The Spartakiad: I t s Approach and Modif ication from the Mass Displays o f the Sokol

G. A. Carr University o f V ic tor ia

I n 1985 a committee was struck i n East B e r l i n and charged wi th the planning o f the 8 th Sports and Gymnastic Fest iva l and the 11th Children's and Youth Spartakiad. This cormittee made the fo l lowing proclamation:

"Dear Cit izens o f the German Democratic Republic!

Dear athletes!

The Fest iva l and Spartakiad fanfares are c a l l i n g again.

Leipzig i n 1987 w i l l be a f e s t i v a l o f sport, a display o f youthful exuberance, an expression o f support by the younger generation and the sport community f o r the cause o f peace and socialism.

Leipzig i n 1987 w i l l be a h igh l igh t of our nat ional l i f e preceded by a "sport f o r a l l " campaign i n every town and c i t y , every v i l lage, and every workplace.

Leipzig i n 1987 w i l l continue a soc ia l i s t t r a d i t i o n inher i ted from the German working class sports movement and progressive trends i n German physical culture.

Leipzig i n 1987 w i l l fu rn ish evidence tha t the Olympic Idea i s a l i v e and tha t i t i s we l l established i n the German Democratic ~ e ~ u b l i c ! " l

This statement leaves l i t t l e doubt as t o the p o l i t i c a l nature o f the Spartakiad celebration. I t indicates c lea r l y t ha t the East German youth w i l l use the Spartakiad i n Leipzig t o demonstrate t h e i r mass support f o r peace, socialism, and the idea ls inherent i n the Olympic Games.

The proclamation also states tha t the Spartakiad w i l l continue " soc ia l i s t t rad i t ions inher i ted from the German working c lass sport movement...11 However, t h i s assertion, from a h i s t o r i c a l and ideological standpoint i s d i f f i c u l t t o accept since the s i m i l a r i t i e s between the two movements are minimal. As Hoberman states i n Sport and P o l i t i c a l Ideology,

"The sport cu l tu re of the GDR stands i n a somewhat contradictory re la t i on t o the German workersv movement o f the twenties and the t h i r t i e s , from which East German of f ic ia ldom claims a l i n e a l descent. This assertion i s made infrequently, since the resemblances-ideological and otherwise-are few. The East Germans have turned most o f t h i s conspicuously humane doctr ine ins ide out, and f o r t h i s reason i t i s not a subject f o r party ideologists t o dwel l on. . ."2

Furthermore, i n the context o f German history, the Spartakiad can hardly be said t o continue the soc ia l i s t t rad i t ions o f the German workers* sport movement. The Spartakiad was (and s t i l l i s ) a f e s t i v a l representative of the ideology of the communist party, a party which frequently stood i n opposition t o the soc ia l i s t i n ten t o f the German worker's movement, and which t r i e d t o subvert and manipulate the aspirations o f the movement t o serve i t s own ends. I f traced back, the o r i g i n o f the Spartakiad i s t o be found not i n pre-war Germany but i n Czechoslovakia. The evolution t o i t s present form i s t i e d d i rec t ly t o the growth of communism as a p o l i t i c a l philosophy throughout Europe.

The f i r s t use of the t i t l e "Spartakiad" i s a t t r ibu ted t o the founder o f the Czechoslovakian Communist Workersv Gymnastic Federation, J i r i Frantisek Chaloupecky. Inspired by the example o f Spartacus, the Roman slave who l e d a glorious but i l l - f a t e d revo l t i n 73 B.C., Chaloupecky named the 1921 communist workersq gymnastic f e s t i v a l a t Maniny (Prague) a "Spartakiad". I n Chaloupecky's view the Spartakiad symbolized the un i ty and brotherhood o f the oppressed, exploited, and enslaved. I n the const i tut ion o f the Communist Workerst Federation, i t was subsequently wr i t ten:

" I n memory o f the Communist associations performance a t Maniny i n 1921--reminiscent of the glorious feats achieved by Spartacus the hero and leader o f the Roman slavesr insurrection--al l co l lec t ive displays by the Federation associations w i l l i n future be ca l led spartakiads.lq3

Although the t i t l e "Spartakiadw was f i r s t used by the Czechoslovakian communists, t h e i r use of mass gymnastic displays as a means o f p o l i t i c a l expression was freely adopted from the Czechoslovakian Sokol gymnastic association formed i n 1862. From i t s inception, the Sokol intended t o combine physical education and f i tness wi th spec i f i c p o l i t i c a l objectives--primarily the Czechoslovak struggle f o r nat ional independence i n the face o f Austro-Hungarian p o l i t i c a l and cu l t u ra l oppression. Since the year 1620, when Bohemia (the geographical basis of modern Czechoslovakia) had been crushed by the Hapsburgs, the Czechs and Slovaks suffered Austro-Hungarian domination f o r the next three centuries. The subsequent threat of "Germanization", and wi th i t a loss o f cu l t u ra l i den t i t y generated determined e f f o r t s by Czechoslovak scholars and pat r io ts t o assure the surv ival of Czech and Slovak culture. This s p i r i t o f national revival , expressed i n such areas as ar t , l i te ra ture , music, and the theater, was supported by the Sokol gymnastic society, an organization described as:

"more remarkable than anything o f i t s k i nd which Europe was t o know u n t i l the days o f Baden Powell and the Boy Scouts, and even more decisive i n i t s inf luence upon the mind o f the Czech nation. What the Czechs are today they owe i n very large measure t o the Sokol Gymnastic Society.. .w4

Founded by two o f the leading pa t r i o t s o f the time, Dr. Miroslav Tyrs (1632-18841, and J indr ich Fugner (1822-1865), the Sokol was based on democratic principles, making no d i s t i nc t i on between sex, rank o r class. Inspired by the I t a l i a n war o f independence, the French Revolutionfs c a l l f o r " l i be r t y - f ra te rn i t y - equality", and borrowing from the German Turner movement, Tyrs and Fugner used gymnastics as a medium through which f i tness, patr iot ism, and s lav ic cu l tu re would be promoted. Tyrs i n par t icu lar , saw i n gymnastics an excellent medium f o r general education. He knew o f Jahngs use of gymnastics as a means o f para-military preparation. Furthermore, he had noted tha t the Greeks used gymnastics not only as a means f o r developing defensive readiness, but also t o achieve a harmonious balance i n health, morality, and aesthetic appreciation. To these observations, Tyrs added h i s own in terpre ta t ion of Darwin's theories on the surv ival o f the f i t t e s t as described i n The Or ig in o f the Species, a book which had become popular reading a f te r i t s publ icat ion i n 1859. The sum of these ideas was tha t Tyrs saw physical education and mental ( o r moral) education as a fundamental form of t r a in ing f o r the body's surv iva l and, taken further, that such t ra in ing was essent ia l for the surv iva l o f the Czechoslovak people. Accordingly, he set out t o design a system o f physical education which would embody a l l tha t he thought best from the Greek world and from the modern nations o f Western Europe. The resu l t was a system o f education which took i n t o consideration the c u l t u r a l and aesthetic needs o f the Czechoslovak people and which, through we l l choreographed d r i l l s and dances, was able t o o f f e r a v isua l message of brotherhood wi th maximum impact and penetration-even t o i l l i t e r a t e Czech peasantry .5

Mass gymnastic displays were organized when Sokol d i s t r i c t and v i l lage "clans't were gathered together a t a "Sletn o r "Assembly of a l l the Sokols". I n t h e i r format, the displays were intended t o demonstrate the idea that the ind iv idua l should make h i s personal in teres ts and a b i l i t i e s subservient t o the common good, and tha t the overa l l impression for both part ic ipants and spectators be a sense o f brotherhood and unity. Consequently, the choreography o f the Sokol displays merged the ind iv idua l i n t o the whole and blended as one the great range and var ia t ion i n s k i l l . To allow f o r the more vigorous a b i l i t i e s o f those i n the prime o f t h e i r l i f e , (while not b e l i t t l i n g the contr ibut ion o f those older or younger), group demonstrations were graded according t o the physiological capacit ies of age, sex, and s k i l l . Young females, f o r example, performed en masse, and t o music, a series o f co lour fu l free-flowing d r i l l s and dances more demanding than those performed by older women. But there was no competition o r var ia t ion i n status expressed wi th in an age group, o r between age groups. Each ind iv idua l made a s imi lar contr ibut ion w i th in a spec i f i c performance. From young t o old, from male t o female, and wi th a cast of thousands, the net e f f ec t of the Sokol displays was a highly emotional, almost hypnotic, sense o f un i t y and teamwork.

Charac te r i s t i c of t h e mass displays was t h e a t t e n t i o n paid t o grace and harmony. Tyrs refused t o use a c t i v i t i e s which he f e l t were ' a l i en ' t o what he thought were t h e educational needs of t h e nation. He emphasized elegance and beauty and worked hard t o educate t h e t a s t e and appreciat ive powers of both performers and spectators . The more regimented a c t i v i t i e s of the male gymnasts used d r i l l formations and apparatus such a s had been made popular by Jahn and the Turnverein. Tyrs, l i k e Jahn before him, was well aware of t h e mil i tary value of such exercises and they were t o prove t h e i r worth i n l a t e r years when l ibera ted Czechoslovakia had no r e a l army. During t h a t chaot ic period the young men of the Sokol, d r i l l e d and organized, were able t o a s s i s t t h e new Republic with t h e mi l i t a ry support it badly needed.6

It was not long before t h e methods and mass displays used by t h e Sokols were copied by other Czechoslovakian p o l i t i c a l and re l ig ious organizations. An "Association of Workerst Gymnastic Units" had been formed i n 1890 by t h e Czechoslovak Soc ia l Democratic Party. It borrowed f ree ly from Sokol methods of physical t ra in ing and combined these with t h e p o l i t i c a l philosophy espoused by the Party. The Ore1 (Eagle) gymnastic organization formed by t h e Catholic Church a l s o took from t h e Sokol what i t f e l t would a s s i s t the progress of the church.'

In 1921, t h e Comunist Party of Czechoslovakia was founded by s o c i a l i s t s declaring t h e i r a l legiance t o t h e new powers i n Russia. It brought i n t o being what was described by t h e party a s a "revolutionary working c l a s s s p o r t s o r g a n i ~ a t i o n ~ ' . ~ Using Spartacus a s a symbol of proletar ian revo l t , the Czechoslovakian Comunists planned t o hold Spartakiad f e s t i v a l s t o demonstrate t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s t rength and uni ty, and t o show t h e i r bel ief t h a t revolution was inev i tab le and t h a t victory would be t h e i r s .

Although patterned a f t e r the mass displays held by t h e Sokols, t h e Spartakiads of the Czechoslovakian comunis t par ty could hardly match t h e grandeur of the Sokol celebrations. A t t h a t time t h e i r membership was f a r l e s s than t h a t of t h e Sokol organization and, furthermore, they continuously faced opposition from powerful r igh t wing and conservative elements i n t h e government which successfully hindered t h e i r growth. Contemporary Czechoslovakian h i s to r ians writing i n 1975 of t h e ea r ly s t ruggles of t h e Czechoslovakian Communist Party paint a glowing p ic ture of t h e par ty ' s f i r s t Spartakiad. It was described as:

"a resounding revolutionary success f i l l i n g the Czechoslovak p r o l e t a r i a t with new energy, self-confidence and f a i t h i n f i n a l victory ... The enthusiasm of t h e crowd reached its climax i n t h e closing "Victory of t h e Revolution" scene which, according t o t h e bourgeois press , had a wdernoniacaln e f f e c t on t h e one hundred thousand spec ta tors who were cheering loudly, c a l l i n g f o r success and good luck t o the revolution, t h e Communist Internat ional , and the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia.. .'19

I n sp i te o f the tremendous support t ha t the f i r s t Spartakiad was claimed t o have received, a subsequent Spartakiad planned f o r 1928 was banned by what the Czechoslovak Communist Party described as the "state bourgeois administrat ion backed by a r i g h t wing c o a l i t i ~ n ~ ~ . . ~ ~ A t t ha t time, unable t o gain p o l i t i c a l ascendancy, the Communist Party had t o be sa t i s f i ed wi th a minor r o l e i n Czechoslovak po l i t i c s . As a resu l t i t had great d i f f i c u l t y i n a t t rac t i ng members t o i t s gymnastic and sport organization. For example, i n 1930, gymnastic organizations run by the Catholic Church, the Social Democrats, and the Communist Party f e l l f a r short o f the Sokol both i n t o t a l membership and nat ional importance. Furthermore, membership i n the Sokol required the renunciation o f al legiance t o any p o l i t i c a l party whose platform opposed Sokol principles. I n essence t h i s meant t ha t the Sokol was i n d i rec t opposition t o the Czechoslovak Communist Party, a circumstance which was t o have unfortunate repercussions when the communists subsequently gained power.ll

I n 1945, wi th Czechoslovakia f ree from Nazi oppression, the Sokols had hoped t o continue foster ing the t rad i t ions l a i d down by Tyrs and Fugner. But the absorption o f Czechoslovakia i n t o the Soviet sphere now gave the Communist Party absolute cont ro l and wi th i t the opportunity t o i n s t a l l a s ingle sport organization representing t h e i r philosophy. With these p o l i t i c a l changes, the Spartakiad permanently replaced the Sokol I1Sletv1 as a nat ional fes t iva l .

I n 1955, i n accordance w i th t h i s new policy, the f i r s t State-wide Spartakiad was held as part o f the celebrations f o r the 10th anniversary o f the l i be ra t i on o f Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Army. The President o f the Czechoslovak Republic, Antonin Zapotocky, wishing t o celebrate the founding o f Communist Czechoslovakia i n grandiose s t y le announced:

"Our f i r s t state-wide Spartakiad should be organized and prepared so as t o outdo a l l t ha t has been achieved i n t h i s f i e l d a t previous Sokol fes t iva ls , Olympic Games, and Spartakiads.. ."12

True t o Zapotmky's declaration, the new government made the post-war Spartakiads more massive than ever. Scheduled t o occur every f i v e years from 1955 onward, they are now the culmination o f numerous pre-Spartakiad games which occur throughout Czechoslovakia. The huge Strahov stadium where the nat iona l Spartakiad celebrations were held, was expanded t o accomnodate 250,000 spectators, wi th 10 t o 15,000 performing i n the arena a t any one time. Post-war displays included m i l i t a r y fly-pasts; while slogans, banners, and speeches emphasized the triumph and progress o f Socialism. "Evenings o f Friendship" were added t o demonstrate the un i t y and brotherhood o f Soviet Bloc nations. As f a r as the Sokol was concerned, t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l in teres t i n physical education and f i tness could only be expressed through a state-control led sport organization and w i th i t the state-control led Spartakiad. A t r u l y independent Sokol organization i s no longer allowed, ex is t ing only as an i n teg ra l pa r t o f the nat ional federation which contro ls physical education, sport, and tourism.13

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contrast, what has changed i s the content o f the t o t a l Spartakiad program. Mass displays s t i l l hold an important posit ion, bu t they now share the stage w i th an imnense corrpetitive program, and t o accomnodate t h i s the Spartakiad has been s ign i f i can t l y enlarged.

The l a tes t development i n the growth of the Spartakiad can be seen i n the German Democratic Republic. Here i t has been developed s t r i c t l y as a f e s t i v a l f o r chi ldren and youth. F i r s t held i n 1966, The Children's and Youth Spartakiad incorporated the Spartakiad o f the Ernst Thalmann Pioneers, a celebrat ion organized by t h i s p o l i t i c a l youth organization i n the years fol lowing the end o f the Second World War. Subsequent t o 1966, Children's and Youth Spartakiads have been held every two years, (al lowing f o r one three year var ia t ion i n schedule so tha t the Spartakiad calendar would not clash wi th t ha t o f the Olympic Games) .I6

The Children's and Youth Spartakiad i s characterized not only by i t s emphasis on the young, but also by the manner i n which i t represents f a r more than a s ing le celebration. The enormous Spartakiad f i n a l s which i n 1987 w i l l be held i n conjunction wi th the 8th Sports and Gymnastic Festival, co l l ec t i ve l y represent the pinnacle o f a huge pyramidic structure o f a th le t i c competition.

A t the base o f t h i s pyramid are el iminat ion contests held throughout the East German school system, followed by d i s t r i c t Spartakiad competitions which take place annually, and county Spartakiad competitions held every other year. Competitors lucky enough t o survive a t the county l e v e l pass on t o the Spartakiad f i n a l s which take place i n major c i t i e s and winter resorts f o r the s m e r and winter games respectively.

O f f i c i a l l y there i s no l i m i t t o the number o f sports i n which an East German youngster may enter. I n f ac t specia l izat ion i n one sport i s discouraged, pa r t i cu la r l y among the very young competitors. Instead, e f f o r t s have been made t o encourage an all-around l e v e l o f f i t ness and s k i l l . This i s demonstrated i n the ru les o f the Spartakiad which state t ha t a l l part ic ipants must acquire the Sport Badge "Ready f o r Labour and Defense o f the Homeland" before concentrating on any one par t icu lar sport. Panorama comments on t h i s regulat ion as follows:

"A fourteen year o l d g i r l speed r o l l e r skater taking par t i n the Spartakiad f ina ls , must i n addition, have f u l f i l l e d the fo l lowing norms: 3000 meter cross country run i n 13.00 min: 9.30 i n the quintuple jump and 9.5 seconds r o r a 60 meter sprint. ."l7

As i s common i n other communist nations, the mandate f o r organizing the Spartakiad i s delegated t o party contro l led agencies which r e f l e c t goverment philosophy. I n the GDR, the Children's and Youth Spartakiad i s j o i n t l y organized and sponsored by the German Gymnastic and Sport Union (the major sport body i n East Germany), and the Minist ry o f Education (which i s responsible f o r the schools), supported by the Ernst Thalmann Pioneers and the Free German Youth.

Spartakiad conanittees a r e s e t up a t county, d i s t r i c t , and nat ional l e v e l and these groups a r e aided by o ther s t a t e organizations such a s t h e National People's Army, t h e People's Pol ice, t ranspor t , heal th services , e tc . The combined sponsorship of these agencies then work t o ensure t h a t t h e Spartakiad is d i rec ted toward improving t h e standard and scope of sport f o r chi ldren and youth throughout t h e GOR.

A major object ive of t h e t o t a l Spartakiad program is t o motivate an ever-increasing number of chi ldren t o become involved i n spor t both a t t h e rec rea t iona l and competitive level . From an assessment of t h e numbers of par t i c ipan ts involved it would appear t h a t t h i s plan has been highly successful. A t t h e d i s t r i c t l e v e l i n 1965, 321,000 chi ldren and youth competed i n t h e Spartakiad program. I n 1981 t h i s number had increased t o 972,M)O. Similar ly, i n 1981, t h e number of chi ldren involved i n club sport programs (outside of school spor t c lubs) had r i s e n t o 6 5 1 , 0 0 0 . ~ ~

Beyond the goal of involving grea te r numbers of chi ldren i n t h e Spartakiad l ie the major object ives of:

a ) Providing an ongoing canpe t i t ive program which. w i l l a s s i s t i n t h e recognition of a t h l e t i c t a l e n t .

b) Providing a medium through which p a t r i o t i c consciousness can be promoted.

East German l i t e r a t u r e claims t h a t t h e main in ten t ion of t h e Spartakiad program i s t o ge t a s many chi ldren involved i n spor t a s possible, and t h a t the Spartakiad is not simply a scouting ground f o r f u t u r e Olympic t a l e n t . (Western c r i t i c s have frequently claimed t h e l a t t e r ) . Analysis suggests t h a t the Spartakiad s a t i s f i e s both these purposes very well. The grass roo ts competitions have been expanded each year t o include s p o r t s t h a t normally do not appear i n the Olympic calendar. A s an example, t h e D i s t r i c t of Zojsen on the southern boundary of t h e East German c a p i t a l l i s t e d winners i n 21 d i f fe ren t spor t s , including b i l l i a r d s , tennis , and cycle-ball. Speed r o l l e r skating, a non-Olympic spor t , has already been mentioned. I n addi t ion, Olympic spor t s a r e f u l l y included i n t h e winter and sumner Spartakiads and innumerable Olympic champions have s t a r t e d t h e i r ca reer a t t h e base of t h e Spartakiad program. l9

There is l i t t l e doubt t h a t the Spartakiad program provides an excel lent educational medium f o r promoting a sense of nationalism and with it a willingness f o r commitment and dedication. To t h i s end, every e f f o r t is made t o make young a t h l e t e s f e e l t h a t t h e i r achievements a r e a contr ibut ion t o socialism and t h e nation a s a whole, ra ther than j u s t an individual performance. Par t i c ipa t ion i n t h e Spartakiad f i n a l s with i ts card s tun ts , search l i g h t displays, march pasts, banners, speeches, and intense competitions, is undoubtedly a high point i n t h e l i v e s of t h e young a th le tes .

Spartakiad f i n a l s begin with a flame lit by a torch run from the Thalmann memorial a t Buchenwald. High ranking party o f f i c i a l s a r e always present a t t h e canpet i t ions and encourage even t h e youngest a t h l e t e s , assuring

t h e m t h a t their a t h l e t i c e f f o r t s (and high performances i n school and a t work) "Honour Lenin and help t o strengthen our S o c i a l i s t fatherland...^^^ D i s t r i c t delegat ions of a t h l e t e s gather a t t h e memorials t o Lenin, and t o t h e l ibera t ion of t h e GDR by Soviet troops, and t h e r e t h e following themes a r e included a s par t of t h e memorial dedication:

The teachings of Lenin-present and future-and how they r e l a t e t o t h e German Democratic Republic

Our contr ibut ions towards t h e progress of t h e German Democratic Republic and t h e improvement of s o c i a l i s t physical education

The r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e Olympic I d e a l s i n t h e German Democratic Republic and t h e mis-use of these i d e a l s by t h e West German 1mperial is ts21

Medal winners a r e honoured not only by party o f f i c i a l s but a r e t h r i l l e d t o receive t h e i r awards from nat ional sport ing heroes. The flDeutsches Sport Echof1 frequent ly c a r r i e s a s many a s e i g h t pages of Spartakiad r e s u l t s with an on-going point tabulat ion f o r d i s t r i c t team competitions. A t the end of t h e Spartakiad a f u r t h e r competition is of ten held between Spartakiad winners and t h e present East German na t iona l team. Closing ceremonies a r e heavy with more p a r t r i o t i c dedications. A speech from t h e German Gymnastic and Sport Union president Manfred Ewald, t h e lowering of t h e nat ional f l a g , and the singi2y of t h e nat ional anthem ind ica te t h e o f f i c i a l c losure of t h e Spartakiad. An oath of dedicat ion i s spoken by t h e a t h l e t e s of which t h e following is an example:

We have honoured t h e winners- Our f l a g is lowered and t h e Spartakiad flame extinguished- The experience of these days w i l l s t a y with us a s a l a s t i n g memory- We w i l l t r a i n regular ly and d i l igen t ly - We w i l l play f a i r l y and honour our opponents- We w i l l work hard i n school, i n our jobs, and i n o u r careers- This is an honourable commitment f o r us a s we ce lebra te t h e 100th anniversary of t h e b i r t h of Lenin and t h e 25th anniversary of our l i b e r a t i o n from Fasc i sm We w i l l defend and strengthen t h e German Democratic Republic- We w i l l s t r i v e t o do our best and honour our country f o r we cherish freedom and t h e f u t u r e of S o c i a l i s t ~ e r m a n ~ 2 3

Neither Tyrs o r Chaloupecky could have imagined t h e incred ib le expansion t h a t occurred s ince t h e Sokols and t h e Comnunist Party staged t h e i r f i r s t p o l i t i c a l demonstrations i n Czechoslovakia. Tyrs would have been saddened t o s e e h i s ideas used t o promote a p o l i t i c a l philosophy which stood i n opposition t o t h e Sokol. But he would have recognized and approved of t h e techniques used t o Icapturef t h e minds of t h e par t i c ipan ts . Though modern, t h e underlying pr inc ip les have not changed.

FOOTNOTES

l ~ o n der Konstituierenden Sitzung der Fest und Spartakiadekomitees Ir das VIII. Turn und Sportfest und d i e X I . Kinder and agendspartakiade :r DDR, Theorie und Praxis d e r Korperkultur, (Leipzig, WRY Vol. VIII, 851, . 567.

23ohn M. Hoberman, Sport and P o l i t i c a l Ideology, (University of exas Press, 19841, pp. 178-189, 216.

3 ~ a r o m i r Perutka, Memorial Booklet t o t h e Czechoslovakian , artakiad, 1975, (English language sec t ion) , (Olympia Publishing House, :ague, c z e c h ~ v a k i a , 19751, n.p .

%.w. Seton-Watson, A History of the Czechs and Slovaks, :Connecticut, U.S.A., 19651, p. 212.

X a d i s l a v Jandasek, tvMiroslav Tyrs, Founder of the Sokols", Slavonic and East European Review, (Vol. X. , April-June, 1931-321, pp. 572-587.

6 ~ . , p. 582.

7 ~ a d i s l a v Jandasek, "The Sokol Movement i n Czechoslovakiaw, Slavonic and East European Review, (Vol. 11, July 1932-33), p. 66.

8 ~ a r o s l a v Marek, "Czechoslovak Physical Culture Performances--The Contributions of the Czech and Slovak Nations t o t h e Treasury of World Physical Cultureq' i n We I n v i t e You t o S o c i a l i s t Czechoslovakia (Olympia Publishing House, Prague, Czechoslovakia, 19751, p. 13.

lbandasek, "The Sokol Movement i n Czechoslavakiaw , p . 65-67.

I h a n t i s e k Kratky, "The Heritage of Antiquity a s expressed f o r a l l i n the Czechoslovakian Spartakiads" Proceedings, In te rna t iona l Seminar on t h e History of Physical Education and Sport , (Wingate I n s t i t u t e , Apri l 9-11, 1968). pp. 1-4.

l%orperkultur und Sport, Kleine Enzyklopadie, Namen und Zahlen, (VEB Bibliographisches I n s t i t u t Leipzig, 1970), pp. 494-496.

1 6 ~ a n s Simon, "Die Bedingungen f u r Korperkultur und Sport i n den sechziger Jahren und d i e Entstehgung der Spartakiadbewegung i n der OOR". Theorie und Praxis der Korperkultur, (Leipzig, DDR, Vol. I, 86). pp. 12-17.

17~hysical Culture and Sport i n t h e GDR. (Panorama DDR, 197€ p. 26.

l%orperkul tur und Sport i n der DDR, (Sportverlag Berlin, 198.2 p. 405.

19~ocumentation, "The Spartakiad Movement" (Panorama WR, Augu 19701, p. 4.

zO~eutsches Sport Echo, No. 168, July 20, 1970, page l., c i t e d '. Horst Kruger, "Zur Motivation i r n Leistungssport der Kinder und Jugendlichen : der DDRw i n Motivated i m Sport , (Kongress f u r Leibeserziehung, Hofmann Verlac 19701, p. 163.

210eutsches Sport Echo, op. c i t . p. 7.

2 2 ~ r u g e r , 2. G. pp. 163-167.

231g~re ihe i tv (Journal of the SED, Bezirk Halle, Nr. 176. J u l 1970), p. 4. c i t e d i n Kruger, p. 168.