Journal of Economic Psychology 13 (1992) 153-166

North-Holland 153

Career decisions of dual military career couples: A multidisciplinary analysis of the U.S. Army

Hyder Lakhani and Paul A. Gade *

U.S. Army Re.wurcl~ Institute for the Behu~%mzl ad Social Sciences, Alexandria, USA

Received May IO, 198X: accepted November 4, 1991

Dual career or two earner couples have been a significant and a growing component of both the

civilian and the military labor force. Further. the number of dual military career couples has

increased as the number of women in the U.S. Armed Forces has increased. In this paper, we

hypothesized that career intentions of these couples were interdependent and a function of

variables from economics, psychology, and sociology. Results, based on the 1985 U.S. Army Dual

Career Survey, supported this hypothesis. Soldiers’ intentions to remain in the US. Army were

positively related to perceived spouse’s intention to stay in the Army, family income, family size,

career commitment, and job satisfaction. Policy implications of these results are discussed in the context of military downsizing.

1. Introduction

In the last few years, considerable progress has been made in steering neoclassical economic theory towards a multidisciplinary the- ory of behavioral economics. Simon (1986) notes that ‘economics, without psychological and sociological research, is a one bladed scis- sors’. Sen (1985: 92-93, 99) suggests that psychological variables such as commitment ‘involve, in a very real sense, counterpreferential

* The authors are a Principal Scientist and Chief, Personnel Utilization Technical Area, U.S.

Army Research Institute (AR]), Alexandria, Virginia. The views. opinions, and/or findings contained in this paper are the authors‘ and should not be construed as the official position of

ARI, or an official U.S. Department of the Army position. policy, or decision. unless so designated by other official documentation. The authors are grateful to Dr. Martha Teplitzky for comments on an earlier draft.

Corresponderzcr to: H. Lakhani, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences, PERI-RP. 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, VA, 22333, USA.

0167.4870/92/$05.00 % 1992 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

choice’ and thus, ‘it drives a wedge between personal choice and personal welfare’. Frank (1989) provides marriage as an example of the paradox created by the commitment variable. He notes that marriage requires substantial investment and its dissolution brings substantial and disproportionate penalties. The dissolution problem could, however, be solved by writing a detailed pre-nuptial marriage contract that would levy substantial penalties on whichever of the partners attempted to leave. In modern western societies, however, few such contracts are written because socio-psychological values such as commitment, trust, and love swamp the economic values.

We hypothesized that career decision-making by dual U.S. Army career couples, i.e., couples where both partners are soldiers, would be a joint rather than an individual decision-making process. We further hypothesized that the career decisions of dual U.S. Army career soldiers were likely to be based largely on psychosocial vari- ables such as family commitment and family welfare rather than on individual economic variables affecting the welfare of the decision- maker. In addition to economic wellbeing, family welfare, as used in this paper, refers to the sum total of family happiness derived from commitment, job satisfaction, life styles, values, beliefs, and culture. As such, it is analogous to the concept of a multiple-utility function (Etzioni 1986). Hence, even if the family economic welfare associated with career change of an individual were lower, the aggregate family welfare might be high enough to accept the change.

2. Background and literature review

In the 1980s the U.S. Army dual career couples comprised approxi- mately six percent of the total active force of about 775,000. About 8% of the married officers and 12% of the married enlisted soldiers were in dual career marriages. The Army, which is 11% female, has 86,000 women in total. Women soldiers have been more likely to have a soldier as a marital partner than are men soldiers (Moskos 1990). For example, Teplitzky et al. (1988) report that 63% of married enlisted women and 68% of married women officers were in dual Army career marriages.

Although the U.S. Army’s joint domicile policy and program of co-locating husbands and wives who are serving on active duty may

H. Lakhuni, P.A. Gade / Career decisions 155

have contributed to the growth of dual Army career couples, this program is probably more crucial to couple retention than to couple accession or formation. Marsh (1990) noted that, starting with the fiscal year 1990, the U.S. Army can expect to lose an annual average of more than 5,000 noncommissioned officers with from 7 to 18 years of service. The current official U.S. target is to reduce the total Army strength by 25% by 1995. This downsizing may differentially affect dual Army career couples if, as we hypothesize, couples make joint career decisions. If this is so, the Army may well lose both service members if one of the soldiers is forced out or induced to leave by proposed incentive programs. Further, the loss of dual career couples will adversely impact women soldiers since the vast majority of mar- ried women soldiers are in dual Army career marriages.

The available scientific literature on dual military career couples is mostly restricted to variables of a single discipline, namely, that of social psychology (Teplitzky et al. 1988). The literature in economics concentrates only on the economic variables such as earnings of individual soldiers. For example, Warner and Goldberg (1984) related retention to the Annualized Cost of Leaving (ACOL) the U.S. Navy. A limitation of this model is that it considers only the earnings of an individual soldier instead of the more appropriate family earnings. Hogan (1990) included earnings of both the members of the family but excluded socio-psychological variables. Consequently, policy decision- makers are limited in their options for modifying existing policies or adopting new policies that can increase retention. Our research re- ported here attempted to overcome this limitation by incorporating family earnings and other socio-psychological variables in our analy- ses.

3. Method

The retention intention of dual Army career couples implies career commitment - a psychological variable. Typically, psychologists con- sider intention to be an intervening variable between the antecedent conditions for behavioral action and the actual behavior. As an intervening variable, intention is usually highly correlated with the respective behavioral outcome. For example, Motowidlo and Lawton (1984) correlated the retention intentions and actual retention behav-

ior of married as well as single enlisted soldiers in the U.S. Army. The Beta coefficients of retention behavior on retention intention for their two Army samples of enlisted soldiers were 0.59 and 0.61. Johnston (1988) has shown similar results for U.S. Army junior officers. There- fore, career intention appears to be a good proxy variable for the actual retention behavior of officers and enlisted soldiers. An advan- tage of using retention intention (ex ante) instead of actual retention behavior (ex post) data from a policy perspective is that the Army management may be able to intervene to change the intentions of those who might be negative toward or indecisive about an Army career.

We expected several psychological, sociological, and economic vari- ables to influence the career intentions of dual U.S. Army career soldiers. More specifically, we hypothesized that the career intentions of a soldier primarily would be a function of the soldier’s perceived career intention of his/her spouse. The remaining psychological vari- ables consisted of job satisfaction and job tenure. Increases in either of these variables tends to enhance organizational commitment which, in turn, tends to enhance retention intention.

The sociological variables were family happiness and family size. Wilensky’s (1960) theory of spillover between work life and family life provided the theoretical rationale for including the family happiness variable.

The three economic variables were: family earnings, payments for home mortgages or rents, and car loan payments.

The hypothesized relationships of the explanatory variables re- ferred to above with the dependent variable of Army soldier career intention were as follows:

(a> Perception of spouse’s career intention. Based on the theory of interdependent utility functions, we expected to find that when the perceived retention intentions of one’s spouse are high, one’s own retention intention will be high as well. The interdependence hypothe- sis is based on the growth of human capital due to a commonality of interests (Benham 19741. For example, physicians are more likely to marry physicians, perhaps to expand their knowledge for mutual benefit. The U.S. Army’s joint domicile program of co-location helps to foster this interdependent relationship. The joint domicile program of the Army does not help co-locate all dual career couples. Segal

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gadr / Career deci.sions 157

(1986) noted that 38% of Army dual-service couples were not ap- proved for joint domicile in 1984.

(b) Family earnings. An increase in family earnings was expected to increase the probability of making the Army a career for both hus- band and wife due to an increase in family economic welfare brought about by the combined military compensation of the dual career couple (Lakhani 1988). Based on Hogan’s work on the family ACOL model (Hogan 19901, we also hypothesized that an increase in either a soldier’s own earnings/ income or a spouse’s earnings/ income would tend to increase retention probability.

(c) Mortgage or rent payments. An increase in mortgage or rent payment was expected to reduce the probability of staying in the Army since these payments indicated an increased cost of living. The rents or mortgages were likely to be higher in remote U.S. Army locations where the supply of reasonably-priced housing is limited because of inadequate demand. Furthermore, soldiers owning houses were not likely to accumulate equity in their houses because ‘ . . . half of all military members move every two years, and many move more fre- quently . . . ’ (Vernez and Zellman 1987). Hence, the increase in equity was likely to be more than offset by the closing costs associated with any purchases and sales of houses due to these relocations.

(d) Car payments. We hypothesized that an increase in car pay- ments would tend to be associated with an increased probability of retaining dual career soldiers since these payments, presumably, re- flect an increase in economic well-being associated with the U.S. Army service. Most of the cars financed by these soldiers are likely to be relatively new cars. This hypothesis is based on the institutional framework of car financing in the United States where cars that are older than seven years are rarely financed. For example, the National Automobile Dealers Association (1988) reference book used by car financing agencies does not list values of cars older than seven years.

(e) Number of children. Having a greater number of children in the family was expected to induce a soldier to have a greater propensity for staying in the Army because of the family-related subsidized programs provided by the U.S. Army (Smith 1988). These programs

include day care centers, library services, Department of Defense Dependents’ Schools in Europe and Section 6 schools in the Conti- nental United States, quality health care programs, child development services, exceptional family member assistance program, and Post Exchanges and commissaries.

( f > Years of serrice. An increase in the number of years of service completed by a soldier was hypothesized to be associated with in- creased retention intentions. Smith (1988) noted that increased tenure, as reflected in the years of service, increased organizational commit- ment, which, in turn, increased career intentions in mid-career sol- diers. Increased years of service also results in the ‘golden handcuffs’ of accrued but not yet vested retirement benefits.

( g > Family happiness. Based on Wilensky’s (19601 theory of spillover of work life and family life, increased family happiness was hypothe- sized to be associated with an increased probability of staying in the military service. This model has received empirical support in civilian (Lieu et al. 1990) and military research (Lakhani 1989).

(h) Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction, as an indicator of organiza- tional commitment, was expected to be correlated with an increased likelihood of staying in the Army. This hypothesis has been empiri- cally supported by the work of Motowidlo and Lawton (1984) and Smith (1988) for enlisted soldiers.

4. Data

To help understand the career decision-making processes of dual career couples better, the U.S. Army Research Institute conducted a survey of dual career officers and enlisted personnel in 1985. Five hundred and ninety-five dual Army career soldiers were sampled from an administrative list of all dual Army career couples assigned to each of nine major Army installations in the United States. The sample was limited to those couples where both husband and wife were assigned to the same post and unmarried cohibiters were excluded. Most of the installations where the respondents were located were in remote places where the supply of housing was relatively limited. A survey

H. Lukhuni, P.A. Gudr / Career decisions 15’)

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of key variables for the U.S. Army

Variable Mean Min. Max. SD

Retention intention of

respondent

Perceived spouse‘s

career intention

Family income ($/month)

Own income

Spouse’s income

Mortgage or rent ($/month)

Car payment(s) ($/month) Number of children

Years of service

Family happiness

Job satisfaction

N = X5; Male = 47; Female = 38.

0.5 1

0.6 2,584

1,31Y

1,217

461 259

0.6 8.5

3

0.6

0 0

1

6,763

3,404

3,404

2,332

767

3

2’)

5

0.5

0.5

1,ll~S

586 569

442

lhl

0.9 5.2

1

0.5

Source: U.S. Army Research Institute, Dual Army Couple Survey (10X5).

instrument comprising over 150 questions was administered personally by an interviewer to each soldier in each dual Army career marriage in the sample.

Economic data were only available for a smaller sample of 89 respondents. They included 68 enlisted soldiers, 13 active Army offi- cers, and 8 officers in the Reserve Component. The deletion of three respondents who had missing values and the deletion of one out of range respondent, who claimed to have had 67 years of active military service, reduced the sample size from 89 to 85. Descriptive statistics, reported in table 1, reveal that the values of the variables are realistic. Comparison of the smaller sample of 85 with the larger sample of 595 in the Teplitzky et al. (1988) study confirmed that the two samples were comparable. For example, the average years of service for male soldiers in the larger sample at 9.06 is comparable with 8.5 in our smaller sample. Approximately two-thirds of the sample were soldiers whose spouses were also included in the sample. The development of some of the complex variables is discussed below.

The dependent variable, career intention of the respondent, was developed from the soldier’s response to the question: ‘What are your career intentions at the present time ?’ Response alternatives varied from: ‘I will stay in the Army until retirement’ to ‘I will definitely

leave before the end of present enlistment/obligation’ along a seven- point scale. The responses to the questions were given independently by each person in each of the dual Army career couple. We defined career-oriented soldiers as those who responded: ‘I will stay in the Army until retirement’ or ‘I will stay after completion of my current enlistment/ obligation, but am undecided about staying until retire- ment.’ Soldiers who responded with one of the five other alternatives were considered to be non career-oriented. Career-oriented soldiers were scored as 1 and non career-oriented soldiers scored as 0 on the dummy variable constructed for career-orientation. Since the depend- ent variable was binary, a non-linear probit model was used for the analyses rather than an ordinary least squares regression to avoid biased and inconsistent estimates (Amemiya 198 1).

The psychological predictor of perceived spouse’s career intention was developed from the soldier’s response to the question: ‘What are your spouse’s career intentions at the present time?‘. The seven rcsponsc alternatives varied from ‘(s)he will stay in the Army until retirement’ to ‘(s)he will definitely leave before the end of present enlistment obligation’. Soldiers who rcspondcd: ‘(s)he will stay in the Army until retirement’, or ‘(s)he will stay after completion of enlist- ment/ obligation, but (was) undecided about staying until retirement’ were assumed to have pcrceivcd that their spouses were carecr-ori- ented. Those who answered otherwise were considered to perceive their spouses as non career-oriented.

The two career commitment variables were job tenure and job satisfaction. The former was simply the number of years of service completed by the respondent. The affective job satisfaction variable was measured by a job satisfaction scale developed by Teplitzky et al. (1988). This job satisfaction index was based on responses to five questions dealing with a soldier’s feelings related to work. The five questions asked if the soldier was: (i) successful in her/his work, (ii) if s/he thought the work s/he was doing was important, (iii) if the work was satisfying, (iv) if s/he thought s/he was doing her/his best, and (v) if the work was interesting or boring. Responses were combined to obtain the following five-point increasing scale of job satisfaction: very dissatisfied = I, dissatisfied = 2, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3, satisfied = 4 and very satisfied = 5. The two upper values of the consolidated scale, scores of 4 and 5, were re-coded by us as a dummy variable equal to 1; the two lower values of the scale were re-coded 0.

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gadr / Career decisiom 161

Soldiers with the middle value of 3 were considered to be indifferent with respect to job satisfaction and were excluded from the analysis.

The two sociological variables were family size and family happi- ness. The family size variable was denoted simply by the number of children of the respondent. The family happiness variable was meas- ured by using the family happiness scale developed by Teplitzky et al. (1988). The 10 items in this scale asked, for example, about the extent to which the respondent’s family life was: happy, enjoyable, worried, important, satisfying, and successful. The responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale and varied from very sad = 1, to very happy = 5. Responses to the IO-item scale were combined on a five-point scale (Teplitzky et al. 1988).

The three economic variables were family earnings, mortgage or rent payments, and car payments. The family earnings variable in- cluded the sum of gross (prior to taxes and other deductions) monthly pay of both members of the couple. These self-reported data for income of individual soldiers were verified for accuracy by comparing them with the information in the U.S. Army pay tables. These tables provided gross pay, including allowances, given the pay grades and years of service. The mortgage or rent payment variable was the monthly mortgage payment (which includes PIT1 i.e., principal, inter- est, real estate taxes, and home insurance) for home owners and gross monthly rents for the tenants. The car payments variable was the monthly payment for one or more cars owned by the couple. Although the car payments variable excluded soldiers who did not own cars or those who paid cash for them, we did not consider this to be a serious problem because no soldiers were eliminated from the analysis for not having reported a monthly car payment.

5. Results and discussion

The results of the probit model estimates, shown in table 2, reveal that all of the coefficients have the hypothesized relationships with the intentions to stay in the U.S. Army. Consistent with our hypothe- sized interdependency of retention intentions in dual U.S. Army career couples, the standardized probit coefficient of 0.916 shown in table 2, demonstrates that perceived spouse’s retention intention was the most important predictor of a soldier’s own retention intention.

Table 2

Probit results for probability of retention intentions of dual U.S. Army career soldiers. ‘I

Predictor variable Standardized

regression

coefficient

Standard

error

Perceived spouse’s career intention

Family earnings (th.dollars/month)

Mortgage/rent payment (dollars/month)

Car payments (dollars/month)

Number of children

Years of service

Satisfied with job

Family happiness

Intercept

N = X5

0.916 ” 0.448 h

0.536 I’

0.401 h

0.755 ”

0.232 h

0.7X8 ”

0.144 ”

0.386 ”

0.15 0.16

0.0 I 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.24

0.17

0.54

“ Dependent variable equals unity if the respondent intends to stay in the Army

” p < 0.01,

The standardized probit coefficient for the psychosocial variable, job satisfaction, was positive and significant (0.788). U.S. Army sol- diers who were satisfied with their jobs had a higher probability of making the U.S. Army a career. The third most important variable was family size measured by the number of children (0.755). The fourth and the fifth contributors to the increase in the probability of career retention intentions were the economic variables of family earnings (0.448) and car payments (0.401). These are followed by the psychosocial variables, career commitment, denoted by the years of service (0.232), and family happiness (0.144). Since all of these vari- ables contribute to the probability of staying in the U.S. Army, the U.S. Army management may find it useful to attempt to manipulate any or all of them to influence career intentions.

The only negative predictor of the probability of staying was the mortgage or rent payments variable - increased rent or mortgage payments reduced the probability of retention ( - 0.536). This result suggests that the U.S. Department of Defense policy of paying a variable housing allowance dependent on the local cost of living probably should be continued and perhaps increased if one wishes to encourage Army retention. Even in the face of downsizing, the mili- tary services may need to increase housing allowances to encourage the retention of soldiers at strategic locations.

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gudr / C‘arerr decisions 163

Table 3

Probit results for the effects of own income, spouse’s income and family income on retention

probability.

Predictor variable

Intercept

Own income

Spouse’s income

Family income

Standardized coefficients

Eq. (1) Eq. (2)

- 1.293 - 1.786

2.385 “ _

- 0.673 - 1.45 _ 2.249 <’

Note: Dependent variable equals unity if respondent intends to stay.

a p < 0.01.

To determine the relative effects of one’s own income, spouse’s income, and family income on retention intentions, we estimated two separate probit equations. The standardized probit coefficients for these equations are reported in table 3. The results for eq. (1) show that the coefficient for one’s own income was positive and significant (p < 0.01). Spouse’s income is negative but not significant. Therefore, the importance of spouse’s income is diluted. Such a dilution is further confirmed in the results reported in eq. (2) where we com- pared the effect of spouse’s income and family income. The results reveal that the standardized coefficient for spouse’s income in this equation is also negative and nonsignificant. In sharp contrast to this, the standardized coefficient for family income is positive and signifi- cant (p < 0.01). However, a nearly perfect correlation of 0.97 between own income and family income suggests that own income is the prime economic variable in determining retention intention. It may also be that the incomes of the two service members in dual U.S. Army career couples are highly correlated because they tend to be both of similar rank and therefore have similar pay.

The finding that spouse income does not contribute to soldier retention intentions is at odds with those of Hogan (1990: 140) who found that spouse income was positively related to soldier retention intentions and three times more important than soldier’s own income in determining retention intentions. This difference may be due to the fact that Hogan (1990) used imputed values of spouse income based on spouse demographic characteristics, estimated opportunity cost of spouse’s time, and estimated value of frequent moves; whereas we used actual spouse income in our equations. Sample differences

between our two studies are also likely to be responsible, at least in part, for the differences between our results. Our sample was taken from dual U.S. Army career couples only; Hogan’s analyses were based on a sample of all military spouses, to include those not working and those working in civilian jobs.

6. Conclusions

The number of dual earner families has been increasing at an accelerating rate in both the U.S. civilian and military sectors. Sixty percent of all married women soldiers in the U.S. Army were married to other U.S. Army soldiers. Analyses of the 1985 U.S. Army Dual Career Survey revealed that career intentions of dual Army career couples were jointly determined as a function of economic, psycholog- ical, and sociological variables. Perhaps the most important applica- tion of our findings is in the current downsizing of military services that seems to be taking place around the world and especially in the United States. Below we discuss briefly what we think our results imply for the downsizing of the U.S. Army. Although our data are drawn only from dual U.S. Army career couples, we believe that the implications for downsizing we make from those data have much wider application.

The most important predictor of retention intentions, perception of spouse’s career intention, indicates that the Army is likely to retain or lose both soldiers in dual Army career marriages depending on the effects of its policies and programs on either partner. For example, the planned downsizing of the Army could adversely affect the careers of women soldiers who, even though not specifically targeted for release, would be likely to leave the Army if their husbands left the Army. Such an inadvertent loss of career oriented women from the Army is likely to receive very negative attention from the media and may further aggravate the problems associated with such organiza- tional downsizing.

The second important predictor, job satisfaction, has implications for Army downsizing as well. The Army must attend to the work environment that is created for the survivors of the downsizing effort. If downsizing survivors experience greater work loads and work de- mands because of fewer people to accomplish the same amount of

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gade / Career decisions 165

work, the Army is likely to loose the very soldiers it wants and needs to keep. It is important, therefore, for the Army to restructure the work environment with the idea of improving or at least maintaining the job satisfaction levels of downsizing survivors.

The third most important predictor we found, family size, indicates that the Army is most likely to retain those soldiers who have the largest families. The implications for downsizing are that family issues may actually increase rather than decrease in importance for those who remain in the Army.

The fourth most significant predictor, mortgage or rent payments, indicates that the U.S. Army needs to continue to monitor and adjust basic allowances for quarters in locations where these housing costs are unduly high. If, as a result of downsizing, the Army retains older, more high ranking soldiers with larger families, the Army will need to closely monitor housing allowances to make sure they accurately reflect local costs.

Military wage, our next most important predictor, can play an important role in downsizing as well. For example, in a downsizing environment, wage increases may be a cost effective way to help retain those the U.S. Army wants to retain who might otherwise voluntarily leave. Further, such wage increases might also improve job satisfaction as well.

Like most of the other predictors of retention intentions, the years of service predictor has implication for the impending Army downsiz- ing as well. This result shows older higher ranking soldiers are likely to be retained if downsizing is accomplished on a strictly volunteer basis. Further, if downsizing is involuntary, it may be that those with more service time will need more help in making the transition to civilian life.

At the very least the results we have presented here have relevance to the changes in force structures that are likely to be experienced by many military services over the course of the next several years. Our results clearly indicate some of the most important social-psychologi- cal and economic variables that will need to be addressed to manage such structural changes effectively.

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