c hapter 3. characteristics of the american party system the united states was the first nation to...
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Characteristics of the American Party Characteristics of the American Party SystemSystem
The United States was the first nation to develop The United States was the first nation to develop modern political parties that aligned the electorate modern political parties that aligned the electorate around national issues and organized at the around national issues and organized at the national, regional, and local levels to nominate national, regional, and local levels to nominate candidates, contest elections, and organize candidates, contest elections, and organize governmentsgovernments The peculiar combination of certain The peculiar combination of certain
characteristics has made the American party characteristics has made the American party system distinctivesystem distinctive
-- two-party competition with variationstwo-party competition with variations-- decentralized power structuresdecentralized power structures-- broadly based electoral supportbroadly based electoral support-- nonprogrammatic partiesnonprogrammatic parties-- quasi-public institutions with ambiguous quasi-public institutions with ambiguous
membershipmembership
Two-Party Competition with VariationsTwo-Party Competition with Variations
The phrase The phrase two-party competitiontwo-party competition masks some masks some of the variation in the extent and nature of of the variation in the extent and nature of interparty competition in the United Statesinterparty competition in the United States
Party Competition at the National LevelParty Competition at the National Level
presidential elections are highly competitive, presidential elections are highly competitive, with with Republican and Democratic Republican and Democratic candidates alternatingcandidates alternating
Table 3.1. Major-Party Dominance of Table 3.1. Major-Party Dominance of Presidential Voting, 1948-2004Presidential Voting, 1948-2004
Candidates for President Percentage of Popular Vote
Year Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Total
1948 Dewey Truman 45.1 49.6 94.7
1952 Eisenhower Stevenson 55.1 44.4 99.5
1956 Eisenhower Stevenson 57.4 42.0 99.4
1960 Nixon Kennedy 49.5 49.7 99.2
1964 Goldwater Johnson 38.5 61.1 99.6
1968 Nixon Humphrey 43.4 42.7 86.1
1972 Nixon McGovern 60.7 37.5 98.2
1976 Ford Carter 48.0 50.1 98.1
1980 Reagan Carter 50.7 41.0 91.7
1984 Reagan Mondale 58.8 40.6 99.4
1988 Bush Dukakis 53.4 45.6 99.0
1992 Bush Clinton 37.4 43.0 80.4
1996 Dole Clinton 40.7 49.2 89.9
2000 Bush Gore 47.9 48.4 96.3
2004 Bush Kerry 50.7 48.3 99.0
Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2000, p. 273; Federal Election Commission data.
Two-Party Competition with VariationsTwo-Party Competition with Variations
The phrase The phrase two-party competitiontwo-party competition masks some of masks some of the variation in the extent and nature of the variation in the extent and nature of interparty competition in the United Statesinterparty competition in the United States
Party Competition at the National LevelParty Competition at the National Level
presidential elections are highly competitive, presidential elections are highly competitive, with with Republican and Democratic Republican and Democratic candidates alternatingcandidates alternating
although the Democrats controlled Congress although the Democrats controlled Congress during during most of the post-World War II era, most of the post-World War II era, congressional, congressional, and particularly House elections and particularly House elections show a high level of show a high level of competition and two-party competition and two-party dominance dominance
Two-Party Competition with VariationsTwo-Party Competition with Variations
Party Competition at the State LevelParty Competition at the State Level
In recent years, a majority of states can be In recent years, a majority of states can be considered competitive at the state level, when considered competitive at the state level, when
taking gubernatorial and state legislative taking gubernatorial and state legislative elections elections into considerationinto consideration
States have become more competitive, as no States have become more competitive, as no states states can be classified as one-party can be classified as one-party Republican or Republican or Democratic in recent years, Democratic in recent years, whereas a majority of whereas a majority of states were either states were either one-party states or modified one-one-party states or modified one- party states party states in the 1960s and 1970sin the 1960s and 1970s
Figure 3.1. Interparty Competition in the Figure 3.1. Interparty Competition in the United States, 1962-1973 and 1999-2003United States, 1962-1973 and 1999-2003
Note: Nebraska’s legislature is nonpartisan, so it is not classified here.
Source: John F. Bibby and Thomas M. Holbrook, “Parties and Elections,” in Politics in the American States, eds. Virginia Gray and Russell L. Hanson, (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press 2004).
1962-1973
1999-2003
One-Party Democratic Modified One-Party Democratic
Two-Party Modified One-Party Republican
Two-Party Competition with VariationsTwo-Party Competition with Variations
Variation in Levels of Competition for Different Variation in Levels of Competition for Different OfficesOffices
There is substantial evidence of a high level of There is substantial evidence of a high level of interparty competition in most interparty competition in most statewide statewide
elections elections (presidential, senatorial, and (presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial races)gubernatorial races)
Figure 3.2. Interparty Competition for the Figure 3.2. Interparty Competition for the Presidency: Number of Times the Republican Presidency: Number of Times the Republican
Presidential Nominee has Carried the State, 1968-Presidential Nominee has Carried the State, 1968-20042004
Times presidential nominee carried state
8-10 (21) 5-7 (19)
3-4 (6) 0-2 (5)
Table 3.2. Party Change in Control of Table 3.2. Party Change in Control of Governorships, 1950-2000Governorships, 1950-2000
Decade Number of Gubernatorial Elections
Percent of Elections with a Party Changea
1950–1959 174 23.6 (41)
1960–1969 156 35.3 (55)
1970–1979 144 38.9 (56)
1980–1989 122 35.2 (43)
1990–1998 135 35.6 (48)
2000 11 9.1 (1)
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of party changes
Source: Adapted from Larry Sabato, Goodbye to Goodtime Charlie, 2nd ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 1983), pp. 120-121; the 1980-2000 data are derived from appropriate volumes of the Statistical Abstract of the United States; National Journal, November 11, 2000, p. 3622.
a An election with a party change is defined as any election in which control of the governorship shifts from one party to another
Two-Party Competition with VariationsTwo-Party Competition with Variations
Variation in Levels of Competition for Different OfficesVariation in Levels of Competition for Different Offices
There is substantial evidence of a high level of There is substantial evidence of a high level of interparty competition in most statewide electionsinterparty competition in most statewide elections (presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial races)(presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial races)
Interparty competition has been relatively rare in Interparty competition has been relatively rare in elections to the House of Representativeselections to the House of Representatives-- Since 2000 more than 75% of seats were landslide wins Since 2000 more than 75% of seats were landslide wins -- Usually more than 90% of incumbents win reelectionUsually more than 90% of incumbents win reelection
The absence of meaningful two-party competition is The absence of meaningful two-party competition is also common in many state legislative electionsalso common in many state legislative elections
Decentralized Power StructuresDecentralized Power Structures
Except for a few isolated urban machines, there is Except for a few isolated urban machines, there is almost a total absence of hierarchical relationships almost a total absence of hierarchical relationships within American partieswithin American parties
The Impact of the ConstitutionThe Impact of the Constitution
The separation of powers, or the creation of a The separation of powers, or the creation of a national government composed of three branches, national government composed of three branches,
allows parties to target different races allows parties to target different races separately, separately, thus disencouraging party unitythus disencouraging party unity
The federal structure of government has forced The federal structure of government has forced parties to develop a decentralized power structureparties to develop a decentralized power structure
Decentralized Power StructuresDecentralized Power Structures
The Impact of Nomination and Campaign The Impact of Nomination and Campaign PracticesPractices
Elected officials gain nomination and election Elected officials gain nomination and election primarily through reliance on highly primarily through reliance on highly
personalized personalized campaign organizationscampaign organizations
Some Countertrends: Nationalizing InfluencesSome Countertrends: Nationalizing Influences
1.1. The impact of national forces on state voting The impact of national forces on state voting patternspatterns
2.2. The expanded role played by national party The expanded role played by national party organizationsorganizations
3.3. The growth of national “presidential parties”The growth of national “presidential parties”
Broadly Based Electoral SupportBroadly Based Electoral Support
In the United States party allegiances to not In the United States party allegiances to not reflect reflect social and economic cleavagessocial and economic cleavages
Instead partisan loyalties cut across social Instead partisan loyalties cut across social and and economic divisions, resulting in parties economic divisions, resulting in parties that are that are broadly based coalitions of diverse broadly based coalitions of diverse and even and even conflicting elementsconflicting elements
Because of this diversity, parties have Because of this diversity, parties have difficulties difficulties maintaining unity among their maintaining unity among their elected officialselected officials
However, coalition-type parties do provide a However, coalition-type parties do provide a means means of reconciling and compromising of reconciling and compromising conflicts within conflicts within societysociety
Nonprogrammatic PartiesNonprogrammatic Parties
Programmatic parties have policy positions that Programmatic parties have policy positions that “are part of a settled long-range program to which “are part of a settled long-range program to which the party is dedicated in definite enough terms to the party is dedicated in definite enough terms to mark it off prom rival parties” (Leon D. Epstein)mark it off prom rival parties” (Leon D. Epstein)
American parties’ policy positions tend to be American parties’ policy positions tend to be more more ad hoc in character and adopted to meet ad hoc in character and adopted to meet short-term short-term problems or electoral circumstancesproblems or electoral circumstances
As a consequence, a substantial policy diversity As a consequence, a substantial policy diversity exists exists withinwithin each party each party
The percentiles in table 3.3. shows displays The percentiles in table 3.3. shows displays Democratic liberalism scores and Republican Democratic liberalism scores and Republican conservatism scores in relation to party colleaguesconservatism scores in relation to party colleagues
Table 3.3. Ideological Diversity within the Republican and Democratic Table 3.3. Ideological Diversity within the Republican and Democratic Parties in the U.S. Senate, 109Parties in the U.S. Senate, 109thth Congress, 1 Congress, 1stst Session, 2005 Session, 2005
Liberal Democrats Percentile Mainstream Democrats Percentile Moderate Democrats Percentile
Kennedy, Edward (Mass.) 96.7 Wyden, Ron (Ore.) 80.8 Nelson, Bill (Fla.) 66.2
Reed, Jack (R.I.) 95.2 Biden, Joseph (Del.) 80.2 Bingaman, Jeff (N.M.) 66
Boxer, Barbara (Calif.) 94.3 Clinton, Hillary Rodham (N.Y.) 79.8 Lieberman, Joe (Conn.) 65.7
Sarbanes, Paul (Md.) 91 Rockefeller IV, Jay (W.Va.) 79.8 Byrd, Robert (W.Va.) 65.5
Lautenberg, Frank (N.J.) 89.3 Dodd, Christopher (Conn.) 79.7 Baucus, Max (Mont.) 60.7
Harkin, Tom (Iowa) 89.2 Akaka, Daniel (Hawaii) 78.8 Salazar, Ken (Colo.) 60.2
Durbin, Richard (Ill.) 86.8 Kohl, Herb (Wis.) 78.8 Pryor, Mark (Ark.) 59.8
Kerry, John (Mass.) 86.7 Reid, Harry (Nev.) 78.2 Conrad, Kent (N.D.) 59.7
Stabenow, Debbie (Mich.) 86.3 Schumer, Charles (N.Y.) 77.8 Landrieu, Mary (La.) 58.3
Mikulski, Barbara (Md.) 85.8 Jeffords, James (Vt.) 77.7 Nelson, Ben (Neb.) 49.7
Conservative Republicans Percentile Mainstream Republicans Percentile Moderate Republicans Percentile
Sessions, Jeff (Ala.) 90.8 Enzi, Michael (Wyo.) 78.7 McCain, John (Ariz.) 59.2
Allard, Wayne (Colo.) 90.8 DeMint, Jim (S.C.) 78.3 Gregg, Judd (N.H.) 58.5
Coburn, Tom (Okla.) 90.8 Bond, Christopher (Mo.) 77.3 DeWine, Mike (Ohio) 55.5
Bunning, Jim (Ky.) 89.2 Crapo, Mike (Idaho) 75.5 Voinovich, George (Ohio) 55.3
Lott, Trent (Miss.) 88 Grassley, Charles (Iowa) 75.3 Lugar, Richard (Ind.) 52.8
Isakson, Johnny (Ga.) 87 Burr, Richard (N.C.) 73.5 Sununu, John (N.H.) 52.8
Chambliss, Saxby (Ga.) 86.7 Alexander, Lamar (Tenn.) 73.3 Smith, Gordon (Ore.) 50.2
Allen, George (Va.) 85.8 Burns, Conrad (Mont.) 73 Snowe, Olympia (Maine) 47.3
McConnell, Mitch (Ky.) 84.8 Thune, John (S.D.) 71.3 Specter, Arlen (Pa.) 46.8
Bennett, Robert (Utah) 84.8 Stevens, Ted (Alaska) 71 Collins, Susan (Maine) 46.7
Source: “2005 Vote Ratings—Senate Ratings,” National Journal (February 25, 2006), pp. 48-51.
A score of 90 means that a Senator is more liberal/conservative than 90% of the total Senate membership
Nonprogrammatic PartiesNonprogrammatic Parties
Another sign of the lack of party unity is the Another sign of the lack of party unity is the lack of lack of party loyalty to implement party loyalty to implement presidential government presidential government policies (Table 3.4.)policies (Table 3.4.)
Table 3.4. Support for President’s Position on Roll Table 3.4. Support for President’s Position on Roll Call Votes by Members of the President’s Party in Call Votes by Members of the President’s Party in
Congress, 1954-2005Congress, 1954-2005 Average Percent of Members of President’s
Party Supporting His Position
Years President Party Representatives Senators
2001-2005 Bush Republican 84 91
1993–2000 Clinton Democrat 76 86
1989–1992 Bush Republican 69 77
1981–1988 Reagan Republican 68 79
1977–1980 Carter Democrat 69 69
1974–1976 Ford Republican 72 65
1969–1974 Nixon Republican 73 63
1964–1968 Johnson Democrat 71 81
1961–1963 Kennedy Democrat 75 83
1954–1960 Eisenhower Republican 80 68
Source: Norman J. Ornstein, Thomas E. Mann, and Michael J. Malbin, Vital Statistics on Congress, 1999-2000 (Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 2000), pp. 198-199; Congressional Quarterly Weekly.
Nonprogrammatic PartiesNonprogrammatic Parties
Another sign of the lack of party unity is the Another sign of the lack of party unity is the lack of party loyalty to implement presidential lack of party loyalty to implement presidential government policies (Table 3.4.)government policies (Table 3.4.)
Yet another way of the lack of party unity is Yet another way of the lack of party unity is the frequency with which Senators vote in the frequency with which Senators vote in
opposition of the position of a president from opposition of the position of a president from the the same party (Table 3.5.)same party (Table 3.5.)
Table 3.5. Republican Senators Voting Most Table 3.5. Republican Senators Voting Most Frequently in Opposition to the President’s Frequently in Opposition to the President’s
Position on Senate Roll Calls, and Democratic Position on Senate Roll Calls, and Democratic Senators Most Frequently Voting in Support of the Senators Most Frequently Voting in Support of the
President, 2005President, 2005
RepublicansPercent of Votes
Opposed DemocratsPercent of Votes in
Support
Chafee (R.I.) 44 Nelson (Neb.) 76
Collins (Maine) 38 Landrieu (La.) 64
Snowe (Maine) 33 Pryor (Ark.) 58
DeWine (Ohio) 24 Lincoln (Ark.) 50
McCain (Ariz.) 23 Salazar (Colo.) 49
Smith (Ore.) 21 Conrad (N.D.) 48
Sununu (N.H.) 19 Nelson (Fla.) 47
Gregg (N.H.) 18 Lieberman 46
Craig (Idaho) 18 Johnson (S.D.) 46
Source: Congressional Quarterly Weekly, Jan. 6, 2006, p. 85.
Nonprogrammatic PartiesNonprogrammatic Parties
Another sign of the lack of party unity is the Another sign of the lack of party unity is the lack of party loyalty to implement presidential lack of party loyalty to implement presidential government policies (Table 3.4.)government policies (Table 3.4.)
Yet another way of the lack of party unity is Yet another way of the lack of party unity is the frequency with which Senators vote in the frequency with which Senators vote in
opposition of the position of a president from the opposition of the position of a president from the same party (Table 3.5.)same party (Table 3.5.)
Given the lack of party unity in Congress, it is Given the lack of party unity in Congress, it is frequently necessary to form cross-party frequently necessary to form cross-party
alliances to alliances to pass legislationpass legislation
However, shifts in party control of the national However, shifts in party control of the national government have resulted in major changes in government have resulted in major changes in public policy, due to differences in party public policy, due to differences in party
platformsplatforms
Quasi-Public Institutions with Ambiguous Quasi-Public Institutions with Ambiguous MembershipMembership
In most democracies, political parties are In most democracies, political parties are considered considered private organizations which private organizations which make and enforce their make and enforce their own rules concerning own rules concerning its activitiesits activities
By contrast, American parties are quasi-public By contrast, American parties are quasi-public institutions that are heavily regulated by state institutions that are heavily regulated by state
laws laws
The extensive regulation of parties in such The extensive regulation of parties in such matters matters as membership, organization, as membership, organization, leadership selection, leadership selection, nominations, and nominations, and campaihn finance means that campaihn finance means that parties are not parties are not free to run their own internal affairs free to run their own internal affairs as they as they see fitsee fit