cal research methodology unit i

8/12/2019 CAL Research Methodology Unit I

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Research Methodology

Mrs. Chaitali A.Laulkar


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Motivation

To enable researchers, irrespective of their discipline, in

developing the most appropriate methodology for their

research studies

To make them familiar with the art of using different research

methods and techniques.


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Syllabus

Unit - IUnderstand the Research Process. Unit - IIProblem Identification and hypothesis formulation.

Unit - IIIResearch Design

Unit - IVMethods, Tools and Techniques

Unit - V- Data Processing and Data Analysis

Unit - VIReporting Research


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Evolution of Research Methodology


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What is Research ?

Research is :

Study whatever everybody has done and think whatever

nobody has thought

An activity which critically evaluate some problem. Undertaking structured investigation which hopefully result

in greater understanding of the chosen interest area.

Ultimately this investigation become available to the

public.

To collect and analyze the data in specified field with the

purpose of proving your theory.


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Definition of Research

The systematic investigation into and study of materials and

sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.

Investigation using Scientific procedure , by searching againand again to find out the truth.


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What is Research ?

Research is carried out in order to :

Get a result with scientific methods objectively not

subjectively.

Solve problems, verify the application of theories, and leadon to new insight.

Enlighten both researchers and any interested reader.


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What research is Not..

Research is not information gathering.

Gathering information from resource such as books andmagazines isnt research

No contribution to new knowledge

Research is not the transportation of the facts.

Merely transferring facts from one resource to anotherdoesnt constitute research.

No contribution to knowledge although this might make

existing knowledge more accessible. Applying existing techniques to a new problem

Developing a oneshot solution to a problem


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Scope of Research

Premises form the basis upon which this research rests.

Delimitations define the scope of the research.

Premise: A statement that is assumed to be true and from

which a conclusion can be drawn.

Delimitation : A line that indicates a boundary.

Scope of investigation defines where and when the study was

conducted and who the subject were.

The scope sets the delimitations and establishes theboundaries of the study.


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Limitation of Research

Limitation is a phrase or aspect of the investigation which may

affect the result adversely but over which you have no control.

Limitation must be stated honestly.


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Significance of Research

Research indicates scientific and inductive thinking and itpromotes the development of logical habits of thinking and

organization.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies

in our economic system.

Research has its special significance in solving various

operational and planning problems of business and industry.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying

social relation.

To those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D. thesis,

research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high

position in the social structure.


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Significance of Research

To professionals in research methodology, research may mean

a source of livelihood.

To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for

new ideas and insights.

To literary men and women, research may mean the

development of new styles and creative work.

To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the

generalizations of new theories.


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Who can do Research ?

Knowledge is not anybodys personal property

Excellence is not Expensive

Dont need a Ph.D. Degree tobe a Researcher


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Research : A Journey

A strong foundation for the research is the querying attitude.

Everything and anything is questionable and these questions

make way for a research.

Knowledge in the arena of proposed research topic, Analytical/Numerical/Experimental skills are the prerequisites for a

researcher.

The hard work, consistency and immense patience are a few

desirable qualities of a researcher apart from the skills and

knowledge . A researcher needs to be committed to the

research work to find fruits in the research.


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Research Characteristics

Originate with question or problem.

Require clear articulation of a goal.

Follow a specific plan or procedure.

Often divides main problem into sub problems. Guided by specific problem , question or hypothesis.

Accept certain critical assumptions.

Require collection and interpretation of data.

Cyclical in nature.


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Sources of Research Problem

Observation

Literature reviews

Professional conferences

Experts


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Objective and Goals of Research The objective of research to find the answers to certain questions

through the application of scientific procedure.

The goal of a research process is to produce new knowledge which

takes three forms :

Exploratory :

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into

it.

Research which structures and identifies new Problems.

Descriptive

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group. Diagnostic

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else

Hypothesis Testing

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables


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Objectives of Research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve newinsights into it - Studies with this objective in view are termedas exploratory or formulative research studies

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

individual, situation or a group - Studies with this object inview are known as descriptive research studies.

To determine the frequency with which something occurs orwith which it is associated with something else - Studies withthis object in view are known as diagnostic research studies

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables- Such studies are known as hypothesis-testing researchstudies.


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Exploratory Research

also termed as formulativeresearch studies

The main purpose

formulating a problem for more precise investigation

of developing the working hypotheses from anoperational point of view

The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and

insights


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Research: A Motivation


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Research : A Motivation

Intrinsic motivation - The love of the work itself. Intrinsic

motivations include: interest, challenge, learning, meaning,

purpose, creative flow.

Research has shown that high levels of intrinsic motivation are

strongly linked to outstanding creative performance.


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Extrinsic motivation - Rewards for good work or punishments

for poor work. Extrinsic motivations include: money, fame,

awards, praise, status, opportunities, deadlines, commitments,

bribes, threats.

Research shows that too much focus on extrinsic motivation

can block creativity.


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Personal motivation - Individual values, linked to personality.

Examples include: power, harmony, achievement, generosity,

public recognition, authenticity, knowledge, security, pleasure.

Each of us prioritizes some values over others. understanding

your own values and those of people around you is key to

motivating yourself and influencing others.


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Interpersonal motivation - Influences from other people.

Much of our behavior is a response to people around us, such

as: copying, rebellion, competition, collaboration,

commitment, encouragement.


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Motivation leading to research for search of

ways out of a situation


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Phases of Research

Idea-generating phase

Problem-definition phase

Procedures-design phase Observation phase

Data-analysis phase

Interpretation phase Communication phase


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What Research Methodology is ?

The prescription of the acceptable ways of

doing research

Defines:

How to proceed;

How to measure progress

What constitutes a success


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Why should we follow a methodology?

Research does not begin with the results!!!

Identification of needs

Creation of ideas Formalization of ideas

Testing

Dissemination Refinement


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Types of Research


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Descriptive Research

Designed to describe somethinge.g. 1. characteristics of users of agiven product ; The degree to which product use varies with income, age , gender or other characteristics. 2. The number who sawspecific television show.

It includes only collect data for definite purpose.

Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.

Objective and understanding should be clear and specific.

The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are surveymethods of all kinds, including comparative and correlationalmethods.

Often use in social science and business research. Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report

what has happened or what is happening.

Example : Frequency of shopping, Preferences of people,etc.


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Analytical Research

Researcher has to use facts or information

already available, and analyze these to make a

critical evaluation of the material.


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Applied (Action) Research

Finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society

or an industrial / business organization.

Aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some

pressing practical problem.

Research to identify social, economic or political trends that

may affect a particular institution or marketing research or

evaluation research are examples of applied research.


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Fundamental Research

Concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a

theory.

Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake is termed pure

or basicresearch.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to

pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.

Basic research is directed towards finding information that has

a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already

existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with

a view to make generalizations about human behavior.


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Quantitative Research Objective is: 1. To quantify data and generalize results from a

sample to the population of interest. 2. To measure the incidence ofvarious views and opinions in a chosen sample. 3. The objective of

quantitative research is to develop and employ Mathematical

Models, Theoriesand/or Hypothesispertaining to phenomena.

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of

quantity.

Expression of a property or quantity in numerical term.

Quantitative research is more scientific.


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Qualitative Research

Qualitative research, concerned with phenomena relating to or involving quality orkind.

e.g. why people think or do certain things ?

e.g.find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject orinstitution.

Aim is to discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews

for the purpose. This type of research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the

aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.

This type of research can analyze the various factors which motivate people tobehave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particularthing.

It is more naturalistic and more subjective.

Qualitative research produces observations, notes, and descriptions of behaviorand motivation.

Research methods in this category include: Interviews,Focus groups, Reviews,Observation.


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Conceptual Research

Related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkersto develop new concepts or to reinterpret existingones.

Researcher breaks down a theorem or conceptinto its constituent parts to gain a betterunderstanding of the deeper philosophical issueconcerning the theorem.

Popular method of research in social sciences, andphilosophy and psychology.


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Empirical Research

It relies on experience or observation alone, often

without due regard for system and theory.

It is data-based research, coming up with

conclusions which are capable of being verifiedby observation or experiment.

It is experimental type of research.

The researcher must first provide himself with aworking hypothesis or guess as to the probable

results.


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Exploratory Research

When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or

knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is a

useful preliminary step.

Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous

studies exist. The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or

ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for furtherresearch.

The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues

and key variables.

E l t R h


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Exploratory Research Researchers conduct exploratory research for three interrelated

purposes: (1) diagnosing a situation, (2) screening alternatives,

and (3) discovering new ideas.

1. Diagnosing a situation : when an advertising agency got an account for

a new coffee containing chicory, the firm began the research process with

exploratory research to diagnose the situation. The researchers learned that

almost nobody had heard of chicory. It wasnt being used, and nobody

seemed to know how to use it. This led to the hypothesis that the

advertising could portray the chicory ingredient any way the client wanted.

2. Screening Alternatives : When several opportunities, such as new

product ideas, arise at once, but budgets dont allow trying all possible

options, exploratory research may be used to determine the best

alternatives.

3. Discovering New ideas : Marketers often conduct exploratory research

to generate ideas for new products, advertising copy, and so on.


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Categories of Exploratory Research Experience surveys :

Researchers may discuss the concepts with top executives andknowledgeable individuals, both inside and outside the company, whohave had personal experience in the field. This constitutes an informalexperience survey.

Secondary data analysis:

Another economical and quick source of background information is

trade literature. Searching through such material is exploratory researchwithsecondary data.

Case studies :

Obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar tothe researchersproblem situation.

Pilot studies :A pilot study is a research project that involves sampling, but itrelaxes the rigorous standards used to obtain precise, quantitativeestimates from large, representative samples.


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Descriptive Research Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description

of observations of a phenomena. Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the

elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of dayslost because of industrial action.

e.g. The object of the collection of census data is to accuratelydescribe basic information about a national population at a

particular point in time.

Situations :

1. Did last years product recall have an impact on our

companysshare price?2. What have been the trends in organisational downsizingover the past ten years?


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What is deterring your research?

Age?

Are you suffering from Low Self Confidence?

Are you getting boredom of your research and

learning ?

Enjoy your learning and research

No Matter You can soon become anunchallenged Champion..

But of course with Hard Work and Dedication


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Research Approaches

Quantitative Approach

Inferential Approach

The purpose of this approach is to form a data base from which toinfer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually meanssurvey research where a sample of population is studied (questionedor observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred

that the population has the same characteristics

Experimental Approach

It is characterized by much greater control over the researchenvironment and in this case some variables are manipulated toobserve their effect on other variables.

Simulation approaches This approach involves the construction of an artificial environment

within which relevant information and data can be generated. Thispermits an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or itssub-system) under controlled conditions.


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Research Approach

Qualitative Approach

This approach is concerned with subjective assessment

of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a

situation is a function of researchers insights andimpressions. Such an approach to research generates

results either in non-quantitative form or in the form

which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative

analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,

projective techniques and depth interviews are used.


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Research Method Vs Research Methodology

Research Method : All those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of

research.

All those methods which are used by the researcher during thecourse of studying his research problem are termed as research

methods. Groups of Research Methods

In the first group we include those methods which are concerned withthe collection of data. These methods will be used where the dataalready available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution.

The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are

used for establishing relationships between the data and theunknowns.

The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluatethe accuracy of the results obtained.


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Research Method Vs Research Methodology

Research Methodology

It is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understoodas a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

We study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher instudying his research problem along with the logic behind them.

Research methodology not only talk of the research methods but alsoconsider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our researchstudy and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and whywe are not using others so that research results are capable of beingevaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

Why a research study has been undertaken ? How the research problem has been defined ?

what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated ?

what data have been collected ?

what particular method has been adopted ?

why particular technique of analyzing data has been used ?


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Importance of knowing How Research is done ?

The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the

new research worker and enables him to do better research.

It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a bentof mindto observe

the field objectively.

It will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research results withreasonable confidence.

When one knows how research is done, then one may have the

satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way oflooking at the world and of judging every day experience.

It helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and enableshim to take rational decisions.


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Research Process


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1. Formulate Research Problem

One or more sentences indicating the goal,

purpose, or overall direction of the study.

Steps involved in formulating the Problem

stmt.

Understanding the problem thoroughly, and

Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from

an analytical point of view.


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2. Extensive Literature Survey

The abstracting and indexing journals and

published or unpublished bibliographies are

the first place to go to.

Academic journals, conference proceedings,

government reports, books etc., must be

tapped depending on the nature of the

problem.


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3.Development of Working Hypothesis

Hypotheses Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships

between two or more variables

Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of

research in hand because it has to be tested.

The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimitingthe area of research and to keep him on the right track.

It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the moreimportant facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of datarequired and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.


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3. Development of Working Hypothesis

Reasons for using hypotheses

To provide specific focus. To provide for the testing of the relationships between

variables.

To direct the investigation.

To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships.

To provide a framework for reporting the results andexplanations deriving from them.

When supported, provides empirical evidence of the predictivenature of the relationships between variables.

To provide a useful framework for organizing and summarizingthe results and conclusions.


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4. Preparing the Research Design

The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:

What is the study about ?

Why is the study being made ?

Where will the study be carried out ?

What type of data is required ?

Where can the required data be found ?

What periods of time will the study include ?

What will be the sample design ?

What techniques of data collection will be used ?

How will the data be analyzed ?

In what style will the report be prepared ?

What is the cost of Project ?


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5. Determining Sample Design

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiryconstitute a universe or population. A completeenumeration of all the items in the populationis known asa census inquiry.

It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the

items are covered no element of chance is left and highestaccuracy is obtained.

But in practice this may not be true as this type of inquiryinvolves a great deal of time, money and energy.

The sample design to be used must be decided by theresearcher taking into consideration the nature of theinquiry and other related factors.

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Types of Sample designs

Deliberate Sampling This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate

selection of particular units of the universe for constituting asample which represents the universe.

When population elements are selected for inclusion in thesample based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience

sampling. In Judgment sampling the researchers judgment is used for

selecting items which he considers as representative of thepopulation

Simple Random Sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling orprobability sampling where each and every item in thepopulation has an equal chance of inclusion in the sampleand each one of the possible samples, in case of finiteuniverse, has the same probability of being selected.


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Types of Sample designs Systematic Sampling

In such a design the selection process starts by picking somerandom point in the list and then every nth element isselected until the desired number is secured.

Stratified Sampling If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does

not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratifiedsampling technique is applied so as to obtain arepresentative sample.

If the items selected from each stratum is based on simplerandom sampling the entire procedure, first stratificationand then simple random sampling, is known as stratifiedrandom sampling.



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Types of Sample designs Quota Sampling

The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionateto the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling isthus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quotasamples generally happen to be judgment samples rather thanrandom samples.

Cluster Sampling and Area Sampling Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then

selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individualelements for inclusion in the sample.

The sample size must often be larger than the simple randomsample to ensure the same level of accuracy.

The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling

procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of fieldwork, specially in the case of personal interviews.

Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number ofsmaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographicalclusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomlyselected, and all units in these small areas are included in the

sample.


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Types of Sample designs

Multi-stage sampling

This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to aconsiderably large geographical area like an entire country.

Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select largeprimary sampling units such as states, then districts, then townsand finally certain families within towns.

If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, thesampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

Sequential sampling

ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but isdetermined according to mathematical decisions on the basis ofinformation yielded as survey progresses. This design is usuallyadopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context ofstatistical quality control.


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6. Collecting the Data

Data can collected through two types of information. Primary Data

Primary data is the data collected for the first time to serve somespecific purpose.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment orthrough survey.

Primary data can collected by two ways

Experiments

By Observation

Through personal interview

Through Telephone interview

By mailing of questionnaires

Through schedules

Survey


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6. Collecting the Data

Secondary Information

Government department

Magazines

Annual Report

Bibliography


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7. Execution of the Project

This steps should be taken to ensure that the

survey is under statistical control so that the

collected information is in accordance with

the pre-defined standard of accuracy. Proper answer to the question

Occasional field checks

Proper training to the field officers


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8. Analysis of Data

After collecting the data the researcher turns

to the task of evaluating it.

Editing : Is the procedure which improves the

quality of data. Coding : Categories of data are transformed into

symbols.

Tabulation : Data put in form of tables. Statistical Calculation


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8. Analysis of Data

Researcher should classify the raw data into somepurposeful and usable categories.

Approach to de-synthesizing data, informational,and/or factual elements to answer research

questions Categories of Data Analysis

Narrative (e.g. laws, arts) Descriptive (e.g. social sciences)

Statistical/mathematical (pure/applied sciences) Audio-Optical (e.g. telecommunication) Others


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8. Analysis of Data

Goal of an Data Analysis To explain cause-and-effect phenomena

To relate research with real-world event

To predict/forecast the real-world

Phenomena based on research

Finding answers to a particular problem

Making conclusions about real-world event

based on the problem

Learning a lesson from the problem


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9. Hypothesis Testing

Do the facts support the formulated

hypothesis?

Or it happens to be contrary?

Various tests

Chi-Square test

T-test

F-test


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10. Generalization and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may be possible for the researcher to

arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.

If the researcher had no hypothesis to startwith, he might seek to explain his findings on

the basis of some theory. It is known as

interpretation.


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11. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

Layout of Report

Preliminary Pages

Report should carry title and date

Acknowledgements Foreword.

Table of contents

List of tables

List of graphs

List of charts, if any, given in the report.


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Main Text Introduction

It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the researchand an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing theresearch. The scope of the study along with various limitations shouldas well be stated in this part.

Summary of finding After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and

recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings areextensive, they should be summarized.

Main Report

The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequenceand broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

Conclusion Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down

the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the finalsumming up.


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End Matter

Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all

technical data.

Bibliography, List of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should

also be given in the end.

Index should also be given specially in a published

research report.


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Report should be written in a concise andobjective style in simple language avoiding vagueexpressions such as it seems, there may be, andthe like.

Charts and illustrations in the main report shouldbe used only if they present the informationmore clearly and forcibly.

Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned

and the various constraints experienced inconducting research operations may as well bestated.

Criteria of good research


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Criteria of good research The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of

what

has already been attained.

The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that

are

as objective as possible.

The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and

estimate their effects upon the findings.

The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the

methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data

should be checked carefully.

Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and

limited to

those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Qualities of good research


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g

Good research is systematic:

Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified

sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematiccharacteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but itcertainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving atconclusions.

Good research is logical:

Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical

process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying outresearch. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to thewhole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from somepremise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context ofdecision making.

Good research is empirical: Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation

and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validityto research results.

Good research is replicable:

Results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a

sound basis for decisions.

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Principals of Research ethics

Discuss intellectual property frankly Be conscious of multiple roles

Follow informed-consent rules

Respect confidentiality and privacy

Discuss the limits of confidentiality Know federal and state law

Best course of action Take practical security measures.

Think about data sharing before research begins

Understand the limits of the Internet. Tap into ethics resources

The Belmont Report

d f h b


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1. Identifying research objectives

Think in detail about these three importantquestions:

1. What is this research work for?

2. What am I supposed to do during my

research work?3. What am I supposed to achieve?

Have a clearly set-out statement of what youwant to achieve in your research work. It shouldbe consistent with the research problem youhave formulated.

cal research methodology unit i

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