COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE IN MANAGING TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN NEPALBy

Prof. Tanka Nath Sharma

INTRODUCTION

Technical and Vocation Education and Training (TVET) has gained attention these days because: It is important to increase economic productivity, poverty reduction and social development,

The purpose of this paper is to discuss comparative overview on how TEVT is organized and how management arrangements are to be made in a upcoming federal context.

This paper will not focus on organizational management , but elaborate on the system level management practices to be adopted in Nepal supplemented by the regional comparative perspectives,

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXTSOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT Nepal has a population of 26.6 million, with

annual average growth rate of 1.40 Nepal’s Human Development Index is 0.463

with a rank of 157 out of 187 countries (UNDP, 2013)

Despite significant progress made in health and education, Nepal’s economic performance is not encouraging.

The Third Living Standard Survey 2010/11 indicated at 25.2 percent of the total population below the poverty line.

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CONTEXT Increasing portion of Young population:

40% of the population below 15 years of age; 30% between 15 and 49 years of age; and 56% of people 20-40 years of age.

With 40 percent of the population currently under the age of 15, (officially reported)

Only 2 percent of the population in Nepal is unemployed.

More than 81 percent of workers continue to engage in ‘vulnerable employment’, defined as unpaid family workers

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CONTD…CONTD… Broad based economic growth and poverty reduction is

the development agenda of Nepal (ILO, 2013). Slow economic growth - <4% for several years; Low

employment opportunities Increasing trend of labor mobility to the international

job market However, foreign employment has contributed to

sustain the national economy from the remittance of migrant workers.

Education and skill levels of labor force are essential predictors

Education and training relevance to the needs of the labor market is also important to facilitate employment and economic productivity (ADB, 2011).

Often the educational programs are disconnected from the demands of the labor market

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CONTEXT growing number of out of school children in the labor

market Most of the children drop their schooling in early

grades The reasons for the growing number of out of school

children: poor economic condition of the family, unfavorable school environment for the children,

cultural belief and tradition, parental ignorance about the importance of

education, engaging children in household chores, disability

of children, early marriages etc. Low level of education of the labor force NLSS(CBS,

2011)

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LEVEL OF EDUCATION AMONG WORKING AGE POPULATION, 2008

Source: Nepal Labor Force Survey, 2008

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CONCEPT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING (TEVT)

(a) an integral part of general education, (b) a means of preparing for occupational fields

and for effective participation in the world of work,

(c) an aspect of lifelong learning and preparation for responsible citizenship;

(d) an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable development; and

(e) a method for facilitating poverty alleviation. UNESCO/ILO (2001)

Education or Training for the preparation for work

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MANAGING EDUCATION

INPUTS

EnvironmentalConstraints,Resources

MissionPolicy

MaterialsMethods

EquipmentInstructors

OUTPUT

AchievementsJob Satisfaction

Educational success

AbsenteeismDropout rate

Overall Quality

Structural System

Cultural

System

Political

System

Individual System

Cognition, Motivation

Learn

teach Lear

n

Teac

h

Actual vs expected

ENVIRONMENT

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PhilosophyEssentialismPragmatism

Reconstructionist stanceContextSocial

PoliticalEconomicCultural

Technological

School ReformContextualSkilled HRSound Foundation for Tertiary Education

Student Learning Needs

Public ExpectationPractical

ApplicableUseful

Productive

Curriculum

Learner Teacher

Education for Work

Man

agem

ent &

Gov

erna

nce

Educating ComponentsTEVT

Enterprise Ed.Employability Skill

Foundation knowledge

Curriculum OutcomeEducational

Labour MarketPshyco-socialIncusiveness

Mobility

Financing

EfW

Co

nce

ptu

al F

ram

ewo

rk

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN NEPAL

CTEVT is an Apex body established by the Act of parliament in 1989 , formulating TEVT policies, coordinating TEVT

providers, Ensure quality of TEVT Implementing or facilitating to implement all

types of TEVT programs to produce skilled workforce,

Other responsibilities: curriculum development, Examination, testing and certification, teacher training, accreditation of training institutions required to bring changes in the existing socio-economic conditions in the country.

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TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN NEPAL

GON has approved TEVT Policy, 2069 with following three main Goals: facilitating expansion of effective, relevant and

inclusive skill development opportunity accessible to all,

Recognize traditional skills, competence and qualifications through integration of formal, non-formal and informal modes of learning and offer quality TEVT relevant to the demands of the national and international labor market.

Maximize utilization of resources, infrastructure and services through coordination and collaborative support networks.

MOE, 2012

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CURRENT SITUATION: FORMAL TEVT

Integration of TEVT soft skills in general schools 6-8 grade (Piloted in 100 secondary schools)

A separate TEVT Stream Secondary Schools -100)

Occupational subjects in grade 11 and 12 Expansion of ANNEX Programs TECS (73) Government Supported TEVT Institutions

(Technical schools and polytechnic Institutions)Constituent -21 (14 Technical Schools, 2 VTCDs, 2

Polytechnic, 2 Partnership programs)Affiliated – 155 TSSC programs; 195 Technical

Diploma = 350 Private providers in TVT

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Enrollment capacity in Ashad 2069 BS (July 2012)

S.N. Sector Constituents’ Capacity

Affil. Institutions’ Capacity

TECS Schools

Total

TSLC

Dip. TSLC

Dip. TSLC Dip. TSLC Diploma

1 Health/Medicine 268 212 6360 9120 0 0 6628 9332

2 Engineering 558 864 2000 3644 1248 0 3806 4508

3 Agriculture 422 200 1400 320 1600 0 3422 520

4 Forestry 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 40

5 Others (Hotel mgmt., TSLC in office mgmt., social mobilize; entrepreneurship)

30 80 360 80 0 0 390 160

Total 1278 1356 10120

13204

2848 0 14246 14560

Table 1: Enrollment capacity in TSLC and Diploma/PCL program in CTEVT institutions: Source: Joshi (2014). Technical and vocational education and training development journal, No: 14, Volume: 1

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NON-FORMAL TEVT PROVIDERS

CTEVT, Department of Cottage and Small Industries (DCSI),

Cottage and Small Industries Development Board (CSIDB),

Vocational Training programs under Department Labor

Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management (NATHM),

Vocational Skills Development Training Centers (VSDTC)

Skill training from other sectoral ministries, NGOs, private providers

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CURRENT PROJECTS FOR SKILL TRAINING Skills for Employment Project under CTEVT

(2nd phase in the progress) Poverty Alleviation Fund Youth Self-Employment Program Micro Enterprise Development Program Rural Employment Promotion Programs of

Ministry of Agriculture Employment Fund Nepal EVENT Program Community Learning Centers and Income

generation programs) Karnali Employment program

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Supporting Agencies and Providers

2008

Female Total

2009

Female Total

2010

Female Total

Vocational Training Centers

7521 30283 20653 53595 27112 68470

Government Agencies

3992 12074 7105 17262 15424 32403

Projects 231 398 10209 17900 8502 18922

Private 3298 17811 3339 18433 3186 17145

Livelihood Training

7422 16830 12682 26668 12687 29329

Grand Total

14943 47113 33335 80263 39799 97709

Table 2: Vocational training providers and number of people trained from 2008 -2010.

Source: CTEVT, 2012)

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF MANAGING TEVT IN NEPAL

Inadequate TEVT provisions: Every year 450000 young people join the

national workforce without any systematic preparation for work, while in contrast only about 99,000 (as of 2012) were given a chance. Opportunity only for <3%

Exclusion and inequitable distribution of the TEVT Opportunity and resources: The majority of this “early-out-of-school” youth

consist of women, disabled, Dalits, marginalized groups and poor and disadvantaged youths from remote and isolated rural areas and of conflict victims are deprived from the access to TEVT

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF MANAGING TEVT IN NEPAL

Uncoordinated and Fragmented Vocational Skill Development programs: Skill development initiatives in Nepal are fragmented

and uncoordinated leading to duplication of efforts and inefficient use of resources.

Poor Quality and relevance in TEVT: Quality of TEVT programs and measure of improving

relevancy and connectivity with the world of work remained unaddressed to the extent it was needed

Poor Collaboration and support services from the community: The employers’ community, is not yet sufficiently

oriented enough to support development and financing the TEVT system.

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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF MANAGING TEVT IN NEPAL

Inadequate financing: TEVT financing has not been adequate and

appropriate, which is characterized by inability to connect policy implementation with financing (ADB, 2014), lack of prioritization of training programs resulting in too much funding for some and limited funding for others.

Centralized management of CTEVT CTEVT has centralized its management and has

strong control over resources including human resources, curriculum, programs and operational decisions leaving very little management space to public TEVT institutions

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REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL TRENDS IN MANAGING TEVT

South and South East Asian countries share similar issues and constraints in managing TEVT system. Main Issues are: (a) improving the quality of TEVT system

and establishment of national and regional vocational qualification framework,

(b) ensuring evidence-based TEVT planning and sufficient financing provisions,

(c) ensuring relevance of TEVT curriculum to industry needs through education industry collaboration and

(d) encouraging national governments to put greater focus on quality of TEVT teachers preparation.

Jeradechakul (2013)

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CASE STUDY: AFGHANISTAN

TVET system is characterized by fragmentation, lack of coordination between different delivery partners, and lack of standard qualifications,

Ministry of Education (MoE) is responsible for mid-level technical graduates at the grade 12 level and skilled technicians at the grade 14 level

Non-formal TVET public institutions run under The Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD),

The National Skills Development Program (NSDP) that falls under Ministry of Labor introduced competency based training in the country and have developed National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS)

The Committee on Education and Skills Policy (CESP), under the Office of the First Vice President, is in the process of developing legal, regulatory, and operational frameworks for the ANQA and TVET Board (http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Kabul/pdf/NationalTVetStrategyEnglish.pdf;

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CASE STUDY: BANGLADESH

More than nineteen Ministries operate TEVT institutes including Ministry of Labor and Employment& Ministry of Education,

One of the most popular is the basic trade course of 360 hours over six months with some 18,000 + students registered.

Government TVET institutions 200, & private sector institutions number more than 3000

The Bureau for Manpower Employment (BMET) operates 38 technical training centers which have a focus on training workers for overseas including apprenticeship training,

Besides, many private training organizations, NGOs and donors also deliver skills training, both formal and informal

ADB, 2014

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CASE STUDY: BANGLADESH

The TVET system in Bangladesh has three levels: (i) basic course <360 hours; (ii) secondary divided into two stages—secondary

school certificate (SSC [voc]) and higher secondary certificate (HSC [voc]) of 2 years’ duration each; and

(iii) 4-year diplomas at polytechnics and mono-technic institutions.

TEVT Types: (a) public (delivered to varying degrees by numerous ministries); (b)private (commercial training institutions including madrashas); (c) NGOs (not-for-profit institutions); and (d)Industry based (institutions managed by industry and training delivered in the workplace, including apprenticeships).

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CASE STUDY: BANGLADESH

The four TEVT reform initiatives (ILO, 2011): (1) development of national skill development policy

with wider stakeholders’ consultation process; (2) development of National Technical and Vocational

Qualifications Framework, along with the development of competency standards and connecting these standards with curriculum development process;

(3) high quality training modules design, training materials preparation, establishing four Industry Sector Councils, and

(5) the creative models that are being successfully pursued for social inclusion, including the mainstreaming of the disabled; the high levels of outreach and links

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CASE STUDY: BHUTAN

Bhutan has a well-organized apex ministry for skills development, Ministry of Labour and Human Resources (MoLHR)

a comprehensive national policy, systematic quality assurance procedures for registration and accreditation of private providers,

occupational standards in four fields and the start of competency-based training,

effective apprenticeship training, and a tested model for training villagers for income generation.

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CASE STUDY: BHUTAN Under the Department of Human Resources: 7 vocational training institutes (VTIs),

5 VTIs offer certificate courses in construction, electrical engineering, automobile engineering, driving having 2 years of course duration and driving (light/heavy vehicle) course is of six months duration.

The total course enrolment in 5 VTIs is 750 students. Likewise, 2 Zorig Chus um Institutes (traditional

arts and crafts) offer diploma and certificate course in traditional arts and crafts trade like, painting, wood curving, embroidery, sculpture etc

(Department of Occupational Standards: Ministry of Labor and Human Resources, 2013)

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CASE STUDY: BHUTAN The Department of Occupational Standards (DOS), as

mandated to regulate and improve the quality of TEVT in the country,

has developed the Bhutan Vocational Qualifications Framework (BVQF) through a consultative process with key stakeholders to streamline and unify TVET system in the country & Intends to: (a) nationally recognized unified national

vocational qualification; (b) TVET system responsive to industry needs;

flexible learning and career mobility; © the recognition of prior learning (RPL); (d) facilitate linkage between TVET and Tertiary

Education; and (e) the provision of credit for part of a

qualification;

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Levels School Education

Vocational Education

University Education

Monastic Education

8 Doctoral Khenpo

7 Masters Geshey

6 Bachelor Tencho

5 ND1 & ND2 Diploma Madhamik

4 BHSE NC2 & NC3

3 BCSC NC1

2 LSE Sheyrim

1 PSE

PE= Primary Education; LSE= Lower Secondary Education; BCSE = Bhutan Certificate for Secondary Education; BHSEC= Bhutan Higher Secondary Education Certificate; NC= National Certificate; ND= National Diploma

Bhutan Qualifications Framework – DOS, 2013

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CASE STUDY: SRI LANKA The estimated number of training institutes in Sri Lanka is

over 5,000, which include government, private and non-government organizations.

TEVT in The public Sector: Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)

under the Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training (MVTT),

National Apprenticeship and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA),

Vocational Training Authority (VTA), and National Youth Services Council (NYSC)—

Approximately 65,000 students are trained annually throughout their training centers network located throughout the country.

Coverage of public TVET is widespread -200 institutions located in rural areas

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CASE STUDY: SRI LANKA

In 2005, the Sri Lankan National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF) was established,

The NVQ of Sri Lanka are based on national competency standards identified by the industry stakeholders.

The competency standards include relevant technical and employability competencies

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Level No. Qualification Generalized Description

Level 1 National Certificate

Level 1 recognizes the acquisitions of entry level competencies

Level 2Level 3Level 4

NationalCertificate

Levels 2, 3, and 4 recognize increasing levels of competencies. Level 4 qualification provides for full craftsmanship/ workmanship.

Level 5Level 6

NationalDiploma

Levels 5 and 6 recognize the increasing levels of competencies of technicians including supervision and process management.

Level 7 BachelorsDegree

Level 7 recognizes the vocational/technological competencies at Bachelors Degree level

National Vocational Qualification Framework of Sri Lanka – ADB, 2014

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CASE STUDY: INDIA (MAJUMDAR, 2008) Mainly two ministries are responsible for TEVT:

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) and the Ministry of Labour and Employment (MoLE) are the main central government agencies involved in the funding and management of the VET programs.

At the national level, the Directorate General of Employment and Training (DGET) under the Ministry of Labor and Employment

the day-to-day administration rests with the respective state governments and union territory administrations

Each governmental ministry/department at the central as well as state levels is responsible for workforce development in its own sector. – some offer formal or non-formal courses, some use trained by MHRD and MoLE

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CASE STUDY: INDIA (MAJUMDAR, 2008) TEVT under Ministry of Human Resources

(a) Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Vocationalization of Education: Vocational Education programs for students who has completed ten years of school education

(b) Career Oriented Program at First Degree Level: students are given certificate, diploma or advanced diploma in addition to conventional degrees with support of UGC

(c) Scheme of Jan Shikshan Sansthans: multifaceted adult education program aimed at improving vocational skills and quality of life of working population.

(d) Community Polytechnics Scheme: polytechnics are expected to served as the centre for technology transfer and training youths and disadvantaged groups in employable skills

(e) Community College Program: The community colleges offer diploma courses (Majumdar, 2008).

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CASE STUDY: INDIA (MAJUMDAR, 2008)

Ministry of Labor and Employment Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS): skilled workers for the

industry. CTS have been offering skill training to school leavers and youth in Industrial Training Institutes (ITI)- has grown from 54 in 1953 to 5000 in 2004 with annual training capacity of 750,000 offering training in 92 trades,

Apprenticeship Training Scheme was introduced in industrial establishments under Appr enticeship Act, 91961. DGET, responsible for implementing the scheme in government undertakings acts through six Regional Directorates of Apprenticeship Training.

Crafts Instructor Training is organized for potential and existing instructors of training institutes, with annual intake of 1099 in 27 trade areas at five advanced training institutes

Training for Women is organized through 11 exclusive training institutes for women

Training Schemes for Persons with Disabilities: The Ministry of Labor and Employment has established 17 Vocational Training centers to train disabled persons in various trades

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CASE STUDY: INDIA The national government is advised by two tripartite bodies, the

National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) and Central Apprenticeship Council, for the purpose of laying down the policies and skill training standards, trade testing and certification,

The introduction of new trades and deletion of obsolete trades are also done with the recommendation of these councils,

State Councils for Vocational Training (SCVTs) have been constituted at the state levels by the respective governments

the All India Trade Test is arranged by the National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) twice a year

National Apprenticeship Certificate is awarded to the successful candidates – recognized by private organizations

In addition to MHRD and MoLE, various VET programs and schemes are carried out under several other central ministries

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COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES IN TEVT MANAGEMENT

Several training providers both in government and

private sector difficult to coordinate them, South Asian Countries reviewed are characterized

by: large disparities in income, high unemployment

and low wages; all of which human capital investment helps defeat.

Increasing an individual’s skill level is expected to produce results in higher employability and increases in wages.

Although increased wages and decreased unemployment rates can be viewed as economic benefits, they are critical to the social wellbeing of developing countries.

TEVT in these countries have not been that successful to produce these expected outcomes because of the poor management of the system.

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COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES IN TEVT MANAGEMENT The cases presented above and recent reviews of TEVT

in Asian Countries (ADB, 2014) revealed that planning, financing and regulating responsibility should be given to the government where as the private sector takes gradually increasing responsibility for the provision and delivery of skill training services.

Korian experience of building public private partnership for promoting skill development for economic productivity is a lesson for other developing nations to adopt.

Even though policies of the countries reviewed appears supportive for operation autonomy, there appears no documented evidence that to claim for its implementation.

Introduction of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ) framework in Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Bangladesh have brought

several positive changes in the management of TEVT.

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COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES IN TEVT MANAGEMENT A central government’s capacity to manage

the decentralization process is crucial for its own success.

This role is particularly important for service delivery outcomes as it relates to setting national priorities, ensuring minimum or core standards, and guiding local governments in their new functions,

The review of the country cases and recent review by ADB (2014) has observed several good practices from which other countries could benefit:

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BEST PRACTICES There is an increasing cooperation between TEVT

authorities and those in industry (for example, India, Bangladesh).

In cooperation with the labor market partners the training providers: (a) designing courses competency –based

training; (b) growing trend in many countries to provide

contextual learning and also integrate traditional discipline into a single course such as “mechatronics” Japan;

(c) emphasis on training of multi-skilled workforce especially in New Zealand and Australia;

(d) training contents are selected for its relevance to a specific job Korea and Singapore;

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BEST PRACTICES enterprise training (in Bhutan, Bangladesh and India), effective skill training for the disadvantaged from

NGOs(Nepal, Bangladesh, India), creation of legally strong Apex body (Nepal, Bhutan, Sri

Lank), development of National Qualification framework for

streamlining and harmonizing the skill development programs offered by various institutions and agencies (Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh), and

employers led skill training (Brazil). Growing willingness of employers to participate in skill development (India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh),

growing willingness of organizing TEVT within the framework of national qualifications (Nepal, Afghanistan ), and

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BEST PRACTICES Sharing the TEVT responsibility by Ministry

of education and Ministry of Labor and Employment (India, Bhutan, and Bangladesh)

Development of national competency standards and national qualification framework in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and Bangladesh;

Development of dual system in India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, integration of work-based learning in institution-based training as well as

Operation of TEVT school managed enterprises in conjunction with education programs in China and

Encouragement of the private sector to take major role in providing education and training in Thailand (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2013).

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COMMON MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS (a) inadequate public finance for physical

infrastructure and equipment; (b) inadequate supply of adequately trained

instructors; Managers; Professionals (c) problems of labor market information is not

available to connect TEVT with labor market; (d) inadequate technological inputs in the

training process; (d) inadequate system capacity in terms of

central planning agencies, research and development capabilities, standard setting bodies, etc.; and

(e) poor system management capacity of the agencies responsible for leading National TEVT.

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COMMON MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS These shortcomings are observed in Nepal, Bhutan

and Bangladesh. Barriers to access on the demand side may be equally

problematic in many of the poorer countries including: (a) low levels of literacy which impede

participation in TVET; (b) resources constraints to pay for TVET tuition

and materials; (c) inadequate information, awareness building

and counseling services with regard to what is available; and

(d) cultural barriers which constraints female access to TEVT and employment. (UNESCO, 2006; ADB, 2014; UNIVOC, 2013).

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COMMON MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS Both external and internal efficiency are crucial in the

management of TEVT programs – e.g. simply writing a TEVT policy and getting approval from the government, it took 3 years for Bangladesh and more than five years to Nepal (ADB 2014).

It was found that either plans are not in place to support external and internal efficiency or are not connected with available resources (both financial and human) were not properly utilized,

Successful TEVT management is only possible only if there is an adequate supply of adequately prepared human resources - Expect for India, other countries reviewed had no strong provision to supply adequately trained human resources to manage TEVT

Major challenge remains in almost all countries in south Asia is the area of financing – Training levy could be the solution.

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PROPOSED MANAGEMENT OF TEVT REFORMS UNDER THE FEDERAL STRUCTURE

Distribution of roles and responsibilities for the implementation of TEVT reform measures envisioned by the new TEVT policy (MOE, 2012) assuming that the upcoming federal structure will be a three tire system.

Responsibilities of implementation should be distributed among :

local level skill development committee, Provincial Council for Technical and Vocational

Education and Training (PCTEVT), and National Technical and Vocational Education and

Training (NCTEVT).

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LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEVEL

Constitute a coordinated structure participated by the representatives of Ministry of Industries, Ministry of Labor, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture, employers representative under the leadership of Local government body,

This committee will map out the training provisions, identify people who need skill training in the

district, provide skill development support that need it and

monitor the progress of skill development activities in the district.

The committee will develop “District Skill Develop Fund”

Overall responsibility for non-formal vocational skill training to address the skill development needs at the district/ local level.

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PROVINCIAL LEVEL

Provincial government will take full responsibility of implementation of formal TEVT programs in the providence.

Arrangements for testing and examination services under the guidance of the central body,

Generate resources to finance TEVT at the provincial level

Creation of “Provincial Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training” (PCTVET) will take charge of (With the support of national Council) :

(a) Formal Technical Education Programs: Preparing skilled Junior Technicians or occupational workers,

(b) Technician and Advance Technician Diploma/ professional Diploma Programs and

(c) Life-long learning and Continuing education in TEVT

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CENTRAL LEVEL GOVERNMENT

The central level government will have overall responsibility to streamline country’s technical and vocational education and training (TVET) through: policy formulation, coordination and networking

with sectoral ministries, ensuring quality and relevance of TVET

programs, designing national standards of qualification,

bring harmony in curricula standards, ensure fair assessment system and ensure

sustainable financing. Develop National Qualification System Develop a national fund flow system in TEVT Facilitation and support to provincial council

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REFERENCES Asian Development Bank (2014). Innovative Strategies in Technical and

Vocational Education and Training for Accelerated Human Resource Development in South Asia. Manila: Author

CTEVT (2012). A Profile of technical and Vocational Education Providers. Sanothimi: Author.

DOS, (2013). Bhutan Qualification Framework. Thimpu: Department of Occupational Standards: Ministry of Labor and Human Resources.

ILO (2013). DECENT WORK COUNTRY PROGRAMME 2013 – 2017. Kathmandu: Author

Majumdar, Shyamal (2008). Workforce Development in India: Polices and Practices. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute, 2008

MOF (2013). Economic Survey 2012-2013. Kathmandu: Author. National TVET Strategy. Available at:

http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Kabul/pdf/NationalTVetStrategyEnglish.pdf; Downloaded on 31st Dec. 2014.

Unesco Institute for Lifelong Learning. Available: at: http://uil.unesco.org/fileadmin/keydocuments/LifelongLearning/en/SriLanka.pdf, downloaded at Dec 30, 2014.

UNESCO-IBE (2011). World Data on Education VII ed. Brazil. Geneva: UNESCO-IBE

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THANK YOU!

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