can technology be a transformative force in education?

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Can Technology Be a Transformative Force inEducation?Wanda Y. Wade a , Karen L. Rasmussen a & Wendy Fox-Turnbull ba University of West Florida , Pensacola , FL , USAb University of Canterbury , Christchurch , New ZealandPublished online: 02 Jul 2013.

To cite this article: Wanda Y. Wade , Karen L. Rasmussen & Wendy Fox-Turnbull (2013) Can Technology Be a TransformativeForce in Education?, Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 57:3, 162-170, DOI:10.1080/1045988X.2013.795790

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Preventing School Failure, 57(3), 162–170, 2013Copyright C© Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1045-988X print / 1940-4387 onlineDOI: 10.1080/1045988X.2013.795790

Can Technology Be a Transformative Force in Education?

WANDA Y. WADE1, KAREN L. RASMUSSEN1, and WENDY FOX-TURNBULL2

1University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL, USA2University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

The interactive relation between technology and stakeholders creates the framework for a changing classroom culture using technology.Factors that influence a system’s transformation include philosophy, stakeholders, access, and goals. A wise choice for the use oftechnology and best practices for teaching and learning permits a sustained transformation of educational systems that focus onimproving student performance.

Keywords: change, teaching practice, technology, technology integration, transformation

Various forms of technology have long been used to enhanceteaching and learning experiences and processes, supported bythe assumption that technology can play a role in influencingeconomic and social development (Dutta & Bilbao-Osorio,2012). From a historical perspective, technology can be assimple as a pencil, chalk, or a blackboard. In the middle ofthe 20th century, multiple types of technologies, such as cal-culators, television, and projectors (overheads, film strip, andmovie) were integrated into schools. The types of technolo-gies available in the latter part of the 20th century includedcomputers, pocket personal computers, laptops, digital cam-eras, laser disc players, audio-video manipulation equipment,and smart boards. In the early 21st century, it is forecastedthat computers and mobile devices such as tablets, laptops,and phones will become the most popular and widely dissem-inated forms of electronic technology used in public schools.

Mobile devices, or small computer products used for avariety of purposes, include personal digital assistants, cellphones, smartphones (e.g., iPhone, Androids), tablets (e.g.,iPad, Touchpad, IdeaPad), netbooks, or any other computingdevice that can be held by hand and have enough battery powerto work without constant connection to an electrical outlet(Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005). These devices helped tobuild demand for a technology system in which access wouldbe widespread and provide the opportunity to integrate tech-nology into teaching and learning in new ways (Karrer, 2011).The Internet access made available through these devices en-ables teachers and students to access and use cloud computingresources, such as those associated with storing files and doc-uments, or using applications not available on the device (PCMag, 2009). Cloud computing opens the technology worldto users who do not have devices with large storage capacities

Address correspondence to Karen L. Rasmussen, University ofWest Florida, Division of Engineering & Computer Technology,Pensacola, FL 32514, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

associated with internal organizational servers that typicallywould be used to store computer programs, or applicationsand documents; cloud computing offers students, teachers,and administrators access to a wide range of technologyoptions.

On a global level, many schools may lack the basics of elec-tricity or building infrastructure and the teaching staff maynot have the skills needed to integrate technology into class-room environments. However, regardless of the setting, thepurpose and role of technology in education and how to effec-tively and efficiently integrate technology into classrooms isan important issue. As technology proliferates to all parts ofthe world, it is viewed as an agent of change; stakeholders ineducation such as teachers, administrators, parents, and politi-cians are interested in the effective integration of technologyin the classroom (Keengwe, 2007). This interest, however, andthe effect such technology could have on the fabric of soci-ety, has been questioned. Concerns are being raised regardingthe economic cost of implementing and maintaining the in-frastructure necessary to sustain the integration of technologyinto classroom regardless of location (Dutta & Bilbao-Osorio,2012).

The use of technology must be viewed through thepragmatic lens of environmental and structural contexts.Issues to be considered might include infrastructure, fundingresources, proposed use for hardware/software, and profes-sional development. Depending on the situation, an overalllimited familiarity with the technology and potential methodsfor the integration of that technology into the curriculummay be of concern to educators. The many facets of usingtechnology in the curriculum illustrate the critical importanceof, and reasons for, training related to the integration oftechnology in a cultural context. While embodying a cultureof its own, technology has the ability to transform a system’sculture, especially when embraced by the stakeholders in thesystem. However, inconsistent and improper introductionof technology into a system may result in the failure to

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Technology in Education 163

successfully use and integrate technology into teaching andlearning environments.

Through international aid programs and other initiatives,technologies have been introduced in developing countriesand, in some cases, have created unexpected problems in thelocal community, especially in the areas of decision mak-ing related to spending, changing pedagogy, and administra-tive/time management processes (World Bank, 2008). Otherissues include implementation coordination, theft, and use ofproprietary software (Doctorow, 2009). In light of the individ-ual nature of these problems, barriers, and issues, deliberateattempts must be made to develop solutions within the contextof the community where the technology potentially could beintegrated, using local skills, resources, and local existing tech-nologies (Jackelen & Zimmerman, 2011; Trucano, Hawkins,& Jimenez Iglesias, 2012). The best fit technology is not neces-sarily the most sophisticated, complex, or expensive. The bestfit technology should be what is most appropriate for a spe-cific situation and culture and should use local resources for asuccessful intervention (Fleer & Jane, 1999).

Against this backdrop, the funding and resources that ad-ministrators, agencies, and governments have provided to ed-ucational and corporate organizations have lead to increasedaccess to technology. At the same time, these developmentshave placed mounting pressure on educators to transformschools (Brush et al., 2003; Brzycki & Dudt, 2005). It is unfor-tunate that there still seems to be a gap between technology’spresence and its effective integration in academic institutions,regardless of location (Eteokleous, 2008; Keengwe, Onchwari,& Wachira, 2008; Oncu, Delialioglu, & Brown, 2008). Manycountries with well-developed and widely available technol-ogy systems still experience challenges related to teaching andlearning technology integration.

Access is a fundamental and critical aspect to the futureof technology integration. One indicator of such access is thecomputer–student ratio. The computer–student ratio variesgreatly across the globe from far below international averageratios in countries such as Albania, Argentina, and Brazil tocountries with ratios above average such as Austria and Nor-way (Pedro, 2012). Although Dutta and Bilbao-Osorio (2012)reported a global average of 25 computers per student in 37countries, they advised that the evaluation of how technologyis used in education should be focused on “the core issue: theintensity and variety of uses of technology for enhancing thequality of learning” (p. 137).

There are multiple initiatives with the goal of providingcomputer and technology access to children and teachers. Forexample, the One Laptop Per Child initiative has providedmore than 2 million laptops to students, teachers, and com-munities all over the world (One Laptop Per Child, n.d.).These laptops are designed to be low-cost and rugged as wellhaving low-power requirements. The mission of One LaptopPer Child is to “provide each child with a rugged, low-cost,low-power, connected laptop” (One Laptop Per Child, n.d.).In a 2012 One Laptop Per Child experiment in Ethiopia,Ackerman (2012) reported that 1,000 tablets (one for eachchild) with solar power were delivered to two villages with noinstructions—and left in boxes with the message, “see whatyou can do with them.” The children began to explore and use

the technology and within “5 days they were using 47 apps perchild” (Ackerman, 2012, para. 6). Only in the future will theresults of this experiment be realized. However, with accessto technology, the promising future of teaching and learningwith technology can be realized.

In this article, we focus on common forms of technologythat are forecasted to be at the forefront of teaching and learn-ing environments in the 21st century, computers with Internetaccess, and mobile devices. Despite the wide range of avail-able hardware and software, the integration of the Internetwith mobile devices across the global educational system is agrowing trend (Trucano et al., 2012). Access to mobile devicesis increasing. Mobile manufacturer Ericsson (2010) suggestedthat by 2015, 80% of people accessing the Internet will beperforming that access through mobile devices. Perhaps moreimportant for education, these Internet-capable mobile de-vices (e.g., tablets, phones) will outnumber computers by 2012(Johnson, Smith, Willis, Levine, & Haywood, 2011): For ex-ample, Karrer (2011) reported that “in Japan, over 75% ofInternet users already use a mobile as their first choice foraccess” (para 4). Changes in Internet connectivity optionsare enabled through the emergence of three trends focusedon availability: Internet-capable mobile devices, flexible webcontent, and accessible networks (Johnson et al., 2011).

The 21st-Century Push

Educational systems have been inundated with a wide vari-ety of technologies, from the classroom, to the school, to thedistrict, and beyond, in hopes that those technologies wouldimprove student performance—and, consequently, reduce stu-dent failure rates. The integration of the philosophy and theoryrelated to educational or instructional technology includes thecombination of process redesign, hardware, software applica-tions, administration, and pedagogy into the education andtraining setting to influence learning and performance (Seels& Richey, 1994). In the 21st century, teachers and studentshave access to a constantly evolving series of technologies,which has facilitated a continued interest in how to use thesetypes of technology in educational environments. Through theincorporation of educational technology models and theories,the practitioner’s focus is specifically on how technology can beused to improve student performance through processes, pro-cedures, and tools. Processes and procedures may compriseany task or intervention involving anything from a simple in-structional strategy to a complex instructional system.

Hardware such as computers, mobile devices, smart boards,and projection systems, response clickers, video conferenc-ing, have, year-by-year, been introduced into the teaching andlearning environment. The technology-rich 21st-century class-room includes technologies used for multimedia projects, aswell as interactive whiteboards, online databases for research,and online tools that streamline communications betweenand among teachers, parents and students. Other technolo-gies that help to build technology-rich environment includeWeb 2.0/3.0 tools such as blogs, wikis, and social networkingsites that provide teachers and students a variety of ways of

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164 Wade, Rasmussen, and Fox-Turnbull

communicating. In addition, the idea of software tools as tech-nology solutions (e.g., productivity software, drill and practice,assessment, survey, multimedia, data mining and warehous-ing, and statistical analyses) have been touted as the answer tovarious problems—without a clear definition of exactly whatare the problems. Performance is a key component of anydefinition of success in an era of accountability and reform;but other outcomes such as completion, efficiency, and accessshould be in the mix of any technology integration model.Technology in the classroom invariably mandates a culturetransformation from traditional to innovative.

Technology Integration: Is Transformation Possible?

The explosion of ever-changing technology and the corre-sponding requirements of technology use have been a constanttheme in education and a continuing issue affecting the inte-gration of technology in classrooms. Multiple meta-analyseson how technology influences variables from motivation toperformance have been conducted (Moran, Ferdig, Pearson,Wardrop, & Blomeyer, 2010; Tamin, Bernard, Borokhovski,Abrami, & Schmid, 2012; U.S. Department of Education,2010). In the 1980s, Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow led the wayin thinking about how technology could transform teachingand learning (Dwyer, 1994). Dwyer reported on the transfor-mation of the learning environment in eight areas: classroomactivity, teacher role, student role, instructional emphasis, con-cept of knowledge, demonstration of success, assessment, andtechnology use.

Dwyer (1994) outlined fundamental transformationsleading to the notion that classrooms could be interactiveand student centered; where the student was no longer theblank slate or the empty vessel, but rather, a collaboratorin an environment in which the teacher was a partner in thelearning process—and, at times, even the learner! No longerwould teachers focus on direct instruction and expectationsthat students recite a high number of facts that had beenmemorized for traditional multiple-guess tests. Instead,students would be expected to explore relationships throughproblem solving, inquiry, and interpretation of facts andrelationships to develop conceptual frameworks permittingthem to showcase their knowledge through mastery, portfolio,and performance assessments, as found in authentic learningenvironments (Lombardi, 2008). Last, Dwyer showcasedthe transformation of technology use from simple drill andpractice to a complex system consisting of “communication,collaboration, information access, and expression” (Dwyer,1994, Figure 1), and the question became, “How doestechnology plus people transform education systems?” Inresponse, the short answer is teachers, administrators, andpolicy makers must facilitate the transformation of theirschools to take advantage of technology.

Technology integration is most effective when careful atten-tion is paid to the purpose, role, and potential issues of process.On the basis of the needs of the stakeholders, the integrationof technology should be considered within the cultural con-text and designed to meet the needs of those stakeholders.Appropriate technology can be hugely helpful in providing

students with tools to become productive learners and assistin creating a learning environment that permits active engage-ment in content that would not otherwise be readily available.The interaction of technology and purposeful use create thattransformational environment where change can occur; suc-cessful technology use in the classroom invariably mandatesa cultural transformation from traditional teacher-directedto innovative student-centered learning where students areengaged in learning through teamwork, critical thinking,and problem solving. These experiences further provide stu-dents with the ability to communicate using multiple outlets(Bellanca & Brandt, 2010) that promote a variety of 21st-century skills.

Technology and Transformation

Using educational technology theories and models, an instruc-tor or teacher can create a classroom environment that fo-cuses on facilitating effective, efficient, and motivating teach-ing and learning processes. In this examination of technologyand transformation, we focus on educational technologies andhow those technologies can be a transformational force in edu-cation. With innovation, change occurs; change can be definedas meaning “to alter the course or to transform the directionof an activity, process, organization, or situation” (Van Tiem,Moseley, & Dessinger, 2012, p. 61). Change facilitates trans-formation and sweeping change can be caused by an infu-sion of technology into the environment. Christensen (2008,p. 44) talked about “disruptive” innovation as it relates toorganizational success in intervention implementation. FromChristensen’s perspective, an innovation can be first viewed asproviding stakeholders with a reason to use the innovation.The disruptive element involves fundamental changes in theenvironment through different uses of the intervention.

The advent of the personal computer, the Internet, and theWorld Wide Web has led to a focus on delivery of traditionalmaterials through these channels. This process is initiated witheducators focusing on teaching students how to think ratherthan what to think (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).While there are countries in which teachers are seen as thepurveyors of knowledge or the “sage on the stage,” in othercountries a move has been underway to expand the role of theteacher to one of guide or facilitator, to help students pursueindividualized paths for content acquisition and skill building.The use of technology can take many forms in both of theseparadigms. In educational settings where the teacher is thedispenser of knowledge, computers and mobile devices canbe used to facilitate learning by serving as resources for coursecontent and materials, providing additional drill and practiceopportunities to strengthen skills, and expanding teachers’options when preparing and delivering course content.

In many settings, however, computers and mobile devicescan lead to a paradigm shift where the focus of the learn-ing environment is on the student rather than the teacher.A student-centered learning environment establishes the stu-dent as the focal point. When student needs are known, bestpractices and strategies can be identified and implementedthat address and meet the student’s needs. The paradigm shift

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that facilitates the transformational learning environment re-quires a different set of roles and responsibilities for teachersand students because the learning environment no longer re-sembles the rigid 20th-century traditional classroom. Rather,a flexible, collaborative environment with technology-richcurriculum and high expectations becomes a transformationalforce in education, in which students access information al-most instantly from a variety of resources and individuals.

Current Technology Trends in Education

Many schools are providing classroom access to information,resources, tools, and people via the Internet and school net-works across the globe (Johnson, Schwabb, & Foa, 1999).Computers and networks are common forms of technology re-sources in schools. Computer-based educational materials areaccessible via the Internet on tablets, smartphones, netbooks,and other mobile devices (Friedman, 2012; Vosloo, 2012). Inaddition, as access improves, publishers are increasing theircurriculum offerings in electronic formats. It is not surprisingthat increasing numbers of teachers are faced with the dilemmaof learning how to learn to use and effectively incorporate allof the available tools into their teaching practice. Johnson andcolleagues (2011) identified the top trends and expectations forthe integration of technology into school districts and class-rooms. These trends included (a) the expectation to learn, andstudy whenever and wherever they are; (b) technologies areincreasingly cloud-based, and notions of information technol-ogy support are decentralized; (c) the world of work is increas-ingly collaborative, driving changes in the way student projectsshould be structured; and (d) the abundance of resources andrelationships made easily accessible via the Internet is increas-ingly challenging the traditional notion of educator roles.

The trends identified by Johnson and colleagues (2011) fur-ther support the notion that digital tools will have the abilityto help transform teaching and learning environments. Thesetrends embody the tenets of a transformative philosophy ofeducation through the use of collaboration, instructional de-livery, and alignment of learning to student needs. Technol-ogy and the digital environment expand learner access be-yond classroom walls; create access opportunities where noneexisted before; and provides support and collaboration expe-riences not previously possible. The ubiquitous computer anddigital access enable the realization of the teaching and learn-ing vision as identified by Johnson and colleagues (2011).

The Digital Native Student

Students of the 21st century, pre-Kindergarten through col-lege, represent generations who grew up with technology.These students, frequently called digital natives, have spenttheir entire lives surrounded by computers, using them forvideogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones,and all the other toys and tools of the digital age. Digitalnatives are used to receiving information quickly, parallel pro-cessing, and multitasking. They prefer random access and

function best when networked. They thrive on instant grat-ification and frequent rewards. Digital natives make choicesabout how to generate, obtain, manipulate, and display infor-mation, actively think about information, make choices, andexecute skills in real time to resolve real problems (Johnsonet al., 2011; Prensky, 2001).

Digital natives use mobile technology as a tool or a sup-port for communicating with others, simultaneously; they areactively engaged in learning when using these devices. This ac-tive environment process is quite different from being a tradi-tional passive, recipient vessel that acquires information trans-mitted by a teacher, textbook, or broadcast (Arnone, Small,Chauncey, & McKenna, 2011; Michel, Cater, & Varela, 2009;Samson, 2010).

One of the strongest advantages of mobile technology anddigital access is the opening of the world of information thatcontributes to the ability of students to develop 21st-centuryskills at the same time (Pacific Policy Research Center, 2010).A critical part of the skills needed by digital native studentsare those related to collecting, retrieving, organizing, manag-ing, evaluating, and synthesizing information (Pacific PolicyResearch Center, 2010).

The ability to access information through mobile technol-ogy facilitates the ability of students to acquire and practicethose 21st-century skills from anywhere they have Internet ac-cess. Global awareness is one of the themes in the 21st centurylearning skill set. The use of mobile technology and digital ac-cess permits students to communicate, collaborate and learnfrom individuals living in different countries, different cul-tures, and different religions. The ability to access informationand communicate with others provides teachers and studentsthe amazing opportunity to engage with individuals and ideasaround the world, leading to an “environment of opennessand mutual respect” and developing students who can “en-gage with global issues and diverse learning communities”(Pacific Policy Research Center, 2010, p. 2).

A common teacher-reported effect on students in environ-ments where mobile technology has been used involves an in-crease in motivation (Green & Hannon, 2007). When studentsare using these devices as a tool or a support for communi-cating with others, they are in an active role rather than thepassive role of recipient of information. Mobile technology usealso allows students to be actively thinking about information,making choices, and executing skills that are missing in typi-cal teacher-led lessons. Moreover, when technology is used asa tool to support students in performing authentic tasks, thestudents are in the position of defining their goals, makingdesign decisions, and evaluating their progress. The digital na-tive students, born into a technology-rich age with widespreadmobile device access, are extremely capable in adapting skillsand thinking processes to embrace a new world of teachingand learning—often more so than the teachers who are in-structing them. As a result, students have a view of the worldand access to information that differs significantly from thatof students who attended school prior to the advent of the In-ternet. Teachers have to embrace this reality and use the tech-nology tools available in a manner that will build on these newopportunities to explore and interact with the world. Funda-mentally different expectations of access, use and interaction

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with technology, in and out of classrooms, are anticipated bythe learners of the 21st century. Teachers must provide thesestudents with opportunities to explore and interact with theworld in their own way.

The Rise of the Digital Native Teacher

Digital native adults are entering the teaching profession andwill have their own perceptions of how technology is used inteaching and learning environments. Just as the digital na-tive student has expectations about how and when technologyshould be used in class (Arnone et al., 2011), the digital nativeteacher will have expectations of how technology can be used.Traditional pedagogical approaches of direct instruction, drilland practice, and assessment can be easily facilitated throughtechnology integration (Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2005).For example, teachers can use the Internet to research contentand find resources that they can then present through tech-nologies such as smart boards, projectors, and computers, ei-ther in whole-class or centers. Textbooks and course materialscan be supplemented with up-to-date information that servesas a resource to facilitate student research and discussion.

However, for the digital native student, the traditional ped-agogies may no longer be sufficient to create a learning en-vironment that is motivating and relevant. Accordingly, thedigital native teacher will be obligated to embrace the tech-nology options available for transforming the teaching andlearning environment. The paradigm shift to student-centeredlearning environments requires teachers and students to en-gage in strategies that transform roles and responsibilities. Forexample, teachers may work with students to set goals, estab-lish collaborative work groups, and provide guidelines aboutresources and projects (Arnone et al., 2011; Dwyer, 1994).In the model outlined by Dwyer, student’s work on their owntechnology-supported products and projects, while the teacherrotates through the room, asking about the reasons for variousdesign choices and suggesting useful resources. These activitiesand resulting learning outcomes are based in real situationsand use project-, inquiry- or challenge-based frameworks.

Bridging the Gap

Regardless of how technology is used in teaching and learn-ing, teachers face numerous challenges regarding classroominstruction. For example, an ever-changing subject matter re-quires teachers to update their content and knowledge baseon a continuing basis. The types of resources available andthe multiple forms of subject matter representations such asdatabases, narratives, video, and audio, complicate the job ofthe teacher as they gather resources to share with and teachstudents (Steele, 2012). Even more compelling, the relation-ships between teachers and students are influenced by theintegration of mobile technology as evidenced by the typesof instructional method (e.g., collaborative learning, project-based). In these models, teachers and students form learningcommunities in the pursuit of knowledge and skill acquisition.

There are several important issues that should be addressedbefore the implementation of mobile technology within a

school. Be it laptops, mobile devices, or desktop computers forthe classroom or school, the most important question to con-sider is “Do you have the infrastructure to support your mobiletechnology and Internet access?” For organizations workingto integrate technology in under-developed countries, this is-sue includes ensuring that schools have the resources needed tosustain the technology purchased and ensure the maintenance,connectivity, and access points to the Internet and World WideWeb (Strudler & Hearrington, 2009). In addition, considera-tion should be given to such matters as identifying how, when,and where the mobile devices will be updated and stored. Last,careful consideration should be given to the current and fu-ture role of the mobile device in the classroom. The plan fortechnology integration and use will factor heavily into futuresuccess of the technology-rich environment.

The Evolution to the Digital Mobile Classroom

Even in locations with little access to electricity, mobile tech-nologies can be easily found (Steele, 2012). Steele reported,“In developing nations, 79% of the population has a mobilephone” (para. 3). With these mobile technologies, studentsand teachers have unparalleled access to information at thetip of their fingertips.

The digital native students see mobile devices as a normaland typical tool that can be used in all facets of their lives,including education (Green & Hannon, 2007). Mobile devicespermit students to use media and technologies to create, learn,and communicate in new ways. Access to these technologiesopens new avenues of teaching and learning for students acrossthe globe. Technology is so as ubiquitous that the use of tech-nology has been hardwired into their ways of thinking and op-erating in the world (Klopfer, Osterweil, Groff, & Haas, 2009).

At the same time that students have increased access topersonal technology, mobile devices have empowered andequipped educators to meet the needs of 21st-century skillsrequired by global students. Mobile devices have the potentialto reshape students’ learning experience, and can, in turn, re-shape classroom cultures. Educators who embrace the use ofmobile devices in teaching and learning can leverage and takeadvantage of technology that is already in the hands of manystudents. At the same time, integrating already establishedstudent-owned mobile devices into the classroom allows stu-dents to learn without the need for the school to invest heavilyin procuring these potential education tools—if they alreadyexist in the environment (Warschauer & Matuchniak, 2010).

Applications

When properly configured, and appropriately used, mobile de-vices, such as the iPad or those running an Android operatingsystem, serve as effective and efficient educational tools. Thereare all kinds of productivity and utility applications that canbe used to streamline tasks and help students, teachers, andadministrators make efficient use of their valuable time andresources (Strudler & Hearrington, 2009). When consideringhow technology can be used in the teaching and learning envi-ronment, all stakeholders must recognize that the technology

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itself, should not control curricular design or instructionalstrategies.

Mobile devices, combined with applications, permit theteacher to make good use of instructional tools (e.g., thetechnology) by aligning student characteristics with lessoncontent; lesson objectives; and instructional strategies. Re-gardless of the type of approach used to design technology-richteaching and learning environments, a clear alignment of thepurpose of the activity and the technology with the lesson willfacilitate student engagement and, hopefully, improve perfor-mance. In Table 1, applications for different types of mobiledevices in instructional settings are presented.

The Challenges of Integrating Technology Withinthe Classroom Culture

Groff and Mouza (2008) discussed six central factors, eachwith critical variables that interact with one another toproduce barriers to implementing technological innovationsin the classroom: (a) research and policy factors, (b) district/school factors, (c) teacher factors, (d) technology-enhancedproject factors, (e) student factors, and (f) technology factors.Although all dimensions are important, not all of them canbe manipulated or accounted for by individual teachers. Thecharacteristics of various types of technologies can facilitateor hinder efforts to use technology; teachers cannot (in manycases) directly influence or alter those characteristics. Evenschools that are eager to adopt new technologies may be crit-ically constrained by the lack of necessary human resourcesand the financial wherewithal to realize their ideas (Harg-reaves, Earl, Moore, & Manning, 2000). Still other teachers arelocated in buildings that simply were not designed to providethe radio frequency transparency that wireless technologiesrequire and find themselves shut out of many potentialtechnology options. Technology-rich instruction can enhancestudent performance and prepare students for work in the 21stcentury; schools should provide seamless access to technologyresources to meet those goals (Fullan, 2007). Students donot just crave access, they expect an integrated learningexperience:

They are used to the instantaneity of hypertext, down-loaded music, phones in their pockets, a library on theirlaptops, beamed messages and instant messaging. Studentshave been networked most or all of their lives and have lit-tle patience for lectures, step-by-step logic, and “tell-test”instruction. (Prensky, 2001, p. 3)

And, teachers cannot perform their duties without neededtechnology.

Teachers may be reluctant to adopt student-centered ap-proaches using technology and mobile device integration be-cause they lack the knowledge needed to do so. Those teachersneed to obtain basic technology skills before they can adoptstudent-centered practices with technology (Hew & Brush,2007; Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon, & Byers, 2002). Teachers typicallylack time to learn new technology and prepare instruction thatintegrates technology into the curriculum. Dedicated time and

effort must be available to permit teachers and teacher collab-orators to integrate technology into the entire school’s cur-riculum so that it becomes a fundamental part of the teach-ing and learning environment. Without this dedicated time,technology integration tasks can become barriers rather thanopportunities.

Technology-integration planning should focus on ensur-ing that time, patience, and commitment are included in theprocesses that is encouraging and supporting for teachers asthey learn to integrate technology into their daily routinesand curriculums (Hew & Brush, 2007). To help better prepareteachers to integrate mobile technology in student-centeredways, a model of technology integration is needed, one that issensitive to the barriers that teachers face as they learn to usetechnology with new instructional practices (Kopcha, 2010).Moving teachers toward using technology in student-centeredways is a multi-faceted effort that has a better chance of suc-cess when implemented over long periods of time and withappropriate support (Hew & Brush, 2007).

Infrastructure and Access

There is a great need for improved infrastructure and accessacross the globe. Underdeveloped countries are still consid-erably behind developed countries in many areas, includinginformation technology infrastructure, but with the help fromgovernments, foundations, and other countries, access to theInternet is fast becoming a reality throughout the world. Ex-perts expect to see access increase drastically as technologymakes it possible to use even the minimal infrastructure thatexists in many areas to provide access to more people, evenin remote locations (Strudler & Hearrington, 2009). Manydeveloping countries are working hard to provide Internet ac-cess to their populations. The majority of these countries alsoreceive support from the West, with, for example, Americansand Canadians helping to develop the technology required toaccess the Internet, even with limited and slow Internet access(Strudler & Hearrington, 2009).

Looking Forward: The Questions

Since the introduction of the blackboard, teachers have facedquestions regarding why and how technology could andshould be used in teaching and learning processes. At thesame time, leaders of teacher education preparation programs,beginning teacher programs, and in service professional de-velopment programs have struggled with questions regardingidentification, selection, or presentation of strategies and bestpractices to develop the knowledge, skills, and abilities thatteachers need to meet the demands of a diverse and rapidlychanging work environment. Questions related to technologyuse in education have not changed:

1. How does technology influence student performance?2. What technology should be used in classrooms?3. Does technology make a difference in teaching and

learning?

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Table 1. Applications and for integrating mobile devices into the classroom

Application Integration strategies Tips

Dropbox Store files in the cloud to be accessed using anyInternet-connected device with the Dropbox appinstalled. Students can access teacher-developedfiles for use at home, in the Library, or during fieldresearch activities.

For use on multiple devices (e.g., iPad, iPod, iTouch,Android). Application is free.

Have students practice in class the process to makesure they all can access Dropbox files.

Evernote Take notes, make to-do lists, and clip Web pages;save these items in the cloud to be accessed by anyInternet-connected device with the Evernote appinstalled.


Model list building and prioritization for students todevelop time management skills.

AudioNote Lite Annotate audio recording with text or handwrittennotes. Recordings limited to 10 min per note or 2hr total. (Combines the functionality of a notepadand a voice recorder.)


Highlight important or complex information forfurther description for students to refer to duringstudy and practice.

iBooks Download and read books from Apple’s onlinebook store.

For use on multiple devices (e.g., iPad, iPod, iTouch,Android). Application is free (resources will haveassociated fees).

Use electronic resources to fill content and practiceneeds. Have students practice reading aloud toincrease fluency.

Kindle Download and read books from Amazon’s Kindlebook store.


Use electronic resources to fill content and practiceneeds. Use as part of a center activity to answerquestions about and analyze problems.

Nook Download and read books from Barnes and Noble’sonline bookstore.


Use electronic resources to fill content and practiceneeds. Form a book club to discuss commonbooks and create author profiles. Contactauthor/publisher for interactive Internet-basedexperience of question/answer.

Absolute Board Take handwritten notes, sketch ideas and then takea snapshot of your board to e-mail.


Have students “fill in the blanks” of lecture asreview and practice.

SyncSpaceSharedWhiteboard

Take handwritten notes, type or dictate text, sketchideas, then e-mail your document. Can also usecollaboratively.

For use on Android. Application is free.Have students share ideas about projects and

reports to build class portfolios and projects.

4. How do teachers use technology in classrooms?5. How does technology change the classroom and teaching

and learning culture?

The word, technology, can be interpreted differently depend-ing on the decade, while the types of technology could includethe many technologies previously discussed, such as the filmstrip, overhead projector, laser disc, computer-based instruc-tion, web-based instruction, etc. The fundamental questionremains: How cans technology be integrated into the teach-ing and learning environment in the most effective and trans-formational fashion? It is clear that the research related totechnology use in classroom is mixed. There is a long histor-ical record of researchers who have studied questions related

to technology and there has been no definitive answer to thequestion, “Does technology improve student performance?”Perhaps this question is one that cannot be answered. Perhapsthe question is not the right one. A better question to ask mightbe, “How can technology be used to transform education, theclassroom, the school, the district and the educational systemto meet the needs of the 21st-century student?”

Conclusion

Technology by itself can do nothing. Technology in conjunc-tion with engaged, excited, and motivated students, and in-novative teachers and administrators can change the world.

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Using best practices in the classroom, school, and district, aculture shift in which teachers and students are engaged inrich and exciting teaching and learning environments can befacilitated. Transformational learning can lead to, not onlytechnology infusion in individual classrooms (Kelly, McCain,& Jukes, 2009), but also a sustained change in the schoolculture. School culture and environment can be transformedby technology. It also is critical to understand the globalfactors that contribute to the process of transformations asrelated to technology use, innovation, and transformation(Kitchenham, 2009). A philosophy that promotes educationaltechnology and innovation, consultation with teachers regard-ing educational technology decisions, encouragement of col-laboration as a habit of mind, and the creation of professionallearning communities, all affect transformative learning andare vital for those processes to occur (Kitchenham, 2009).

Author notes

Karen L. Rasmussen is a Professor at the University of WestFlorida, teaching courses in instructional and performancetechnology. Her research interests include performance im-provement through technology innovation.

Wanda Y. Wade is currently an Assistant Professor in SpecialEducation at University of West Florida. Her current researchinterests include technology, teacher preparation and induc-tion support for beginning teachers.

Wendy Fox-Turnbull is currently a senior lecturer in the Uni-versity of Canterburys College of Education, she lectures intechnology education and professional education studies, in-quiry learning, and teaching and assessment. Her research in-terests include authentic learning in technology education, therole and nature of effective conversation in learning: Teachingand Learning Approaches for the 21st Century. She has pre-sented regularly at PATT and other international conferencesand is published in a range of journals. Wendy is the cur-rent chair of the Technology Education New Zealand (TENZCouncil).

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can technology be a transformative force in education?

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