buying buying time: time: city city growth growth andand ... · buying buying time: time: city city...
TRANSCRIPT
1
Buying time: City growth andBuying time: City growth andconcealed environmentalconcealed environmentalproblemsproblems++
Peter M J Fisher*, PhDPeter M J Fisher*, PhD
A (Len) Puglisi**A (Len) Puglisi**
* * James Goldston Faculty of Engineering & Physical Systems, CentralJames Goldston Faculty of Engineering & Physical Systems, Central
Queensland UniversityQueensland University
** ** Former planner with state and local governments in Victoria.Former planner with state and local governments in Victoria.
[email protected]@bigpond.com
[email protected]@alphalink.com.au
2
+ Paper presented+ Paper presented to: to: State of Australian Cities ConferenceState of Australian Cities Conference , Parramatta, 4-6, Parramatta, 4-6
December 2003December 2003
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
Over the past few decades, Australia’s capital cities haveOver the past few decades, Australia’s capital cities have
experienced significant growth. They now cover vast areas, visitingexperienced significant growth. They now cover vast areas, visiting
their impacts further and further into the countryside and along thetheir impacts further and further into the countryside and along the
coast like spot fires ahead of a main blaze. Their rising economiccoast like spot fires ahead of a main blaze. Their rising economic
prosperity, reflected in an insatiable appetite for goods & servicesprosperity, reflected in an insatiable appetite for goods & services
and fed by aggressive economic commentators is, through materialsand fed by aggressive economic commentators is, through materials
and energy imports, sending environmental impacts into far awayand energy imports, sending environmental impacts into far away
places. (Brown, 2003; Hamilton, 2003).places. (Brown, 2003; Hamilton, 2003).
But society is still to convince itself that it should be facing up to theBut society is still to convince itself that it should be facing up to the
intractable problems of burgeoning affluence and population growth,intractable problems of burgeoning affluence and population growth,
detailed for example in the recent New South Wales environmentaldetailed for example in the recent New South Wales environmental
audit (EPA-NSW, 2003), that threaten to envelop cities and their far-audit (EPA-NSW, 2003), that threaten to envelop cities and their far-
flung hinterlands.flung hinterlands.
Meantime, there are critical often subtle concerns of growingMeantime, there are critical often subtle concerns of growing
seriousness that demand concerted attention, especially from Stateseriousness that demand concerted attention, especially from State
and local governments. This paper focuses on five, by no means theand local governments. This paper focuses on five, by no means the
only such concerns touching cities, that are rarely on planners’only such concerns touching cities, that are rarely on planners’
3
screens, or if so, are given too little attention. Notably, these arescreens, or if so, are given too little attention. Notably, these are
fine particulate pollution, heat island effects and noise in local areafine particulate pollution, heat island effects and noise in local area
settings, water quality deterioration from run-off, and thesettings, water quality deterioration from run-off, and the
degradation of green space in urban environsdegradation of green space in urban environs
Many elements in fact defy straightforward solutions. Nevertheless,Many elements in fact defy straightforward solutions. Nevertheless,
a range of measures have been identified to reduce their severity; ina range of measures have been identified to reduce their severity; in
effect, helping to buy time while we face up to the downsides ofeffect, helping to buy time while we face up to the downsides of
runaway consumption and major population growth.runaway consumption and major population growth.
TODAY’S BROADER CONTEXT FOR CITYTODAY’S BROADER CONTEXT FOR CITYPLANNINGPLANNING
A popular focus of critics of our metropolises is their dispersed lowA popular focus of critics of our metropolises is their dispersed low
density form and high reliance on the car, resulting in the burning ofdensity form and high reliance on the car, resulting in the burning of
large amounts of fossil fuel.large amounts of fossil fuel.
Growing road traffic makes high demands for energy and causesGrowing road traffic makes high demands for energy and causes
environmental damage both locally in terms of air pollution,environmental damage both locally in terms of air pollution,
contaminated runoff, noise and globally in emission of greenhousecontaminated runoff, noise and globally in emission of greenhouse
gases (GHG). The transportation sector now accounts for about 17gases (GHG). The transportation sector now accounts for about 17
per cent of the GHG produced in Australia and most of this is fromper cent of the GHG produced in Australia and most of this is from
road transport. ABARE anticipates an economic growth rate of 2.4road transport. ABARE anticipates an economic growth rate of 2.4
per cent per annum for the sector through 2015. Traffic volumes areper cent per annum for the sector through 2015. Traffic volumes are
already increasing at around 2-3 per cent per annum and this can bealready increasing at around 2-3 per cent per annum and this can be
expected to rise further as vehicles grow yet larger (e.g. SUV's) &/orexpected to rise further as vehicles grow yet larger (e.g. SUV's) &/or
are driven further.are driven further.
Not surprisingly, given the global reach of the issue and theNot surprisingly, given the global reach of the issue and the
American and Australian governments intransigence towards theAmerican and Australian governments intransigence towards the
signing of Kyoto, environmental problems at large are usuallysigning of Kyoto, environmental problems at large are usually
viewed through a climate change prism. It took a severe drought toviewed through a climate change prism. It took a severe drought to
elevate water to anything near the profile that energy enjoys inelevate water to anything near the profile that energy enjoys in
government and industry.government and industry.
4
There are plainly many other factors that make for or impairThere are plainly many other factors that make for or impair
environmental quality and thus form part of the sustainabilityenvironmental quality and thus form part of the sustainability
equation. The BASIX scorecard of NSW's Sustainability Unit, forequation. The BASIX scorecard of NSW's Sustainability Unit, for
example, in addition to energy and greenhouse, lists water, waste,example, in addition to energy and greenhouse, lists water, waste,
transport and social goals as requisites for checking newtransport and social goals as requisites for checking new
developments. These parameters crop up in metaphors like thedevelopments. These parameters crop up in metaphors like the
extended metabolism of human settlements (DEST, 1996; Newman,extended metabolism of human settlements (DEST, 1996; Newman,
2003; Yencken & Wilkinson, 2000).2003; Yencken & Wilkinson, 2000).
Treatises on the sustainability of cities are often obtuse,Treatises on the sustainability of cities are often obtuse,
understandably still exploratory, but when they do get around tounderstandably still exploratory, but when they do get around to
practicalities frequently focus on transportation and densification. Apracticalities frequently focus on transportation and densification. A
debate continues to run in academic circles between proponents ofdebate continues to run in academic circles between proponents of
compaction and continuing car-driven suburbanisation (Newman, opcompaction and continuing car-driven suburbanisation (Newman, op
cit; Troy 2001). When it reaches into government agendas, thecit; Troy 2001). When it reaches into government agendas, the
conclusions for policy are usually about infrastructure provision, inconclusions for policy are usually about infrastructure provision, in
the "predict and provide" mould. Population restraint rarely gets athe "predict and provide" mould. Population restraint rarely gets a
mention. Among the political leadership only Premier Bob Carr hasmention. Among the political leadership only Premier Bob Carr has
spoken out on the need for limits on people numbers, urgingspoken out on the need for limits on people numbers, urging
immigration quotas be reduced to 70,000 per annum. While he's stillimmigration quotas be reduced to 70,000 per annum. While he's still
finding ways to fit larger numbers into Sydney, Carr can foreseefinding ways to fit larger numbers into Sydney, Carr can foresee
continuous coastal development "from south of the Daintree tocontinuous coastal development "from south of the Daintree to
Southern Victoria".Southern Victoria".
Australia's population growth in any event looks set to swamp gainsAustralia's population growth in any event looks set to swamp gains
made by the application of eco-efficiency principles - a core preceptmade by the application of eco-efficiency principles - a core precept
of ecologically sustainable development. The idea here is toof ecologically sustainable development. The idea here is to
replace a situation where technology damages or threatens thereplace a situation where technology damages or threatens the
environment on the one hand and is used to secure it on the other,environment on the one hand and is used to secure it on the other,
by a unitary (sustainable) technology that augments economicby a unitary (sustainable) technology that augments economic
growth but by using less energy, water and materials per unit ofgrowth but by using less energy, water and materials per unit of
output. (Fisher, 2000a).output. (Fisher, 2000a).
Unfortunately the gains coming off greater efficiencies can be usedUnfortunately the gains coming off greater efficiencies can be used
as a platform for consuming more of the same service or productas a platform for consuming more of the same service or product
(i.e. the ‘rebound’ or ‘revenge effect’ (Tenner, 1997). So, no matter(i.e. the ‘rebound’ or ‘revenge effect’ (Tenner, 1997). So, no matter
how brilliant the innovations in management or technology might be,how brilliant the innovations in management or technology might be,
they can only advance cities so far towards sustainability.they can only advance cities so far towards sustainability.
5
Modifications are needed in consumer behaviour - a recent successModifications are needed in consumer behaviour - a recent success
story being the reduction in household water demand.story being the reduction in household water demand.
Nonetheless, it needs to be acknowledged that whereas a handful ofNonetheless, it needs to be acknowledged that whereas a handful of
Western cities - Amsterdam immediately comes to mind – appear toWestern cities - Amsterdam immediately comes to mind – appear to
be well on their way towards sustainability, their levels ofbe well on their way towards sustainability, their levels of
consumption are stressing ecological systems elsewhere (Beckett,consumption are stressing ecological systems elsewhere (Beckett,
2003; Fabian Society, 2003). Not to mention how a world-wide2003; Fabian Society, 2003). Not to mention how a world-wide
growing appetite for air travel is adding to global warming (Fisher,growing appetite for air travel is adding to global warming (Fisher,
2000b; ENDS 2003).2000b; ENDS 2003).
MORE CONCEALED FORMS OF URBANMORE CONCEALED FORMS OF URBANDEGRADATIONDEGRADATION
Whereas planners pursue consolidation and other arms ofWhereas planners pursue consolidation and other arms of
government busy themselves with promoting energy saving, watergovernment busy themselves with promoting energy saving, water
conservation and ‘water sensitive urban design’, a number ofconservation and ‘water sensitive urban design’, a number of
problems are being overlooked or downplayed which are affectingproblems are being overlooked or downplayed which are affecting
human health &/or degrading terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.human health &/or degrading terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.
However, because they are incremental, aren't producing anyHowever, because they are incremental, aren't producing any
immediate or obvious harm and where applicable, the offendingimmediate or obvious harm and where applicable, the offending
contaminants are invisible or near invisible, most receive little if anycontaminants are invisible or near invisible, most receive little if any
government, media or community attention (Kearney, 2003).government, media or community attention (Kearney, 2003).
Especially concerning are:Especially concerning are:
1) Particulates less than 2.5 microns (PM1) Particulates less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5's2.5's) originating from) originating from
growing numbers of diesel engines many poorly tuned (And, to somegrowing numbers of diesel engines many poorly tuned (And, to some
extent, internal combustion engines). It has been estimated that cityextent, internal combustion engines). It has been estimated that city
dwellers take in 25 million such particles with each breath. Lodgingdwellers take in 25 million such particles with each breath. Lodging
into the respiratory system these minute fractions are capable ofinto the respiratory system these minute fractions are capable of
triggering an inflammatory reaction in the lungs otherwise known astriggering an inflammatory reaction in the lungs otherwise known as
‘acute chemical sensitisation’, which can lead to cancers, heart‘acute chemical sensitisation’, which can lead to cancers, heart
disease, etc (Fisher, 1999; ABC-RN, 2003). They may similarlydisease, etc (Fisher, 1999; ABC-RN, 2003). They may similarly
affect pets and wildlife.affect pets and wildlife.
6
And, a new study has shown that carbon nano-particles like thoseAnd, a new study has shown that carbon nano-particles like those
from diesels can travel to the brain as well by moving down thefrom diesels can travel to the brain as well by moving down the
brain cells that pick up odours and transmit signals to the olfactorybrain cells that pick up odours and transmit signals to the olfactory
bulb (Oberdörster, 2004).bulb (Oberdörster, 2004).
Also present in diesel exhaust is 3-nitrobenzathrone, a nitroAlso present in diesel exhaust is 3-nitrobenzathrone, a nitro
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon which is produced in quantity frompolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon which is produced in quantity from
engines under heavy load. 3-nitrobenzathrone has been found toengines under heavy load. 3-nitrobenzathrone has been found to
cause massive chromosomal aberrations in the blood cells of mice,cause massive chromosomal aberrations in the blood cells of mice,
suggesting that it is likely to have similar effects on other mammals,suggesting that it is likely to have similar effects on other mammals,
including humans.including humans.
2) An increased volume of stormwater due to the loss of vegetated2) An increased volume of stormwater due to the loss of vegetated
surfaces and trees especially as a result of infill development. Thissurfaces and trees especially as a result of infill development. This
runoff can be contaminated by endocrine disrupting and otherrunoff can be contaminated by endocrine disrupting and other
damaging pharmaceutical residuals such as antidepressantsdamaging pharmaceutical residuals such as antidepressants
originating in mobilised doggy-do and the occasional sewageoriginating in mobilised doggy-do and the occasional sewage
overflow into drains during downpours (Fisher & Borland, 2003;overflow into drains during downpours (Fisher & Borland, 2003;
Streater, 2003). Also present are heavy metals. There is a palpableStreater, 2003). Also present are heavy metals. There is a palpable
failure to intercept and treat this water before it reaches andfailure to intercept and treat this water before it reaches and
damages stream and marine biota (Fisher, 2002a)damages stream and marine biota (Fisher, 2002a)
Lesser but still perturbing concerns are:Lesser but still perturbing concerns are:
1) Urban heat island effects from tree loss and replacement by hard,1) Urban heat island effects from tree loss and replacement by hard,
often reflective surfaces leading to increased power demand andoften reflective surfaces leading to increased power demand and
rain shadow effects. A NASA sponsored study of Atlanta forrain shadow effects. A NASA sponsored study of Atlanta for
instance, found that the swapping of trees and other vegetation forinstance, found that the swapping of trees and other vegetation for
heat absorbing asphalt, concrete and rooftops created an urban heatheat absorbing asphalt, concrete and rooftops created an urban heat
island that can generate its own winds, and thunderstorms warmisland that can generate its own winds, and thunderstorms warm
the city well into the night and dramatically increase the productionthe city well into the night and dramatically increase the production
of harmful ground level ozone. (ENN, 1999)of harmful ground level ozone. (ENN, 1999)
2) A noise epidemic extending beyond annoyance to sleep2) A noise epidemic extending beyond annoyance to sleep
disturbance affecting health (WHO, 1999) especially in newlydisturbance affecting health (WHO, 1999) especially in newly
consolidated areas. There is even evidence that road noise isconsolidated areas. There is even evidence that road noise is
impacting the breeding of birds by drowning out mating calls.impacting the breeding of birds by drowning out mating calls.
7
3) Light pollution affecting humans (a possible breast cancer source3) Light pollution affecting humans (a possible breast cancer source
- Stevens & Rea, 2001), animals, insects and plants: Intense- Stevens & Rea, 2001), animals, insects and plants: Intense
constant illumination causes the normal circadian rhythm to go intoconstant illumination causes the normal circadian rhythm to go into
arrhythmia, to essentially go whacko. (IDSA, 2003).arrhythmia, to essentially go whacko. (IDSA, 2003).
A variety of other factors are adding to these troubles:A variety of other factors are adding to these troubles:
For instance, tree lopping and removal is gaining pace encouragedFor instance, tree lopping and removal is gaining pace encouraged
by opportunistic "tree managers" to avoid public liability from fallsby opportunistic "tree managers" to avoid public liability from falls
as a result of climate change related storms; to preserve viewsas a result of climate change related storms; to preserve views
(Lamont, 2004); or simply because of an outbreak of whipped-up(Lamont, 2004); or simply because of an outbreak of whipped-up
hysteria and minimalist landscape fashions. Such degreening hashysteria and minimalist landscape fashions. Such degreening has
had a domino effect - exposing and similarly damaging nearby treeshad a domino effect - exposing and similarly damaging nearby trees
leading to their subsequent removal and so forth. As a result,leading to their subsequent removal and so forth. As a result,
habitats are being lost for birds and marsupials (e.g. possums andhabitats are being lost for birds and marsupials (e.g. possums and
flying foxes) while the shading effects of tree cover are beingflying foxes) while the shading effects of tree cover are being
foregone leading to higher energy usage for cooling. Tree loss alsoforegone leading to higher energy usage for cooling. Tree loss also
means that the pollutant filtering capacity of foliage (Sequest et al,means that the pollutant filtering capacity of foliage (Sequest et al,
1998) is being diminished thus increasing exposure to PM1998) is being diminished thus increasing exposure to PM2.5s 2.5s nearnear
busy roads.busy roads.
Tree removal is in turn increasing runoff because precipitationTree removal is in turn increasing runoff because precipitation
normally caught and adsorbed by leaves - the cumulative leaf areanormally caught and adsorbed by leaves - the cumulative leaf area
of a tree is 100-1000 times the area of its drip zone – and taken-upof a tree is 100-1000 times the area of its drip zone – and taken-up
by roots is now in the gutters. Increased runoff is in turn loweringby roots is now in the gutters. Increased runoff is in turn lowering
salinity levels of inshore areas of seas affecting marine life bysalinity levels of inshore areas of seas affecting marine life by
delivering freshwater well in excess of earlier or pre-settlementdelivering freshwater well in excess of earlier or pre-settlement
eras.eras.
The loss of green space is more prevalent than commonly thought.The loss of green space is more prevalent than commonly thought.
For example, thirty years into their establishment, ‘third-tier’For example, thirty years into their establishment, ‘third-tier’
suburbs (featuring lot sizes of 500-600 msuburbs (featuring lot sizes of 500-600 m22) are being pummelled by) are being pummelled by
the removal of large canopied trees with a resultant loss of nativethe removal of large canopied trees with a resultant loss of native
fauna around houses and on large lot reserves. This extends tofauna around houses and on large lot reserves. This extends to
unwanted commercial and institutional sites which are being pressedunwanted commercial and institutional sites which are being pressed
into higher density housing. (Puglisi, 2003). The removal of remnantinto higher density housing. (Puglisi, 2003). The removal of remnant
deep rooted vegetation in some city localities/soils also raises thedeep rooted vegetation in some city localities/soils also raises the
8
prospect that they will one day succumb to rising salinity: This hasprospect that they will one day succumb to rising salinity: This has
already occurred in Wagga and Dubbo and is now emergent inalready occurred in Wagga and Dubbo and is now emergent in
Penrith.Penrith.
At city perimeters, growth has hammered and continues to hammerAt city perimeters, growth has hammered and continues to hammer
biodiversity - birds, reptiles, marsupials and insects are steadilybiodiversity - birds, reptiles, marsupials and insects are steadily
losing habitat from the resumption of farmland and clearing oflosing habitat from the resumption of farmland and clearing of
remnant bush. The toll is truly staggering with over 100 millionremnant bush. The toll is truly staggering with over 100 million
mammals, birds and reptiles dying each year in Queensland alone: mammals, birds and reptiles dying each year in Queensland alone:
(WWF, 2003) And, major road projects especially motorways, are(WWF, 2003) And, major road projects especially motorways, are
acting as impassable barriers to genetic exchange between mammalacting as impassable barriers to genetic exchange between mammal
populations or as sites for running down creatures foolhardy enoughpopulations or as sites for running down creatures foolhardy enough
to attempt a crossing (Ariza, 1998).to attempt a crossing (Ariza, 1998).
Yet more disquietening is the appearance of ‘extinction debt’ whereYet more disquietening is the appearance of ‘extinction debt’ where
bird losses can occur up to thirty years after the original partialbird losses can occur up to thirty years after the original partial
clearing (Traill 2000).clearing (Traill 2000).
Remnant patches of vegetation both at the perimeter and withinRemnant patches of vegetation both at the perimeter and within
built-out areas are in trouble too because of the lack of fire, fringebuilt-out areas are in trouble too because of the lack of fire, fringe
effects, loss of pollinators and insectivorous/ pest eating birds,effects, loss of pollinators and insectivorous/ pest eating birds,
reduced gene pools and lack of genetic exchange (Saunders, 2002).reduced gene pools and lack of genetic exchange (Saunders, 2002).
For example a small patch of surviving box forest in Royal Park,For example a small patch of surviving box forest in Royal Park,
Melbourne has been invaded by exotic weeds and the number andMelbourne has been invaded by exotic weeds and the number and
variety of its native plants has plummeted in the mere space ofvariety of its native plants has plummeted in the mere space of
seven years. An interesting indication of decline in urban bushlandseven years. An interesting indication of decline in urban bushland
would stem from re-surveying the native flora in Studley Park andwould stem from re-surveying the native flora in Studley Park and
Yarra Bend Reserves in Melbourne and comparing the results withYarra Bend Reserves in Melbourne and comparing the results with
an earlier survey (McIntyre & Yugovic, 1982). Epacris impressa,an earlier survey (McIntyre & Yugovic, 1982). Epacris impressa,
Victoria’s floral emblem recorded there in 1982 and within sight ofVictoria’s floral emblem recorded there in 1982 and within sight of
the CBD, looks to have vanished possibly as a result of the loss ofthe CBD, looks to have vanished possibly as a result of the loss of
its bird pollinator, the Spriated Thornbill, and absence of fire..its bird pollinator, the Spriated Thornbill, and absence of fire..
Finally, in this litany of too little recognised environmentalFinally, in this litany of too little recognised environmental
depredations of urban stress, city water appetites are seriouslydepredations of urban stress, city water appetites are seriously
impacting environmental flows in tapped rural rivers alreadyimpacting environmental flows in tapped rural rivers already
adversely affected by the drought (Fisher, 2000c).adversely affected by the drought (Fisher, 2000c).
9
A further commandeering of this supply is suggested by theA further commandeering of this supply is suggested by the
Californian experience (Murphy, 2003) Viz. in a head-to-headCalifornian experience (Murphy, 2003) Viz. in a head-to-head
confrontation between agricultural interests and those of the biggerconfrontation between agricultural interests and those of the bigger
constituency of the cities, the cities will usually win out.constituency of the cities, the cities will usually win out.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND THE INVESTMENTGOVERNMENT POLICIES AND THE INVESTMENTBOOMBOOM
There have been a number of consequences flowing from theThere have been a number of consequences flowing from the
property and investment boom apart from the hype. (A Sydney realproperty and investment boom apart from the hype. (A Sydney real
estate agent recently declared that "Most of the world has become aestate agent recently declared that "Most of the world has become a
developer" while a newspaper headline boasted that "Now we are alldeveloper" while a newspaper headline boasted that "Now we are all
landlords".).landlords".).
1) Foremost has been the creation of an atmosphere that cities can1) Foremost has been the creation of an atmosphere that cities can
keep on growing without meeting resource walls or causing seriouskeep on growing without meeting resource walls or causing serious
harm to the environment.harm to the environment.
Even the drought has failed to dent this expectation becauseEven the drought has failed to dent this expectation because
governments have simply said that increased demand can begovernments have simply said that increased demand can be
accommodated through water saving and water recycling rather thanaccommodated through water saving and water recycling rather than
new dams. Never mind that at some stage the fat will have beennew dams. Never mind that at some stage the fat will have been
fully taken up. (Downie, 2003; Fisher, 2000c)fully taken up. (Downie, 2003; Fisher, 2000c)
In fact, the States (with perhaps one notable exception) avoidIn fact, the States (with perhaps one notable exception) avoid
looking at this issue and proceed by nominating a year into thelooking at this issue and proceed by nominating a year into the
future, say 2020 or 2030. Then, in what could be called "thefuture, say 2020 or 2030. Then, in what could be called "the
infrastructure first approach to planning", governments, leading orinfrastructure first approach to planning", governments, leading or
more probably lead by them, ask their various service authorities tomore probably lead by them, ask their various service authorities to
say how that service can be supplied to the specified year. Thesay how that service can be supplied to the specified year. The
planning authorities are instructed to find the land to "fit in" a rangeplanning authorities are instructed to find the land to "fit in" a range
of projected population numbers.of projected population numbers.
The political and technical limitations of that approach are obvious:The political and technical limitations of that approach are obvious:
The service and planning arms of government are under direction toThe service and planning arms of government are under direction to
accommodate more people, so they must perform. No seriousaccommodate more people, so they must perform. No serious
conclusions are drawn as to what might happen after the specifiedconclusions are drawn as to what might happen after the specified
year. Nor is there consideration of what the implications of startingyear. Nor is there consideration of what the implications of starting
10
down the track from a higher platform of population might mean fordown the track from a higher platform of population might mean for
future governments.future governments.
If the reason for proceeding in this constrained way is a belief thatIf the reason for proceeding in this constrained way is a belief that
thinking too far ahead is fanciful, it can only mean that governmentsthinking too far ahead is fanciful, it can only mean that governments
have yet to recognise the time-scales and imperatives that arehave yet to recognise the time-scales and imperatives that are
driving today's rigorous environmental assessments (Pimm, 2001).driving today's rigorous environmental assessments (Pimm, 2001).
2) The boom has also served to exacerbate the systemic2) The boom has also served to exacerbate the systemic
environmental problems identified earlier in this paper. It hasenvironmental problems identified earlier in this paper. It has
speeded up land clearing, lifted the amount of hard surfaces throughspeeded up land clearing, lifted the amount of hard surfaces through
site redevelopment and seen the removal of many treessite redevelopment and seen the removal of many trees
(Hitchmough, 1992). The resumption of land at the perimeter for(Hitchmough, 1992). The resumption of land at the perimeter for
new housing has also deprived cities of nearby sources of freshnew housing has also deprived cities of nearby sources of fresh
produce by overrunning market gardens especially around Sydneyproduce by overrunning market gardens especially around Sydney
(Kelleher, 2001).(Kelleher, 2001).
3) Further, it has resulted in record numbers of light commercial3) Further, it has resulted in record numbers of light commercial
vehicles and new cars on urban roads. At first sight the latter mightvehicles and new cars on urban roads. At first sight the latter might
be expected to reduce pollution levels with the retirement ofbe expected to reduce pollution levels with the retirement of
‘smokers’ - that 10 per cent of the car fleet that produce 50 per cent‘smokers’ - that 10 per cent of the car fleet that produce 50 per cent
of vehicular emissions (ENDS, 1994). However, the presence ofof vehicular emissions (ENDS, 1994). However, the presence of
SUV's, many of which are diesels, has markedly increased (Marks,SUV's, many of which are diesels, has markedly increased (Marks,
2003). (Light commercial vehicles are usually diesel too.)2003). (Light commercial vehicles are usually diesel too.)
The miniscule particles emitted from these engines can remain inThe miniscule particles emitted from these engines can remain in
suspension, swirling around in the air for a week or so, assumingsuspension, swirling around in the air for a week or so, assuming
new chemical guises after being repeatedly super-cooked in thenew chemical guises after being repeatedly super-cooked in the
carburettors of other engines.carburettors of other engines.
Especially hazardous are de-greened locations notably streetEspecially hazardous are de-greened locations notably street
canyons close to gridlock conditions where hard, non-vegetatedcanyons close to gridlock conditions where hard, non-vegetated
surfaces predominate (Vardoulakis et al, 2003). Fines are swept upsurfaces predominate (Vardoulakis et al, 2003). Fines are swept up
here by wind and traffic in the hotter, drier months. Deceleration,here by wind and traffic in the hotter, drier months. Deceleration,
idling and acceleration, similarly make intersections especiallyidling and acceleration, similarly make intersections especially
hazardous places when average daily flows exceed 20,000 vehicleshazardous places when average daily flows exceed 20,000 vehicles
(Pearce, 2002; Kearney, op cit).(Pearce, 2002; Kearney, op cit).
11
In terms of policy responses short of broad traffic reductionIn terms of policy responses short of broad traffic reduction
measures, authorities would be unwise to use or to promotemeasures, authorities would be unwise to use or to promote
congestion as a tool for regulating traffic levels yet some do justcongestion as a tool for regulating traffic levels yet some do just
this. The proliferation of complaints in local air stressed situationsthis. The proliferation of complaints in local air stressed situations
belies the complacency that things are going well on the air qualitybelies the complacency that things are going well on the air quality
front. (Could the fear of opening a Pandora’s box of claims befront. (Could the fear of opening a Pandora’s box of claims be
preventing decisive responses?).preventing decisive responses?).
Under consolidation policies, multiple dwellings, shopping andUnder consolidation policies, multiple dwellings, shopping and
recreational uses have been added to the pre-existing, lower densityrecreational uses have been added to the pre-existing, lower density
urban fabric, very commonly along major roads and near busyurban fabric, very commonly along major roads and near busy
intersections. Alas, these are putting more and more people, andintersections. Alas, these are putting more and more people, and
worryingly, children, at serious health risk (AATSE, 1997. Janssen,worryingly, children, at serious health risk (AATSE, 1997. Janssen,
2001). What is more, a short cut to higher density, seen as desirable2001). What is more, a short cut to higher density, seen as desirable
because locations are often near train stations or adjoin transitbecause locations are often near train stations or adjoin transit
routes, has heightened exposure.routes, has heightened exposure.
Accordingly, if higher density development oriented to public transitAccordingly, if higher density development oriented to public transit
provision is to have a place in the construction of Australian cities,provision is to have a place in the construction of Australian cities,
then, as a policy, it will need to be carefully crafted to particular,then, as a policy, it will need to be carefully crafted to particular,
probably very few, locations. There is enough experience now of theprobably very few, locations. There is enough experience now of the
poor outcomes which flow from the broad-scale overlay of a generalpoor outcomes which flow from the broad-scale overlay of a general
policy of consolidation across metropolitan areas.policy of consolidation across metropolitan areas.
A comprehensive study of urban form and energy gives a salutaryA comprehensive study of urban form and energy gives a salutary
warning about the complexity of this issue. "It is one thing to saywarning about the complexity of this issue. "It is one thing to say
that cities with different urban forms have different rates of energythat cities with different urban forms have different rates of energy
consumption; it is quite another to say that a significantconsumption; it is quite another to say that a significant
improvement can be achieved through realistic changes to the formimprovement can be achieved through realistic changes to the form
of a particular city." (Anderson, 1996).of a particular city." (Anderson, 1996).
RELIEVING CITIES OF ENVIRONMENTALRELIEVING CITIES OF ENVIRONMENTALSTRESSSTRESS
A preparedness to restrict population growth is fundamental toA preparedness to restrict population growth is fundamental to
relieving resource and environmental stresses in the capital cities.relieving resource and environmental stresses in the capital cities.
Since the States are in fierce competition with each other forSince the States are in fierce competition with each other for
12
development opportunities there is little prospect of this happeningdevelopment opportunities there is little prospect of this happening
in the short run. In the long run many of the problems we havein the short run. In the long run many of the problems we have
identified will have taken their toll on people, wildlife and habitats.identified will have taken their toll on people, wildlife and habitats.
While governments and society are not yet willing to contemplate atWhile governments and society are not yet willing to contemplate at
least the stabilization of population numbers, and society seemsleast the stabilization of population numbers, and society seems
reluctant to dampen its drive for greater and greater affluence, whatreluctant to dampen its drive for greater and greater affluence, what
should we be looking at by way of remedying even the worst ofshould we be looking at by way of remedying even the worst of
these problems - as we say, seeking to buy some time?these problems - as we say, seeking to buy some time?
Insofar as particulates are concerned it could be argued that theInsofar as particulates are concerned it could be argued that the
early introduction of low sulphur diesel will provide a remedy butearly introduction of low sulphur diesel will provide a remedy but
unfortunately, not for 3-nitrobenzathrone. Moreover, PMunfortunately, not for 3-nitrobenzathrone. Moreover, PM2.5's2.5's also also
stem from internal combustion engines. Hybrid powertrains willstem from internal combustion engines. Hybrid powertrains will
undoubtedly help but a full transition to these and fuel cells is stillundoubtedly help but a full transition to these and fuel cells is still
decades away. decades away.
So as a first level development assessment tool, there seems noSo as a first level development assessment tool, there seems no
getting away from an imposition of setbacks (Whiston, 1983),getting away from an imposition of setbacks (Whiston, 1983),
planting regimes, building designs, etc, that would avoid or evenplanting regimes, building designs, etc, that would avoid or even
reduce the deleterious effects for people who work or reside inreduce the deleterious effects for people who work or reside in
unsatisfactory locations. In some cases, planning authorities shouldunsatisfactory locations. In some cases, planning authorities should
contemplate outright refusal of permission to build poorly locatedcontemplate outright refusal of permission to build poorly located
premises. Planning law allows that general policy intentions bepremises. Planning law allows that general policy intentions be
interpreted in the light of site-specific considerations.interpreted in the light of site-specific considerations.
Another response would see ‘low exposure zones’ established in theAnother response would see ‘low exposure zones’ established in the
most hazardous areas allowing entry only to vehicles meeting Euromost hazardous areas allowing entry only to vehicles meeting Euro
III (or minimally, Euro II) type emission standards – a ploy followedIII (or minimally, Euro II) type emission standards – a ploy followed
in some European cities.in some European cities.
The dousing of soils, groundwater, waterways and seas byThe dousing of soils, groundwater, waterways and seas by
stormwater contaminated with heavy metals, herbicides, hormonesstormwater contaminated with heavy metals, herbicides, hormones
and pharmaceutical residuals, is no more tractable. Curiously,and pharmaceutical residuals, is no more tractable. Curiously,
regulators are still preoccupied with litter, sediments and nutrients.regulators are still preoccupied with litter, sediments and nutrients.
(The dramatic decline in the diversity of marine life at Ricketts Point(The dramatic decline in the diversity of marine life at Ricketts Point
in Port Philip Bay over the past quarter of a century (Herrick, 2003)in Port Philip Bay over the past quarter of a century (Herrick, 2003)
could be partly interpreted in terms of the cumulative impact ofcould be partly interpreted in terms of the cumulative impact of
13
heavy metals, herbicides and possibly pharmaceutical residuals inheavy metals, herbicides and possibly pharmaceutical residuals in
runoff entering its reef zone.)runoff entering its reef zone.)
At present little if any drainage is caught to remove gross pollutantsAt present little if any drainage is caught to remove gross pollutants
before discharge to streams or the sea - Sydney has the most Grossbefore discharge to streams or the sea - Sydney has the most Gross
Pollutant Traps with about 600 but Brisbane is catching up. HoweverPollutant Traps with about 600 but Brisbane is catching up. However
these devices are allowing many serious contaminants through andthese devices are allowing many serious contaminants through and
if not regularly cleaned their polluted wet vaults are flushed out byif not regularly cleaned their polluted wet vaults are flushed out by
the next storm. Disturbingly, benchmark scientific tests undertakenthe next storm. Disturbingly, benchmark scientific tests undertaken
on some Melbourne GPT’s, established that the solid and liquidon some Melbourne GPT’s, established that the solid and liquid
muck in their wet vaults failed to meet even standards set formuck in their wet vaults failed to meet even standards set for
discharge to sewer.discharge to sewer.
Whereas Water Sensitive Urban Design is brandished as a universalWhereas Water Sensitive Urban Design is brandished as a universal
remedy it is near impossible both in terms of space and the price ofremedy it is near impossible both in terms of space and the price of
land to comprehensively retrofit built out areas – places responsibleland to comprehensively retrofit built out areas – places responsible
for the vast amount of urban runoff load. Offending contaminantsfor the vast amount of urban runoff load. Offending contaminants
instead should be trapped closer to their point of origin targettinginstead should be trapped closer to their point of origin targetting
hotspots like (fish) markets, car parks, industrial estates, etc ashotspots like (fish) markets, car parks, industrial estates, etc as
proposed for Sydney’s Black Wattle Bay catchment. One promisingproposed for Sydney’s Black Wattle Bay catchment. One promising
device has been developed by wetland specialist Geoffrey Saintydevice has been developed by wetland specialist Geoffrey Sainty
and collaborators using a vertical reed bed RootZone™ filter.and collaborators using a vertical reed bed RootZone™ filter.
Out on the streets there are one or two proprietary devices featuringOut on the streets there are one or two proprietary devices featuring
catch baskets (e,g, Enviropod™ in the Brisbane CBD) which can becatch baskets (e,g, Enviropod™ in the Brisbane CBD) which can be
inserted into side entry or gully pits alongside kerbs. These mayinserted into side entry or gully pits alongside kerbs. These may
also be fitted with filters keyed to different pollutants. However, thisalso be fitted with filters keyed to different pollutants. However, this
remedy is costly due to the sheer number of pits and the time mayremedy is costly due to the sheer number of pits and the time may
fast be approaching for independent financing of SQID infrastructurefast be approaching for independent financing of SQID infrastructure
(Chanan et al, 2001; Hunter & Fisher, 2003). One possible means is(Chanan et al, 2001; Hunter & Fisher, 2003). One possible means is
a stormwater tax levied according to the amount of imperviousa stormwater tax levied according to the amount of impervious
surface per site. Such taxes already apply in Florida.surface per site. Such taxes already apply in Florida.
The remaining systemic problems similarly defy all encompassingThe remaining systemic problems similarly defy all encompassing
solutions but a reduction in their severity remains possible:solutions but a reduction in their severity remains possible:
1) Many councils have powers to limit tree removal but can do little1) Many councils have powers to limit tree removal but can do little
about the destruction of understoreys (justified for fire protection)about the destruction of understoreys (justified for fire protection)
which are key habitats for many small creatures. It would seem thatwhich are key habitats for many small creatures. It would seem that
14
most patches of remnant vegetation in any event are geneticallymost patches of remnant vegetation in any event are genetically
doomed although strategic burns from time to time would temporarilydoomed although strategic burns from time to time would temporarily
reinvigorate them provided there exist nearby refuges for fauna.reinvigorate them provided there exist nearby refuges for fauna.
2) The valuable role played by backgarden vegetation in providing2) The valuable role played by backgarden vegetation in providing
corridors for the movement of birds and some marsupials could becorridors for the movement of birds and some marsupials could be
better recognised as well, while urban heat island effects can bebetter recognised as well, while urban heat island effects can be
partially overcome by insisting that large trees remain inpartially overcome by insisting that large trees remain in
consolidated localities. These effects might otherwise become soconsolidated localities. These effects might otherwise become so
severe that city authorities will be forced to plant trees to createsevere that city authorities will be forced to plant trees to create
cool spots and to paint roofs white to reflect heat back into spacecool spots and to paint roofs white to reflect heat back into space
(Radford, 2000).(Radford, 2000).
3) Some progress appears to have been made on noise mainly in3) Some progress appears to have been made on noise mainly in
relation to buildings but little has been achieved with off-the-streetrelation to buildings but little has been achieved with off-the-street
noise or the problem in relation to airports. Changing life styles hasnoise or the problem in relation to airports. Changing life styles has
rendered many noise ordinances inappropriate.rendered many noise ordinances inappropriate.
4) Finally, light pollution can be lowered by retrofitting street lamps4) Finally, light pollution can be lowered by retrofitting street lamps
with infrared switches saving energy as well. Or at least adoption ofwith infrared switches saving energy as well. Or at least adoption of
the practice of American states like Arizona, Maine, New Mexico andthe practice of American states like Arizona, Maine, New Mexico and
Connecticut of eliminating the amount of light that goes above theConnecticut of eliminating the amount of light that goes above the
lamp in streetlights and other outdoor lighting fixtures. (IDSA, oplamp in streetlights and other outdoor lighting fixtures. (IDSA, op
cit) .ci t) .
CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS
Australia is a deep-time creation (Fisher, 2002b). Successive wavesAustralia is a deep-time creation (Fisher, 2002b). Successive waves
of immigrants to its shores stumbled upon an extraordinary entity,of immigrants to its shores stumbled upon an extraordinary entity,
with stunning regional variations, unmatched in natural diversity,with stunning regional variations, unmatched in natural diversity,
certainly in relation to the Europe from which most of the secondcertainly in relation to the Europe from which most of the second
contingent came. We should not settle for lives in lost or degradedcontingent came. We should not settle for lives in lost or degraded
landscapes let alone a diminution of the invaluable services to thelandscapes let alone a diminution of the invaluable services to the
economy that the other Australia's natural capital provides. economy that the other Australia's natural capital provides.
Its remnant existence (White, 1994) posits a question mark againstIts remnant existence (White, 1994) posits a question mark against
the wisdom of chasing a global-style urbanism/minimalist built formthe wisdom of chasing a global-style urbanism/minimalist built form
in architecture and landscaping. Australia's indigenous nature canin architecture and landscaping. Australia's indigenous nature can
15
be understood as a metaphor for the local as against the global viewbe understood as a metaphor for the local as against the global view
of the world.of the world.
Yet our cities are teeming with people living and working in settingsYet our cities are teeming with people living and working in settings
where the relationship between their existence and the life-supportwhere the relationship between their existence and the life-support
system beyond the ex-urban areas and paddocks is becoming moresystem beyond the ex-urban areas and paddocks is becoming more
obscure despite the drought.obscure despite the drought.
Recent figures reveal that concern for the environment amongRecent figures reveal that concern for the environment among
Australian households has fallen to its lowest point (62 per cent)Australian households has fallen to its lowest point (62 per cent)
since the ABS began asking the question in 1972. But it may takesince the ABS began asking the question in 1972. But it may take
several generations for Australians to acquire a fresh perspective onseveral generations for Australians to acquire a fresh perspective on
their residency of this continent. That shift is imperative for repair totheir residency of this continent. That shift is imperative for repair to
take hold and inspire.take hold and inspire.
This deep-time perspective and evidence - pointed to earlier in theThis deep-time perspective and evidence - pointed to earlier in the
paper about the serious degradation resulting from populationpaper about the serious degradation resulting from population
growth, runaway affluence and boom-time development - suggest agrowth, runaway affluence and boom-time development - suggest a
cautionary stance by planners towards accommodating the rush forcautionary stance by planners towards accommodating the rush for
big numbers. Subtlety is needed in dealing with different sectors ofbig numbers. Subtlety is needed in dealing with different sectors of
Australia's major cities, by overlaying more sophisticated evidenceAustralia's major cities, by overlaying more sophisticated evidence
of stress emerging from growth so far (White, 1997). of stress emerging from growth so far (White, 1997).
There are clearly difficulties in making that transition and no oneThere are clearly difficulties in making that transition and no one
knows the best ways to redirect a still largely reluctant society toknows the best ways to redirect a still largely reluctant society to
look more than a short time ahead. Planners at least need to startlook more than a short time ahead. Planners at least need to start
by voicing concerns about the raw push for growth and acknowledgeby voicing concerns about the raw push for growth and acknowledge
its limitations. At the very least, decisive action is well overdue toits limitations. At the very least, decisive action is well overdue to
lessen the incidence of the problems we have identified.lessen the incidence of the problems we have identified.
REFERENCESREFERENCES
ABC Radio National with Norman Swan, Dirty diesel, 28 April 2003.ABC Radio National with Norman Swan, Dirty diesel, 28 April 2003.
Anderson, William P, Pavlos S Kanaroglou and Eric J Miller, UrbanAnderson, William P, Pavlos S Kanaroglou and Eric J Miller, Urban
form, energy and the environment: A review of issues, evidence andform, energy and the environment: A review of issues, evidence and
policy, Urban Studies, Vol.33, No.1, 7-335, 1996policy, Urban Studies, Vol.33, No.1, 7-335, 1996
16
Ariza, Luis Miguel, Divided they fall, New Scientist, 18 April 1998,Ariza, Luis Miguel, Divided they fall, New Scientist, 18 April 1998,
2121
Australian Academy of Technological Sciences & Engineering,Australian Academy of Technological Sciences & Engineering,
Urban air pollution in Australia (esp. chapter 7), Supporting reportUrban air pollution in Australia (esp. chapter 7), Supporting report
No. 5, Urban infrastructure: reshaping cities for a more sustainableNo. 5, Urban infrastructure: reshaping cities for a more sustainable
future, 1997future, 1997
Beckett, Margaret, Sustainable consumption and production,Beckett, Margaret, Sustainable consumption and production,
Institute of Public Policy Research and Environment AgencyInstitute of Public Policy Research and Environment Agency
conference, Londonconference, London
Wednesday, 19 November 2003Wednesday, 19 November 2003
Brown, Lester R., "Plan B - Rescuing a planet under stress and aBrown, Lester R., "Plan B - Rescuing a planet under stress and a
civilization in trouble", Earth Policy Institute and W.W. Norton &civilization in trouble", Earth Policy Institute and W.W. Norton &
Company, 2003Company, 2003
Chanan, Annit, Bruce Simmons and Geoff Hunter, StrategicChanan, Annit, Bruce Simmons and Geoff Hunter, Strategic
opportunities for long term funding of stormwater management, Newopportunities for long term funding of stormwater management, New
South Wales, Australia, South Pacific Stormwater & DrainageSouth Wales, Australia, South Pacific Stormwater & Drainage
Conference, Auckland 2001Conference, Auckland 2001
Department of the Environment Sport and Territories, Australia,Department of the Environment Sport and Territories, Australia,
State of the Environment, 1996State of the Environment, 1996
Downie, Graeme, New dam inevitable for long-termDownie, Graeme, New dam inevitable for long-term
growth, Canberra Times, Tuesday 14 October 2003growth, Canberra Times, Tuesday 14 October 2003
ENDS, Medical experts call for action to curb air pollution, No. 223,ENDS, Medical experts call for action to curb air pollution, No. 223,
June 1994June 1994
ENDS, Darling shrugs off dire warnings of aviation’s climateENDS, Darling shrugs off dire warnings of aviation’s climate
impacts, No. 347, December 2003impacts, No. 347, December 2003
Environmental News Network, Team probes Atlanta heat island,Environmental News Network, Team probes Atlanta heat island,
WednesdayWednesday
www.aaas.org/#anchor442146/american+association+for+the+advanwww.aaas.org/#anchor442146/american+association+for+the+advan
cement+of+science/_g=1cement+of+science/_g=1 , , 24 March 199924 March 1999
17
Environment Protection Authority, NSW, State of the environmentEnvironment Protection Authority, NSW, State of the environment
report 2003report 2003
Fabian Society,Fabian Society,
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/business/scp/changing-http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/business/scp/changing-
patterns.pdfpatterns.pdf , 2003, 2003
Fisher, Peter, The production time bomb, Australian FinancialFisher, Peter, The production time bomb, Australian Financial
Review, Friday 25 February 2000 (a)Review, Friday 25 February 2000 (a)
Fisher, Peter, The trouble with diesel, Australian Financial Review,Fisher, Peter, The trouble with diesel, Australian Financial Review,
Friday 2 December 1999Friday 2 December 1999
Fisher, Peter, Here come the planes, Australian Financial Review,Fisher, Peter, Here come the planes, Australian Financial Review,
Friday 8 December 2000 (b)Friday 8 December 2000 (b)
Fisher, Peter, Dampened expectations, Australian Financial Review,Fisher, Peter, Dampened expectations, Australian Financial Review,
Friday 17 August 2000 (c)Friday 17 August 2000 (c)
Fisher, Peter M J, Heavy metal stormwater problem, Public WorksFisher, Peter M J, Heavy metal stormwater problem, Public Works
Engineering, August-September 2002, 39-40, (a)Engineering, August-September 2002, 39-40, (a)
Fisher, Peter, A gift from before clocks kept time, AustralianFisher, Peter, A gift from before clocks kept time, Australian
Financial Review, Friday 5 May 2002 (b)Financial Review, Friday 5 May 2002 (b)
Fisher, Peter M J & Robert Borland, Estimating the pharmaceuticalFisher, Peter M J & Robert Borland, Estimating the pharmaceutical
burden in Sydney's environment: a preventative response, Journalburden in Sydney's environment: a preventative response, Journal
of Cleaner Production, 11, 2003. 315-320of Cleaner Production, 11, 2003. 315-320
Hamilton, Clive, Growth Fetish, Allen & Unwin, 2003Hamilton, Clive, Growth Fetish, Allen & Unwin, 2003
Herrick, Andrew, Tide turns on Ricketts’ rockpools, The Age, 23Herrick, Andrew, Tide turns on Ricketts’ rockpools, The Age, 23
January 2003January 2003
http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/01/22/1042911435669.htmlhttp://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/01/22/1042911435669.html
Hitchmough, J, Trees and urban consolidation: a biologicalHitchmough, J, Trees and urban consolidation: a biological
perspective, in Urban consolidation - the ungreening of our cities,perspective, in Urban consolidation - the ungreening of our cities,
18
Public Papers Melbourne, Victorian Planning and Environmental LawPublic Papers Melbourne, Victorian Planning and Environmental Law
Association, 1992 Association, 1992
Hunter, G J and P M J Fisher, Life cycle assessment v’s cost benefitHunter, G J and P M J Fisher, Life cycle assessment v’s cost benefit
analysis – funding pollution controls for environmental benefits,analysis – funding pollution controls for environmental benefits,
South Pacific Stormwater & Drainage Conference, Auckland 2003South Pacific Stormwater & Drainage Conference, Auckland 2003
International Dark-Sky Association,International Dark-Sky Association,
http://www.darksky.org/l inks/enviro.htmlhttp://www.darksky.org/l inks/enviro.html , 2003, 2003
Janssen, N, H.N. van Vliet, Aarts, Harssem, H., Brunekreef, B.,Janssen, N, H.N. van Vliet, Aarts, Harssem, H., Brunekreef, B.,
Assessment of exposure to traffic related air pollution of childrenAssessment of exposure to traffic related air pollution of children
attending schools near motorways, Atmospheric Environment 35,attending schools near motorways, Atmospheric Environment 35,
2001,2001,
3875-38843875-3884
Kearney, Ray, Air pollution as dangerous as smoking, EnvironmentKearney, Ray, Air pollution as dangerous as smoking, Environment
Business, October 2003.Business, October 2003.
Kelleher, F M, Urban encroachment and the loss of primeKelleher, F M, Urban encroachment and the loss of prime
agricultural land, Proceedings of the 10th Australian Agronomyagricultural land, Proceedings of the 10th Australian Agronomy
Conference, Hobart 2001Conference, Hobart 2001
Lamont, Leonie, Trees losing in race for water views, SydneyLamont, Leonie, Trees losing in race for water views, Sydney
Morning Herald, 14 January 2004Morning Herald, 14 January 2004
Marks, Paul, SUV's double pedestrians' risk of death, NewMarks, Paul, SUV's double pedestrians' risk of death, New
Scientist, 10 December. 2003Scientist, 10 December. 2003
McIntyre, Sue & Jeffrey Yugovic, A checklist for Studley Park andMcIntyre, Sue & Jeffrey Yugovic, A checklist for Studley Park and
Yarra Bend Reserves, Victorian Naturalist, Volume 99, July-August,Yarra Bend Reserves, Victorian Naturalist, Volume 99, July-August,
1982, 147-1521982, 147-152
Murphy, Deane, Pact in west will send farms’ water to cities, NewMurphy, Deane, Pact in west will send farms’ water to cities, New
York Times, Friday 17 October 2003York Times, Friday 17 October 2003
Newman, Peter, Sustainability, urban design and transport,Newman, Peter, Sustainability, urban design and transport,
www.isosconference.org.auwww.isosconference.org.au ,, 2003 2003
19
Oberdörster, G. Oberdörster, G. et alet al . Translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to
the brain. the brain. Inhalation ToxicologyInhalation Toxicology , (in press, 2004), (in press, 2004)
Pearce, Fred, If the cigarettes don't get you the traffic pollutionPearce, Fred, If the cigarettes don't get you the traffic pollution
will, New Scientist, 9 March 2002.will, New Scientist, 9 March 2002.
Pimm, Stuart L., The world according to Pimm - a scientist auditsPimm, Stuart L., The world according to Pimm - a scientist audits
thethe
Earth, McGraw-Hill, 2001Earth, McGraw-Hill, 2001
Puglisi A. (Len), & Fisher Peter, Divorcing nature in higher-densityPuglisi A. (Len), & Fisher Peter, Divorcing nature in higher-density
cit ies,cit ies,
Quadrant, November 1998.Quadrant, November 1998.
Puglisi A. (Len), Going native and productive on the home patch -Puglisi A. (Len), Going native and productive on the home patch -
ci tyci ty
residents too can 'repair the land', Greenlink News, Newslettersresidents too can 'repair the land', Greenlink News, Newsletters
June & July,June & July,
2003, 2003, [email protected]@internex.net.au
Puglisi, A. (Len), Submission to House of Representatives StandingPuglisi, A. (Len), Submission to House of Representatives Standing
Committee on Environment and Heritage, Inquiry into sustainableCommittee on Environment and Heritage, Inquiry into sustainable
cities, 2025, 2003cities, 2025, 2003
Radford, Tim, Why city life is at boiling point, The Age, 24 FebruaryRadford, Tim, Why city life is at boiling point, The Age, 24 February
2000, (from The Guardian)2000, (from The Guardian)
Rees, William E, Our ecological footprint: tracking progress towardsRees, William E, Our ecological footprint: tracking progress towards
sustainability, presentation to Enviro 2002, Melbournesustainability, presentation to Enviro 2002, Melbourne
Saunders, Denis A, Clearing by ecological processes, theSaunders, Denis A, Clearing by ecological processes, the
imperatives for conservation and management of remnantimperatives for conservation and management of remnant
vegetation,vegetation,
http://www.treesforl i fe.org.au/ReLeaf/archives/clearing.htmlhttp://www.treesforl i fe.org.au/ReLeaf/archives/clearing.html , 2002, 2002
Sequest, R, R Bornstein & G Salmon, Conference on the benefits ofSequest, R, R Bornstein & G Salmon, Conference on the benefits of
the urban forest, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 32, No. 1, Januarythe urban forest, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 32, No. 1, January
1998, pp 1-1061998, pp 1-106
20
Spirn, Ann Whiston, The granite garden: urban nature and humanSpirn, Ann Whiston, The granite garden: urban nature and human
design, Basic Books, 1983.design, Basic Books, 1983.
Stevens, R G and M S Rea, Light in the built environment: potentialStevens, R G and M S Rea, Light in the built environment: potential
role of circadian disruption in endocrine disruption and breastrole of circadian disruption in endocrine disruption and breast
cancer, Cancer Causes Control, April, 12 (3), 2001, 279-287cancer, Cancer Causes Control, April, 12 (3), 2001, 279-287
Streater, Scott, Drug found in area fish stirs concern, Star-Streater, Scott, Drug found in area fish stirs concern, Star-
Telegraph, Friday 17 October 2003Telegraph, Friday 17 October 2003
Tenner, Edward, Why things bite back: technology and revenge ofTenner, Edward, Why things bite back: technology and revenge of
unforeseen consequences, Albert Knopf, 1997unforeseen consequences, Albert Knopf, 1997
Traill, Barry, Vegetation protection targets for native birdTraill, Barry, Vegetation protection targets for native bird
conservation in New South Wales, Birds Australia, 2001conservation in New South Wales, Birds Australia, 2001
Troy, Patrick, Rethinking our cities, Australian Financial Review,Troy, Patrick, Rethinking our cities, Australian Financial Review,
Friday 23 March 2001Friday 23 March 2001
Vardoulakis, S, Fisher, B, Pericleous, K, Gonzalez - Flesca, N,Vardoulakis, S, Fisher, B, Pericleous, K, Gonzalez - Flesca, N,
Modelling air quality in street canyons: a review, AtmosphericModelling air quality in street canyons: a review, Atmospheric
Environment 37, 2003, 155 -182.Environment 37, 2003, 155 -182.
White, Mary E., Listen... our land is crying - Australia's environment:White, Mary E., Listen... our land is crying - Australia's environment:
problems and solutions. Kangaroo Press, 1997problems and solutions. Kangaroo Press, 1997
White, Mary E., After the Greening, The Browning of Australia,White, Mary E., After the Greening, The Browning of Australia,
KangarooKangaroo
Press, 1994Press, 1994
World Health Organisation, Guidelines for community noise, 1999World Health Organisation, Guidelines for community noise, 1999
World Wide Fund for Nature, Impacts of land clearing on AustralianWorld Wide Fund for Nature, Impacts of land clearing on Australian
wildlife in Queensland, January 2003wildlife in Queensland, January 2003
Yencken, D., Wilkinson, D., Resetting the Compass – Australia’sYencken, D., Wilkinson, D., Resetting the Compass – Australia’s
Journey Towards Sustainability, CSIRO Publishing, 2000.Journey Towards Sustainability, CSIRO Publishing, 2000.
21