ELSEVIER Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204

DESAHNATION

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Capacity building in desalination: a case study on selected activities in the Netherlands

Maria Kenned3?', Ingrida Bremere a, Jan Schippers ~-b °International Institute for lnfrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (IHE),

PO Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands Tel. +31 (15) 215-1715; Fax +31 (15) 212-2921; email: mdk@ihe.ne

Received 1 November 2000; accepted 15 November 2000

Abstract

Desalination, along with wastewater reuse and water importation, can provide a means of increasing the available fresh water in regions of the world where water is scarce. If desalination is to be successfully implemented in developing countries to increase the supply of fresh water for municipal and induslrial purposes, capacity building is urgently needed at both the undergraduate and postgraduate level. However, courses dealing with the technical aspects of desalination technology alone are not the solution to the problem. Undergraduate and postgraduate programmes involving an integrated approach to sustainable water management are needed; and desalination, wastewater reuse and irrigation management should be part of these programmes.

Keywords: Desalination capacity building; Developing countries; Integrated approach; Sustainable water management

1. Role of desalination in areas of water scarcity

Thirty-four countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East are currently classified as "water- stressed", which means that their renewable water resources have dropped below about

*Corresponding author.

1700m3/capita. Furthermore, about 470 million people currently live in regions where severe water shortages exist, e.g., northern China, northern Africa, the Middle East, northern India, parts of Mexico and the western United States. By 2025, the number of people living in water- stressed countries is projected to increase to 3 billion - - more than a six-fold increase [1].

Desalination, along with wastewater reuse and

Presented at the session on Capacity Building at the conference on Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries, Cooperation between Mediterranean Countries of Europe and the Southern Rim of the Mediterranean, sponsored by the European Desalination Society and Ecole Nationale d'Ingenieurs de Tunis, September 11-13, 2000, derba, Tunisia.

0011-9164/01/$- See front matter ~ 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PII: sool 1-9164(01)00404-0

200 M. Kennedy et al. /Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204

water importation, can provide a means of increasing the supply of available fresh water in the regions of the world where water is scarce. However, the role that desalination plays in water supply in the future will depend particularly on the large water user groups, i.e., farmers, urban populations and industry. Agriculture will undoubtedly remain the largest water user on a global scale in light of the rapidly growing population and the concern of food security, especially given that the expansion of irrigated land is expected to increase by 5-10% by 2025 [2]. However, desalination of water for large irrigation projects may be expected to be of limited use due to prohibitively high costs of desalinated water compared to irrigation water.

In the next 30 years, the number of people living in "mega-cities" is expected to increase dramatically. These circumstances will sharply increase the competition between water supply for municipal and irrigation use. As there is willingness and affordability to pay reasonable prices for municipal drinking water in cities, it can be expected that desalination may become a realistic alternative when the cost of desalinated water is comparable with conventional, muni- cipal drinking water costs. Increasing use of desalination in municipal drinking water treatment, especially when 70% of the world population lives within 50 miles of the sea, may alleviate pressure to divert water resources away from irrigation to meet municipal needs [3].

In the future, it is expected that development of industry in the continuously growing cities around the world will require large amounts of clean water. Government incentives in "water- rich" industrialized countries are employed to urge industry to shift from traditional (conven- tional) water sources to alternative supplies, i.e., surface water and industrial wastewater recycling. Desalination is increasingly considered to be the technology of choice to accomplish the switch from conventional to non-conventional water resources [4]. In the future, industrial

development in regions of water scarcity, e.g., in parts of Asia, Africa and South America may rely on desalination.

Desalination may not be the answer to a global water crisis, but since the availability of seawater is almost unlimited, desalination could provide sustainable water supply to many muni- cipalities and industry. If desalination is to play a meaningful role in solving water scarcity problems in developing countries, education and capacity-building programmes are needed at both the undergraduate and postgraduate level. Knowledge and technical experience with desalination systems in applications such as brackish and seawater desalination and waste- water reuse exist in the developed world, but the transfer of this knowledge to developing countries is a prerequisite if this technology is to be successfully implemented. This paper dis- cusses some of the capacity-building activities in the Netherlands and how they may be imple- mented in developing countries.

2. Capacity building in education

Capacity-building activities will be discussed under the headings (1) education (undergraduate and postgraduate programmes and short courses), and (2) research (fundamental and applied) and projects. In the Netherlands, training ranging from undergraduate university programmes to specialized post-graduate and short courses are available on membrane technology and desalination. At least three universities in the Netherlands offer undergraduate programmes covering aspects of membrane technology and desalination. The Technical University in Delft offers an undergraduate programme in civil engineering with a specialized module on membrane technology. The University of Twente offers two undergraduate programmes in membrane technology as part of their process/ chemical technology programmes. One is a basic

M. Kennedy et al. /Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204 201

Table 1 Some of the fields of expertise and specialization covered by IHE

• Water MBA • Transport and road engineering • Hydrology and water resources • Hydroinformatics • Hydraulic engineering • Environmental science and technology • Sanitary engineering • Urban infrastructure management • Water and environmental resources management

course covering the fundamentals of membrane technology and the second is a more applied course on unit operations covering seawater and brackish water reverse osmosis applications. The University of Eindhoven also covers aspects of membrane technology as part of their under- graduate programme in chemical technology.

The courses offered by the International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (IHE) are different in that they are postgraduate programmes focusing on young mid-career professionals from all over the world. IHE offers a wide range of Masters (Table 1) and PhD programmes in the fields of water, the environment and physical infra- structure. The typical target group of IHE's degree programmes consists of mid-career professionals aiming at higher performance levels in engineering, science and management.

An important aspect o f all IHE's courses is the focus on "water scarcity", and this is particularly evident in the sanitary engineering programme, which is a 1-year postgraduate course covering water supply, pollution preven- tion and sector utility management. Included in the sanitary engineering programme is a 3-week specialization course on Desalination and Membrane Technology, including lectures, computer-aided design exercises and plant visits. A part o f this specialization course is also offered

Table 2 Topics covered in the desalination technology course in IHE

and membrane

• Fundamentals of desalination (membrane) technology

• Commercial membrane modules • Membrane fouling (indices) and scaling • Pre-treatment and post-treatment options • Computer-aided design of brackish and seawater

desalination plants (RO) • Cost analyses of membrane and thermal

desalination systems • Industrial water production via membrane systems • Technical visits: ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis

plant

Table 3 Some of the postgraduate short courses offered by IHE

• Water transport and distribution • Sector and utility management • Integrated water resources management • Service-oriented management of irrigation systems • Membrane technology in drinking and industrial

water treatment • Industrial resource management • Anaerobic wastewater treatment • Solid waste management

as a one-week short course to external participants.

Since its establishment in 1957, IHE has provided innovative training to more than 12,000 professionals around the world. IHE degrees are awarded to holders of recognized BSc degrees who have a minimum of 3 years professional experience and have successfully completed a 12- month MEng or 18-month MSc programme. Both degrees are recognized as postgraduate degrees by all universities in the Netherlands and in many other countries. IHE complies fully with the quality control procedures laid down by the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. The Ministry is co-signatory on all

202 M. Kennedy et al. / Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204

diplomas awarded by IHE and thus endorses the academic standard of the degrees.

IHE's short courses are aimed at upgrading or refreshing the knowledge and skills of more senior experts or providing them with exposure to applications of conventional, modem and innovative technologies. Tailor-made training is delivered at IHE or at any other location, subject to the demands of the client. A list of some of the short courses offered by IHE is given in Table 3. In addition, The European Membrane Institute (part of the University of Twente) organizes two short courses - - "Introduction to Membrane Technology" and "Water Purification by Membrane Technology" - - with a duration of 3 and 2 days each, respectively. The Technical University of Delft also offers a 2-day short course on "Membrane Filtration".

3. Capacity building in research

Fundamental and applied research in the fields of desalination and membrane technology is widespread in the Netherlands. The University of Delft is involved in research projects on

bioreactors, reuse of waste effluent, hydraulic design of membrane systems, membrane cleaning (air flushing) and development of dead-end nanofiltration systems. In a similar manner, the University of Twente has two main research lines: fundamental research on membrane development and applied research on sustainable water treatment technology (e.g., bioreactors, conversion of sewage to drinking water, colour removal, etc.).

In addition to the research carried out by universities, engineering consultants, membrane and system suppliers, research institutes (TNO, the Netherlands institute for applied research, Kiwa Research and Consultancy N.V. etc.) and water supply companies are also heavily involved in applied research in membrane technology. Numerous workshops and research seminars focusing on specific aspects of membrane technology and desalination are organized each year by research institutes in the Netherlands, e.g., IHE, Kiwa N.V. Research & Consultancy, The Netherlands Institute for Applied Sciences (TNO) and many more. Moreover, many of the research projects carried out by the Dutch

[] Asia [] Nr ica 56%

[] C + S America [] M. East [] W,C.

42%

28%

14%

0% 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99

Fig. 1. Distribution of IHE graduates per region (1992-1999).

M. Kennedy et al. / Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204 203

universities and research institutes involve a close co-operation among many partners, e.g., engineering consultants, membrane and system suppliers and end-users.

IHE conducts applied, strategic and fundamental scientific R&D in its various fields of expertise, in collaboration with its network of research institutions in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. In all of its research and development activities, IHE aims to contribute to knowledge base development and research capacity building, ultimately leading to sustain- able development within the framework of international agreements relating to water, environment and transportation, such as Agenda 21 and Habitat II. All of IHE's research projects are demand-driven, focusing on the problems that are encountered in many developing countries. IHE is also involved in many applied research projects in the field of desalination and membrane technology, e.g., development of novel fouling indices, membrane cleaning methods, modelling of colloidal fouling and novel scaling prevention methods.

Many of IHE's PhD research projects are carried in a so-called "sandwich model", which means that the first (research preparation) and last (thesis writing) part of the PhD research work is carried out in IHE Delft, while the actual research is carried out in the candidate's home country. During this period, regular contact with the IHE supervisor is maintained through visits and electronic communication media. The main advantage of this "sandwich model" is that young researchers are kept familiar with problems and solutions specific to their geographical region and the chance of "brain-drain" is reduced.

4. Capacity-building projects

IHE's project portfolio includes a variety of activities in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the

Middle East and Europe. It ranges from scientific and applied research to hosting international con- ferences, long-term capacity building operations, development of multinational knowledge net- works and short-term consultancy assignments.

As part of its core activity on institutional capacity building, IHE offers a wide range of expertise in devising and facilitating reforms within universities and research institutions. Recognizing that changes in organizational behaviour are most successfully achieved by improving the skills and attitudes of existing staff, IHE staff can provide a variety of relevant services such as training needs assessments, human resources development strategies, and staff training courses, and can develop and/or implement effective decentralization strategies. IHE also provides support in strengthening the capacity of in-house training centres within sectoral ministries or authorities. For universities wishing to set up new study and research programmes, IHE offers professional assistance in developing curricula, upgrading laboratory facilities, setting up research projects, staff development and retraining, administrative and management staff training, as well as in the marketing of academic services and courses.

IHE is actively involved in capacity-building projects with universities and research institutes abroad, e.g., Columbia, Ghana, Palestine, and Yemen (see Fig. 2). However, not all these projects involve elements of desalination and membrane technology. An example of a project that comprises a strong element of desalination is a-capacity building project initiated in 1996 in co-operation with Bir-zeit University (Palestine). The aim of the project is to establish a post- graduate programme in water engineering in Bir- zeit University. The programme in water engineering in Bir-zeit University includes lectures, tutorials and computer-aided design exercises of brackish and seawater (membrane) desalination plants (see Table 2).

204 M. Kennedy et al. / Desalination 141 (2001) 199-204

"%

[ Colombia Postgraduate Csp~clty B,JiicUng im ~ Dq&

J Envirormlsntdi I Engineering, in J COlumbia and the L VVldar Region

Strengthening the Regional Training Ceptmity of the

Re~earch "1 VVater Sector Capacity Building: Institute, Delta J Developm(~ of Sustsineble, E~rrttge, Cairo | Indlgeno~ Education, Training &

J Research Capacities in Water & ' J Sanitation

~ f r ~ ated

Gllmllm t~ Indonesian Weter end Zin-,bebwo, WaterNot z I~nistry of Public E-nvtronmentel Reglonel Cepscity Building Works Ssnlatlon Sector Programme for irdsgrated Cal~Ck'y Building V~der Management Inthe end Sustalnsl01e Southern Afrlce region Development in throu~ education,training Ghans and tl~e & research Region

I I Examples of long-term capacity building projects [ ] Other short- and long-term capacity building projects worldwide

Fig. 2. Examples of long- and short-term capacity-building projects carried out by IHE, Delft.

5. Conclusions

1. In the Netherlands, training programmes ranging from undergraduate university courses to specialized post-graduate and short courses are available on desalination and membrane technol- ogy and numerous short courses, workshops and research seminars focusing on specific aspects of membrane technology and desalination are organized each year by research institutes in the Netherlands.

2. If desalination is to be successfully imple- mented in developing countries, capacity building is urgently needed at both the under- graduate and postgraduate level. However, courses comprising technical aspects of desalination technology alone are not the solution to the problem. Undergraduate and postgraduate programmes involving an integrated approach to

sustainable water management are needed and desalination, wastewater reuse and irrigation management should be part of these programmes.

References

[1] L.R. Brown, C. Flavin and H. French, State of the World 2000, Norton, New York, 2000, pp. 41--47.

[2] P. van Hofwegen and M. Svendsen, A vision of water for food and rural development, International Conference, World Water Forum, The Hague, 2000, p. ll.

[3] P. Simon, Desalination & Water Reuse, 9(3) (1999) 33.

[4] J. Margat and D. Vallee, Blue Plan, Mediterranean vision on water, population and the environment, International Conference, World Water Forum, The Hague, 2000, p. A 1.