient, only 10,000 subjects would be required, with the cost reduced to $400,000.
Alternatively, money can be wasted on a study whose sample size does not allow a sufficiently accurate or detailed data analysis to be done
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Generally, the criteria for deciding on a
sample size do not include consideration
of population size.
However, if the population fall below
about 50,000 this affect the required
sample size, as indicated in the next
Figure.
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Fig. 11.6
Sample size – small populations
Population size Minimum sample size to achieve CI of
+5% or +1% on a sample finding of
50%
+5% +1%
Infinite 384 9602
5 million 384 9584
1 million 384 9511
500,000 384 9422
100,000 383 8761
50,000 381 8056
10,000 370 4899
5000 357 3288
1000 278 906
100 80 99
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WEIGHTING SAMPLES
.
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Interview and usage data
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Weighting the sample
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SOLUTION OF CLASS WORK
The percentages of PC and Mac users in the sample are 20% and 30%, respectively, and the sample size is 4,000, then (reading from the table in Figure 8.3), the half-widths of the two confidence intervals are 1.2% and 1.4% respectively. Thus the 95% confidence interval for each group is:
- PC users: 20% + 1.2 , ie. from 18.8% to 21.2%
- Mac users: 30% + 1.4, ie. from 28.6% to 31.4%.
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CLASS WORK #1
For sample size of 500 objects, what are
the intervals of finding 30% of the
population having the same
characteristics ( with 95% confidence)
If the size increased to 2000, what will
be the new intervals
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CLASS WORK #2
What size of sample is necessary to find a 50%
of the sample having the same characteristics
with an interval of ± 3%
What is the size of the sample to find 30% of
the population having the same characteristics
with the same confidence interval
What is size of the sample to find 70% of the
population having the confidence interval
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CLASS WORK #3
For a population of 25,000, what is the sample size to find 5% confidence interval of 50% of population of same characteristics?
What will the size for 1% confidence interval for the same 50% population of the sample?
What will the size for 1% confidence interval for the same 20% population of the sample?
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CLASS WORK #4
Consider 20% of a certain population plays
tennis. That means 80% do not play tennis.
What will be the accuracy for this population for
a total sample size of 200
What will be the accuracy of the population not
playing tennis for a total sample of 400
What will be the size if we want an accuracy of
± 2%
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CLASS WORK #5
We have a sample size of 500 . In this
sample 20% of the population have
same characteristics.
What will be the confidence interval?
Which size of the sample will give you
2% interval for the same popultion?
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CLASS WORK #6
A survey on 200 people shows that 20%
use PC and 30% use Macintosh
What will be the confidence intervals for
both users?
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CLASS WORK #7
For a survey of 500 employees, 50% had a leave sick last year.
If the true value of population who had leave sick is 50%, what will be the chances of drawing a random sample in which no one had a sick leave?
What will be the chances of drawing a random sample of 48-52% which no one had a sick leave
What will be the chances of drawing a random sample of 30%or 70% which no one had a sick leave
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CLASS WORK #8
For your survey, study the size of
sample with the corresponding
confidence intervals
According to timing, choose your sample
size and give the corresponding
confidence interval
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ANALYZING SECONDARY DATA
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THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS
CHAPTER
Help you think and act creatively to identify ways in which secondary data might be identified and analysed to purse research in management contexts;
We will study 'data mining' and 'meta-analysis'
Do some applications:
undertake simple secondary data analysis exercises, including: trend analysis
catchment/market area analysis using internal and external (census) data
demographic projections of demand
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WHAT ARE SECONDARY DATA ?
Reminder: Secondary data are the data
that already exist and need to be
collected to complete the primary data of
the researcher.
The researcher is the secondary user
Analysis pf secondary data is called
secondary analysis
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SECONDARY DATA OF
COMPANIES
Sources of information about company
or corporate organizations can be :
Internal sources
External sources
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INTERNAL SOURCES OF
COMPANIES
The internal record-keeping of a company can be a significant source of secondary data.
The internal data recorded are usually:
Financial accounts
Sales data
Prices
Product development
Advertising expenditure
Purchase of supplies
Human resources
Costumer complaints
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EXTERNAL DATA OF
COMPANIES
We should distinct Public from Private
companies
Public companies are required by law to
disclose detailed information concerning their
finances and structure. Annual reports and
other company data are lodged annually at
stock exchanges.
Private companies are not obliged to disclose
data. As a result, information on private
companies can be difficult to locate.
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EXTERNAL DATA FOR
PRIVATE COMPANIES
Sometimes you pay a fee to have access to the information.
Search in periodical literature, including newspapers, the financial press and trade journals are the next best option.
Three websites that can be used:
www.bizadvantage.com
www.whowhere.com
www.hoovers.com
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EXAMPLES OF USE OF
INTERNAL DATA
A) Trend analysis
B) Catchment area analysis
C) Employee data
D) Data mining
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A) TREND ANALYSIS – 1-
Fig. 12.1a: Quarterly sales & moving average
Year Quarter A sales revenue, $million
1999 99Q1 1.1
99Q2 2.5
99Q3 4.5
99Q4 3.3
2000 00Q1 1.3
00Q2 2.8
00Q3 4.9
00Q4 3.9
Etc
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A) TREND ANALYSIS -2-
Fig. 12.1b: Quarterly sales & moving average
Year Quarter A sales
revenue,
$million
B. Moving
average
1999 99Q1 1.1 -
99Q2 2.5 -
99Q3 4.5 -
99Q4 3.3 2.9 = (99Q1+99Q2+99Q3+99Q4)/4
2000 00Q1 1.3 2.9 = (99Q2+99Q3+99Q4+00Q1)/4
00Q2 2.8 3.0 = (99Q3+99Q4+00Q1+00Q2)/4
00Q3 4.9 3.1 = (99Q4+00Q1+00Q2+
00Q3)/4
00Q4 3.9 3.2 = (00Q1+00Q2+
00Q3+00Q4)/4
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A) TREND ANALYSIS -3-Fig. 12.1c: Quarterly sales & moving average
Year Quarter A sales revenue, $million B. Moving average
1999 99Q1 1.1 -
99Q2 2.5 -
99Q3 4.5 -
99Q4 3.3 2.9
2000 00Q1 1.3 2.9
00Q2 2.8 3.0
00Q3 4.9 3.1
00Q4 3.9 3.2
Etc.
2003 03Q1 1.7 3.3
03Q2 2.8 3.2
03Q3 4.8 3.1
03Q4 3.0 3.1
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A) TREND ANALYSIS/
MOVING AVERAGE
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B) CATCHMENT AREA
ANALYSIS
DEFINITION: A catchment area is the
geographical area from which most (eg.
75%) of customers are drawn
Catchment area analysis is the use of
customer information to establish the
catchment or market area of a service
outlet;
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B) CATCHMENT AREA
ANALYSIS
Information on the catchment area of a business/ service can be used for:
Analysis of potential customer characteristics (from census data – see External Data Sources later)
Make decisions on choice of local advertising media
Make decisions on new outlets
Customer address data obtained from customer records ( Next figure)
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B) Catchment/market area
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C) EMPLOYEE DATA Employee data Use of employee
records to study staff turnover and
performance.
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D) DATA MINING
Data-mining:
The process by which organisations
analyse computerised data-base
information held on customers for such
purposes as marketing, customer risk
analysis and fraud detection
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USES OF EXTERNAL DATA
A) Catchment area analysis
B) Demographic projection
C) Company advertising and press
coverage
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A) Catchment area analysis
Use of census data to study catchment/market area population characteristics: The whole country
Individual states
Statistical Divisions
Statistical Subdivisions
Statistical Local Areas
Census Collection Districts
Local government areas
Individual postcodes
Suburbs
State and Federal Parliamentary electorates
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A) Catchments Area Analysis:
Census data available in Australia
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B) DEMOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
Population projections for Australia and States/
Territories are available from ABS
These can be used to project demand based
on changing future demographic structure
EXAMPLE: Taking account of the aging of the
population
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EXAMPLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
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C) Company Advertising/Press
coverage
Use of data on advertising/press
coverage can be seen as analysis of
secondary data
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Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analysis is the re-analysis of the findings of comparatively large numbers of research projects on the same topic. Findings from a large number of studies on a single topic area compared
Falls between literature review and secondary data analysis
Typically quantified measures are compare –eg. correlation coefficients
Example: Thorsteinson (2003) analysed 38 studies on part-time vs full-time employees’ job attitudes
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HOMEWORK
EXERCICE 1: search in a UAE Statistics
Bureau and find Data similar to that in
column A in Figure 12.1. download the
data and replicate column B of Figure
12.1 and the diagram in Figure 12.2.
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HOMEWORK
EXERCISE 2 Assume that you have been asked to compare two areas for the siting of a new retail outlet aimed mainly at young people aged 18-29.
The areas are two postcodes in contrasting parts of the city/area where you live.
You should select the two areas for this exercise. Download data on the age-structure of the two areas from the Australian Bureau of Statistics web-site (www.abs.gov.au) or similar in another country and indicate which will be the best location for the outlet.
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HOMEWORK
EXERCISE 3 Figure 12.7 presents a
projection of cinema attendance for
Australia in 2021.
Using the same population projection
data produce a similar projection for one
of the activities presented in the book's
web-site.
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WRITING A BUSINESS RESEARCH REPORT
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Chapter Topics
The importance of the report
Actually getting started
Beginnings and Endings
Main body of the report – technical
aspects
Main body of the report – content
Other media
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The importance of the report
Written reports of research are a key
element in the world of business and
academe
Eg. feasibility studies, marketing plans,
research studies, development
proposals, environmental impact
assessments + articles and theses
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The importance of the report
The ability to write a research report
is therefore a key management skill
‘Report’ is used to refer to all
research report formats
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Actually getting started
Many researchers leave too little time for
report-writing – resulting in ‘last minute
rush’
Many parts of a research report can be
written/ organised well in advance, eg.:
introduction;
statement of objectives;
outline of the theoretical or evaluative
framework;
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Actually getting started
literature review;
description of the methodology;
production of diagrams, figures, tables
and cover design
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Beginnings and endings
Topics
Cover and title page
Table of contents
Executive
summary/synopsis/abstract
Preface/Foreword
Acknowledgements
Appendices
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Cover and title page
Cover:
Title of report
Author
Institution/publishers (on back cover + spine in
the case of books)
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Cover and title page
Title page:
Title of report
Author
Institution or publisher, including address and phone numbers*
Sponsoring body (for example, ‘Report to the Board of Directors’)
Date of publication*
* these items sometimes on the reverse of title page
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Table of contents – example – Fig.
16.1
Contentspage
Executive Summary (i)Preface (ii)Acknowledgements (iv)
1 INTRODUCTION 12 LITERATURE REVIEW 53 METHODOLOGY 134 FINDINGS: CULTURE IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 225 FINDINGS: LEADERSHIP IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 256 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 40
REFERENCES 44APPENDICESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF FIGURES/DIAGRAMS/ILLUSTRATIONS
More detail – see Fig. 16.1
NB. More than one ‘Findings’ section in this example
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Executive summary
Article: ‘abstract’; Thesis: ‘synopsis’
Content
The background, context or objectives
Methods and data sources
Main findings
Conclusions
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Executive summary
Recommendations where appropriate
NB. The Exec. Summary is not the
introduction – it is a summary of the
whole report
Should be written last!
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Executive summary - size
Suggested length guidelines:
Report length Executive
summary length
Up to 20 pages 1-2 pages
Up to 50 pages 3-4 pages
Up to 100 pages 4-5 pages
Over 100 pages 5-6 pages
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Preface/Foreword/Acknowledgemen
ts
Preface/Foreword includes:
Origins/context of study
Personal motivation/involvement of the author
Acknowledgements may thank:
funding organisations;
liaison officers of funding organisations;
members of steering committees;
Organisations/individuals providing access to information/resources;
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Preface/Foreword/Acknowledg
ements
staff employed: interviewers, coders,
computer programmers, word
processors, secretarial support, etc.;
individuals (including academic
supervisors) who have given advice,
commented on report drafts, etc.; and
individuals who responded to
questionnaires etc. (collectively)
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Appendices
Include:
Material too detailed/cumbersome for main
body of the report
See discussion of ‘report as record’
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Main Body of Report – Technical - 1
Section numbering
Need to establish a section numbering system
for professional reports, less so for theses, less
for articles – see Fig. 16.1
Word processor ‘styles’ may be used
Heading hierarchy
Be aware of ‘heading hierarchy’ – Chapter
headings, section headings, sub-section
headings
Paragraph numbering
Used in some official reports
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Main Body of Report –
Technical - 2 Page numbering
Can be helpful to use chapter/section-specific numbering
when multiple authors involved – eg. Chapter/section 1 has
page nos. : 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 etc.
Typing layout/spacing
I professional reports, paragraphs separated by blank line …
no indenting of first line
Tables, graphics and text
Consider the balance between text, tables and graphics and
their respective roles
Presentation of graphics
Graphics/tables should be complete in themselves –
numbered, titled, fully labelled and sourced.
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Main Body of Report - Content
Topics
Structure
Functions of a report
Audiences and style
The narrative structure
The report as ‘record’
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Main Body of Report - Structure
Structure should be shaped by the
research questions/issues
not necessarily by the sequence of data
collection processes – see Fig. 16.2
Structure should be stressed at the
beginning, in the middle and at the
end of the report
All research questions should be
answered – even if inconclusively!
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Fig. 16.2
Main Body of Report –
Structure
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Audiences and style
Consider the readership and
appropriate report style:
General public
Decision-makers –
professional/technical/democratic
Experts – professionals, academics
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Functions of the report
Report as narrative
Need to tell a story – see Fig. 16.3
Therefore some detailed material goes
to appendix
Report as record
Some users will want to look up
specific items - not read the whole
report
Role of appendices in providing details
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Report as Narrative – Fig. 16.3
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Other media
Oral presentations, often involving
one or more of:
Handouts;
Posters;
Overhead transparencies;
Slides;
Video clips; or
Computer-based presentations, such as
Microsoft PowerPoint.
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Oral presentations
Different media play different roles
Generally cannot reproduce the whole
report
Necessary to be selective
Selected key findings – of relevance to
the audience
Visuals must be readable from the back of the room!
… so report graphics may need to be modified
Practice delivery and timing
Study others’ good and bad presentations