Myth and Memory of the Canadian West (75 minutes tops)

1) Canadian Heritage, Canadian History2) The Origins and Settlement of Canada3) Red River 4) Clearing and Settling the Plains5) Tourism, Myth, and Multiculturalism6) America, Quebec, and Canadian Culture 7) Canada Today

1) Canadian Heritage, Canadian History

Today I am going to be speaking to you- about Canadian History

- paying particular attention to the West- and the way that the west both challenges and confirms

- popular representations of Canadian History - and what it means to be Canadian

Unsurprisingly, given that the US and Canada- share similar histories of westward expansion by European settlers

- across the same landmass- the West as a mythic, imagined region

- occupies a central place in how citizens in both countries articulated what it meant to be a citizen

- the creation of this mythic past- with its often overtly-nationalistic overtones

Text - is something historians identify as “Heritage”- as in derived from “property that can be passed down”

- as in these traits are supposedly passed down from generation to generation

- among “real” or “good” citizens- This “heritage” is distinct from the discipline of history

Text - which seeks to understand the past- warts and all

But despite the similarities between the creation of the United States- and of Canada

- and especially of their extension into western territories- each country has come to tell very different stories about the West

So, for example: the final scenes of Clint Eastwood’s 1992 film Unforgiven

File Clip: Unforgiven (5 mins)

And contrast that with the aptly named Canadian Heritage Minute on Sam Steele (1991)

Film Clip: Sam Steele (1 min)

For those of you who don’t know- Canadian Heritage Minutes aired for decades on television

- funded by various government-funded arts organizations- and very obviously tasked with promoting a particularly Canadian form

of nationalism

The contrast between these two western myths is stark and obvious- The American version of the Old West

- is one littered with bodies, bullets, fierce individualism, and near or total absence of government authority

- indeed, the anti-hero- played by Clint Eastwood

- is a notorious outlaw- while the Sheriff is little better

- While the Canadian version- is one that is explicitly articulated as not being American

- with unarmed police officers representing law and order- against throngs of dangerous, gun-toting Americans

As the Canadian myth of the West goes- Unlike in the United States

Text - Canadian Western expansion was nonviolent and orderlyText - with the government rationally extending police protection into the WestText - treating the natives with fairnessText - and encouraging the orderly migration various European groups to settle the plains

2) The Origins and Settlement of Canada

On the eve of sustained contact with Europeans- the native population in what became Canada

- was around 2 million- and these natives would be crucial to the history of Canada

Image: Jacques Cartier

In 1534 and 1535- Jacques Cartier undertook two voyages

- to attempt to find the Northwest Passage- a sea passage to India and the Spice Islands

Image: Map of explorations

- Instead, Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence River- finally on his third Voyage (1541)

- Cartier attempted to establish a colony- and loaded his ships up with what he thought were diamonds and

gold- but turned out to be iron pyrite and quartzite

- which caused him considerable embarrassment and limited interest in his colony- which soon failed

Image: Samuel de Champlain

In 1608 another French explorer- Samuel de Champlain

- returned to the St. Lawrence and established Quebec (1608)- where the economy of the colony quickly became reliant on the Fur Trade

Unlike the English colonists to the South- who focused on agriculture and dispossessed natives from their land

- the French became interdependent with the natives- with both sides adapting to the other

Image: Map of New France

- as a result the French - were soon pulled deep into the interior of the continent

- while their colony remained relatively small- only about 70,000 people by 1763

- compared to 1.5 million in the English colonies

As the French colony grew rapidly in size- but slowly in population

- the French-Native alliance became crucial to blocking the expansion of the English colonies into the interior

- a task they were able to accomplish remarkably well- until the Seven Years War (French and Indian War)

Text - from 1754 to 1763- when the British committed massive resources to the fighting in the

coloniesText - enabling a British army to conquer Quebec in 1759Text - and crush remaining French resistance in the colony

- in 1760Text - The Treaty of Paris (1763) made British rule over New France

- now called the Province of Quebec

The initial attempts by the new British government- to assimilate the French population

- by repressing Catholicism and the French language- along with Canadien customs and privileges

- failed miserably - and in 1774

- the British government relentedText - and in the Quebec Act guaranteed the use of the French Civil Code for civil (not-criminal) matters

- re-established the Roman Catholic Church- and allowed Catholics to occupy government positions

This helps explain why the colony remained loyal during the American Revolution- and provided a safe haven for Loyalist Refugees fleeing the Revolution

Image: 1791 Map of the Canadas

- and in 1791 Quebec was split into the Canadas- Upper Canada (Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec)

In 1812- following escalating tensions with Britain over trade with Europe

- as well as festering issues left over from the Revolutionary War- the United States decided to invade Canada

Image: Jefferson - in what Jefferson described as “a mere matter of marching”

- what followed was a two-year stalemate- in which the Americans were unable to deliver a knock-out blow

- largely due to the native allies of British- and the British were too distracted by Napoleon

- to concentrate on defeating the Americans- the war quickly ended in 1814

- after the defeat of Napoleon erased almost all of the causes of the war -and signaled the potential that the British could unleash their full

military against the United States

The War of 1812 marked the last conflict between the Britain and the United States - but it left a lasting impression in the consciousness of Canada

- were it has manifested in a distrust of American intentions- compounded by the grossly unequal status of the two countries

Tensions between the French and English populations remained- as did growing tensions between the colonial population and the Imperial Government

- which culminated in the Rebellions of 1837 in both Canadas

- which led to the Durham Report- where he described Canada as “two nations warring within the

bosom of a single state”- and called for the amalgamation of the two Canadas

Text - to overwhelm the French population and force them to assimilate- which was carried out by creating the United Canadas

-but which failed in its goal of assimilating the French population

- his other major recommendationText - Responsible Government

- took considerably longer to be enacted- but set the Canadas on the path

Between 1837 and 1867- The Canadas and the maritime colonies

- saw consistently strong immigration from the British Isles- so that by the period of Confederation

- the British population of the colonies had increased substantially- but the French remained a sizable population

- still very much divided from the English population

3) Red River

On July 1, 1867

Image: Map of Confederation

- Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia- joined together as the Dominion of Canada

This process, called Confederation- embodied several key patterns in Canadian History

Text 1) Tensions between Quebec and Anglo-Canada- the predominantly French-speaking Catholic population of Quebec

- saw itself (often with good cause) - as an embattled minority surrounded by a hostile English-

speaking protestant population- these tensions manifested in Quebec’s insistence on provincial powers

- and growing sense of its role as protector of all Francophones in CanadaText 2) Fear of US influence or aggression

- Confederation was also a response to the threat that the US- which had a long and often problematic relationship with Britain

- might pose to British North America

- especially in the aftermath of the Civil War

Text 3) A focus on the West- Though the initial stage of Confederation only extended the country to

the western border of Ontario- all the players involved assumed that the country would expand

to British Columbia- out of a sense of national destiny- a desire to access the resources of the region- and to deny the west to the Americans (operating under their Manifest

Destiny ideology)

In the eyes of most Canadians in Ontario and elsewhere- the west was an empty land

- ready and easy to exploit - for individual and national gain

This very much fit in with the nationalist visonText - but it was a nationalist vision dominated by Anglo-OntarioText - and was exceedingly racist and anti-Catholic Text - held by people who generally assumed that progress, assimilation, and nationalism

- were essentially interchangeable

These nationalistic visions of the West- immediately ran head-first into the people who actually lived there

- and who defied simplistic categorizations - & who rejected Anglo domination from afar

Text One group was the Metis- who were the product of mixed European & Native ancestry

- and who, by the time the Canadian gov’t attempted to extend Confederation

Image: Location of Red River Settlement

- over the Red River Colony in 1869 (present-day Winnipeg)- had emerged as a large, mainly Catholic and Francophone population

Image: Louis Riel

The Red River Resistance (1869)- led by Louis Riel, a Metis

- sought to preserve farmland and self-government - and initially managed to be fairly effective

- before the ill-advised decision to execute a troublesome Anglo settler- enabled the government to send a military expedition

- that sent Riel in exile in the United States- and put the colony under official Canadian control

Tellingly, in the aftermath of the execution and military expedition- Anglo settlers from Ontario organized Orange Lodges in the colony

- and began to actively suppress Catholics and others in Red River

Unsurprisingly, continued repression- combined with the mounting possibility that the government would not recognize Metis

land titles- led to another rebellion (NW Rebellion, 1885)

- This one coinciding with a native rebellion- by native groups upset with losing land and the destruction of the

bison

Image: Battle of Batoche

- This time, when troops were dispatched- a series of battles were fought before the Metis positions were over-run

- the Metis suppressed- and Riel, having returned from exile, was executed

The Red River Resistance and the Northwest Rebellion- signaled that the West was to be an Anglo colony of Canada

- while the Metis, Natives, and other groups, like the Chinese- would be pushed aside as soon as possible.

4) Clearing and Settling the Prairie

Image: The Last Spike

On November 7th, 1885- the ceremonial “Last Spike” was driven into the Canadian Pacific Railway

- an event that was celebrated at the time- and continues to be celebrated

-as a key moment in binding the nation together- Indeed, very quickly

- instead of the narrative being that the new nation of Canada created the CPR- the narrative instead became that the completion of the CPR

- created the new nation of Canada- forming the “iron band” of Confederation

- and ensuring that not only would British Columbia - remain a part of the new country

- but that the CPR would also allow settlers to fill all the land between

- helping secure the Prairie west - from Americans

More than just a symbol- the CPR was also a powerful tool of nation-building

- one that was directly related to two intertwined policies - that the government of Canada pursued in the West

- between 1867 and 1914

On the one hand, the Canadian government sought to encourage the immigration- of migrants that were believed to have the skills necessary to successfully farm

on the Prairies- and whom would quickly assimilate to the Anglo-

Canadian-defined dominant culture- While, on the other hand, they sought to isolate and restrict Natives

- to small reservations- where it was believed that they would either be assimilated

- or die out as remnants of a people- whose time had passed

- In both cases- the Canadian Pacific Railway

- played an important symbolic and practical purpose

During this period and after- Canadian Native policy focused on attempting to transform natives

Text - into “peaceable agricultural laborers”- which was both a justification for dispossessing natives of their territory

- and a plan for what to do with them after

Text Moreover, the government was convinced that natives needed only small plots of landText - because they were biologically incapable of becoming “real” capitalists

- and therefore could live on smaller farms- producing mainly for their own families

- without using industrial technology

But while official rhetoric emphasized transforming natives into small-scale farmers- actual policy was far more concerned with dispossessing natives

- Indian Agents and other government representativesText - consistently withheld foods so that they could use starvation

- as a means to force natives to sign or comply with existing treaties

The completion of the CPR signaled that the subjugation of the native population was complete- and the natives

- increasingly forced onto smaller and more remote reservations- were now seen as irrelevant to the process of large-scale settlement

- Very quickly, the well-being of natives largely disappeared from the public agendaText - as reservations were transformed into “incarceration centers”

- through the implementation of the pass system- and poverty, disease, and abuse

- became rampant

But while the completion of the CPR signaled the coming nadir of native peoples in Canada- to most Anglo-Canadians

- it was a monumental triumph that opened up the Prairies to settlement

Now the Canadian government could begin recruiting - as Minister of the Interior Clifford Sifton put it:

“ [the] stalwart peasant in a sheepskin coat, born on the soil, whose forefathers have been farmers for ten generations, with a stout wife and a half–dozen children”

In other words, the Canadian government began an aggressive recruitment campaign- to encourage “the right sort” of immigrants

- to “fill up” the Prairies - which the government was so determinedly trying to empty of its native

inhabitants

The ideal immigrants were farming folk from Britain or the United States- as both of these groups were assumed to be easy to assimilate

- but the government also looked to other farming regions- particularly in central and eastern Europe

In all of these places, the government undertook an extensive advertising and recruitment campaign

- with recruiters who were paid a commission on every migrant they sent to Canada- criss-crossing the rural countrysides of Europe and the United States

Image: Last Best West

- promoting Canada as “The Last, Best West”

This advertising campaign encapsulated the official nationalistic vision of the Canadian West- as a land of abundance, opportunity, and order

- very different from the American West- Indeed, one pamphlet earnestly informed potential migrants that they did

not need to carry a revolver in Canada

But this advertising campaign did not mean that Canada welcomed all immigrants- just as it sought to clear the Prairies of natives

- it also began to actively restrict migration of “undesirables”Text - which generally translated into immigration restrictions or a lack of recruiting among people of darker skins such as in Southern Europe, Africa, and Asia

Text - as well as the ill or poor- Canada’s “Open Door” policy was clearly only open for some peoples

Image: John Ware, Black Settler in Alberta

For example- in 1911 an Order-in-Council blocked immigration by people of African descent

- this order was rescinded within two months and never used- because it was seen as being pointless given that Canada was “too cold

for any but the white race”- this despite a black Canadian population of 17,000 at the time

- many whom had been in the country for several generations

Image: Anti-Asian Cartoon from BC, 1910

It was Asians who ran into the most discriminatory legislation- starting with a $50 head tax on Chinese immigrants in 1885

- (later raised to $500)- immigration restrictions on Chinese and Japanese migrants- and shipping requirements that made it virtually impossible for immigrants to arrive

legally from Asia

Clearly, Native and Immigration policy during this period- was designed to create a Canadian West

- populated by easily-assimilated Europeans

Image: Doukhobor Immigrants at Halifax, first group

Ironically however- the Canadian government also tended to reach special deals with groups of immigrants

- such as Doukhobors (members of a Russian religious sect)- granting them large chunks of land

- that the communities were allowed to hold as communal property- even when migrants did not come under such special arrangements

- they often engaged in Chain Migration- and chose to settle near other members of their particular ethnic

group- as a result

- the Canadian Prairies became dotted with ethnic enclaves- that proved remarkably resistant

- to assimilating to an Anglo-Canadian version of Canadian identity

- as the Canadian government and public discovered - when a faction of the Doukhobor

- calling themselves the “Sons of Freedom”

Image: Sons of Freedom Protest March, Saskatchewan 1903

- began to use nude demonstrations- and arson to protest attempts by the Canadian government

- to force attendance at public schools- and to break up the communal land holdings of the

Doukhobors

5) Tourism, Myth, and Multiculturalism

The completion of the CPR also heralded another change in the representation of the West- the creation of the Canadian West as a tourist destination

Image: Canadian Pacific Railway Wilderness Tourist Posters

- the reason for this was simple economic self-interest- the railways needed to increase the amount of passengers they were

carrying- in order to increase profits

The CPR sold the Canadian West- as a spectacular wilderness

- but it also promoted it as “Indian Country”- which it claimed was every bit as exotic as the depths of Africa

- or a remote island in the South Pacific

The CPR was instrumental in the creation of Canada’s first national park - Banff, in 1887

- and this new park illustrated the tensions in the representations of the West

Image: Banff Indian Days

While Park and CPR officials - sought to increase tourism by stressing the Park’s native aspects

- inaugurating “Banff Indian Days” in 1894- they simultaneously evicted native peoples from within the park

- and sought to stop native hunting and gathering within the park- in the belief that it would negatively impact animal populations

- that were popular with hunters

These contradictory policies reflected the contradictory images of, and expectations for, natives- held by white Canadians

- who simultaneously condemned and celebrated natives - who continued to act like “real Indians”

Image: Banff Indian Days Parade

But while many white Canadians were conflicted - over whether the ideal native was one that had assimilated to Anglo-Canadian norms

- or retained a so-called “authentic” culture- the CPR and other tourism promoters had no such qualms

- as they enthusiastically recruited native peoples,- ensured that those natives would act “authentically,”

- and then promoted the resulting performances of native culture- internationally

- to great success

Of course, although these performances featured living natives- they were rhetorically positioned as relics of a by-gone and fading era

- not as members of the emerging Canadian body politic- In other words, because the natives performed only in ways that did not acknowledge

the changes and adaptations that native societies had- and continued to undergo

- in contact with what was called “the white man’s civilization”- their presence did little to challenge the other dominant representation of the

West- that of an empty land needing filling by strong white immigrants

- the Natives were the past, immigrants the future

This trend continues to today- where native culture and symbolism

- is used to promote tourism

Image: Stanley Park Totem Poles Postcard

For instance, the totem poles in Stanley Park- are the most visited tourist site in British Columbia

- seeing, on average, 3 million visitors a year

Image: Native Imagery at 2010 Olympics, Opening Ceremony “welcoming” the Olympics

- Additionally, there is the way that native imagery and artwork- was extensively used to “brand” the 2010 Vancouver Olympics

Of course- the emergence of multiculturalism as official government policy

- in the latter half of the 20th Century- has changed the meaning of this imagery

- and it is to this topic that I want to turn next

6) America, Quebec, and Canadian Culture

Before WWII- Canadian culture had been ignored by both government and the private sector

- but after the war- Culture was increasingly promoted

- often as a strategy of resistance- against the increasing cultural influence of the United

States

The perception that Canadian culture was “under attack” from the United States- emerged very quickly after the end of the war

- but this sort of rhetoric- and the increasingly loud calls to address the issue

- ignored the reality that there was no single, unitary “Canadian” culture- not only did English and French Canada represent a major divide

- but within English Canada- virtually everyone outside of Toronto

- rejected the idea of Toronto being culturally dominant

Part of any attempt to defend Canadian Culture- therefore also had to help define and create it

The initial attempt- the Massey Commission 1951

Text - focused on the “problem” of American cultural influence- and suggested top-down, elitist ways of assisting and regulating culture

Text - emphasizing serious, uplifting, and educational content- instead of commercial content, with its perceived close ties to Americanism

Image: Massey Commission (Blank)

Image The Massey Commission led to the creation of the CBC,Image National Film Board, Image and National Gallery

- among other institutions- unsurprisingly

- in addition to reflecting elite views of culture- these institutions also tended to prioritize an Anglo-Canadian

understanding of Canadian culture- which was now taken to stand in for a broader Canadian culture

By the 1960s- continued economic hard times

- along with persistent feelings of isolation

- caused, in part, by the cultural policies of the Federal Government- encouraged growing numbers of Quebeckers to become Sovereignists

Text - culminating in the founding of the Parti Quebecois (PQ)- a provincial sovereigntist party

- in 1968

Concerned about the growth of the PQ- Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau

- sought to reduce the isolation of FrancophonesText - through the passage of the Official Languages Act 1969

- which made French and English the official languages

In 1971Text - this policy was expanded

- to include multiculturalism as a guiding principle- Now, while French and English were given official language status

- other cultural groups and languages were supposed to be openly welcomed

Multiculturalist policies had a number of ramifications- for one, the emphasis on diversity of culture

- undermined the governments fixation on elite Anglo forms of culture- and stimulated appreciation for folk culture

At the same time- Canada restructured its immigration system

Text - to a point-based system in 1967- which removed immigration quotas

- and instead assigned each potential immigrant a point ranking - based on things like language ability in French or English, wealth,

education, job training, family members in CanadaText - In 1976, this immigration act was further refined

- so that some classes of immigrants- like family members

- would no longer be subjected to the point system

These immigration acts marked a turning point in Canadian immigration policy- because for the first time immigration policy focused on who should be allowed into

Canada- not who should be kept out

- and it did so in a way that deliberately tried to obscure - a candidate’s racial or ethnic background

- as a result- immigration from non-European areas began to surge

- particularly from Asia and Latin America

While there were very real economic reasons for these policies

- Canada relied on immigrants to expand its workforce- and to bring in much-needed wealth and skills

- these policies also enjoyed support because of the way they helped set Canada apart from the United StatesText - In the national mythos which emerged after the adoption of multiculturalism, official bilingualism, and immigration reformText - Canada was able to depict itself as peaceful, tolerant alternative

- to the United States- while the definition of the Canadian now broadened to a multiracial citizen

- instead of the White Anglo face of Canada previously

In reality, however- Immigration reform, multiculturalism, and bilingualism

- were not as unproblematic - as the official narrative often suggested

The new point-based immigration system - favors candidates with money and education

- with a result that wealthier and educated Indians and Chinese nationals - dominate immigration to Canada

- while immigration from more impoverished regions- like Africa

- remains low

Bilingualism is still poorly done in most provinces- and remains a point of contention in both English and French-speaking Canada

Even multiculturalism has a problematic legacy- as some Quebeckers feel that multiculturalism undercuts their claims to special status

- by basically saying “everyone is special!” - Even more problematically

- while the depths of Canadian commitment to multiculturalism are also questionable

- While over ¾ of the population supports the idea of people maintaining their cultural heritage (2011 poll)

- almost half simultaneously believe that immigrants should give up their customs and traditions to be become truly Canadian

- this trend was particularly evident in 2015 election

Image: Barbaric Cultural Practices

- which saw the Conservative party propose to establish a hotline to report “Barbaric Cultural Practices”

- and extol the virtues of “Old Stock” immigrants

The failings of the point-based immigration system, bilingualism, and multiculturalism

- are both partly the cause and the symptom- of a continuing assumption of Anglo-Canadian normativity

- that undermines much of Canada’s post-WWII commitment to diversity

7) Canada Today

Today, Canada very much positions itself- as a kinder, gentler version of the United States

- One characterized by a celebration of multicultural diversity- moderate policies

- law-abiding citizens- and a benign government

- Much of this image- though certainly not all of it

- rests on how the Canadian West- has been imagined

This process of imagining the West- and, indeed, of creating a national Heritage

- involves the acts of both remembering and forgetting- and it is when we begin to peel back the layers

- and subject the past to historical analysis- that we can begin to expose these processes of remembering and

forgetting- that are one of the critical distinctions between Heritage and History

I have already spoken about the reality of native dispossession- as the Canadian nation-state extended its power onto the Prairies

- and encouraged European immigration - but that is not all that is going on here

- the use of native imagery today- as a symbol of Canadian diversity

- deliberately obscures the extremely high rates of poverty, malnutrition, disease, and substance abuse

- which continue to disproportionately impact First Nations in Canada- particularly on more remote reservations

- As it turns out- the Canadian public and government in general

- is more than happy to cash in on native imagery and imaginary natives- but extremely reluctant to undertake significant reforms

- designed to help real natives

In this necessarily brief introduction to Canadian History- I have tried to explore the relationship between Canadian History and Canadian

Heritage

- or between history as event- and history as imagination

In doing this I have tried to underscore several points:Text 1) The history of the Canadian West is an important component of Canadian national history Text 2) the stories we tell about the past

- are often as important as what actually happenedText 3) and that, in the specific case of Canada

- and the Canadian West- representations of the West have been disproportionately shaped by Anglo-

Canadians- who have used the west to construct an image of Canada

- that generally reflects their idealized values - (however defined at a particular time)

- but who have simultaneously pushed policies and actions- that have attempted to dislocate and subjugate people who

did not fit that image- while also coopting the image of those people

- such as natives- to further their own agendas