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TH
E C
ASE
FO
R C
HR
IST
'S
RE
SU
RR
EC
TIO
N
Gar
y R.
Hab
erm
as
11
TH
E C
ASE
FO
R T
IlE
RES
URR
ECTI
ON
OF
JESU
S C
HR
IST
IS C
ERTA
INLY
MU
LTIF
ACE
TED
.
Few
New
Tes
tam
ent t
opic
s in
volv
e m
ore
deta
ils o
r ar
e tr
eate
d so
ser
i-ou
sly
by re
cent
crit
ical
sch
olar
s. D
ue to
the
hun
dred
s of
stud
ies
on th
is
topi
c, th
is c
hapt
er m
ust f
requ
ently
rely
on
a su
mm
ariz
ed fo
rmat
that
sim
-pl
y lis
ts so
me
of th
e m
any
conc
lusi
ons
that
hav
e em
erge
d in
con
tem
po-
ralY
res
earc
h.
Thro
ugho
ut, w
e w
ill c
ite c
hief
ly th
ose
data
to w
hich
the
vast
maj
ority
of
rec
ent
rese
arch
ers
agre
e, r
egar
dles
s of
thei
r pr
ior
theo
logi
cal
posi
-tio
ns.
Even
mor
e cr
ucia
l is
that
the
se c
ritic
al s
chol
ars
agre
e w
ith t
hese
da
ta p
reci
sely
bec
ause
they
are
wel
l sup
port
ed o
n fa
ctua
l gro
unds
, oft
en
for
mul
tiple
rea
sons
. I
have
arg
ued
the
deta
ils f
or m
y co
nclu
sion
s el
se-
whe
re, a
s ha
ve o
ther
s. S
o th
e so
urce
s ci
ted
in th
e no
tes
will
pro
vide
ad-
ditio
nal b
ackg
roun
d in
form
atio
n, a
rgum
enta
tion,
as
wel
l as
othe
r det
ails
fo
r tho
se w
ho w
ish
to c
onsu
lt th
em. T
he a
utho
r is
empl
oyin
g th
e re
sults
of
his
rec
ent
stud
y of
fou
rtee
n hu
ndre
d so
urce
s on
thi
s su
bjec
t, pu
b-lis
hed
sinc
e 19
75 i
n G
erm
an, F
renc
h an
d En
glis
h.
In a
dditi
on t
o fu
rnis
hing
som
e of
thes
e su
mm
ariz
ed c
oncl
usio
ns,
I w
ill c
once
ntra
te in
this
chap
ter o
n ju
st tw
o m
ajor
topi
cs th
at a
re s
eldo
m
disc
usse
d in
det
ail.
Bot
h ar
e cr
ucia
l com
pone
nts
in a
his
toric
al c
ase
for
the
resu
rrec
tion
of Je
sus
Chris
t. Fi
rst,
for
a va
riety
of r
easo
ns, i
t is
the
virtu
ally
una
nim
ous
conc
lusi
on
of c
onte
mpo
ralY
sch
olar
s th
at Je
sus'
early
follo
wer
s at
leas
t tho
ught
that
Tbe
Cas
e fo
r C
bris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
181
they
had
see
n ap
pear
ance
s of
the
rise
n Je
sus
afte
r hi
s de
ath.
But
how
do
we
mov
e fr
om o
ur c
erta
inty
that
the
early
dis
cipl
es b
elie
ved
that
they
ha
d se
en a
ppea
ranc
es o
f Je
sus
to t
heir
real
ly s
eein
g Je
sus?
In
othe
r w
ords
, how
do
we
mov
e fr
om t
heir
conv
ictio
ns to
a h
isto
rical
res
urre
c-tio
n? I
t is
my
cont
entio
n th
at th
is is
the
sin
gle
mos
t cru
cial
asp
ect o
f an
argu
men
t for
the
hist
oric
al r
esur
rect
ion
appe
aran
ces
of Je
sus.
Se
cond
, re
ligio
us a
nd p
oliti
cal
trans
form
atio
ns a
re c
omm
on i
n ou
r w
orld
dur
ing
rece
nt d
ecad
es.
Whe
ther
one
stu
dies
the
hist
OlY
of c
om-
mun
ism
, Mus
lim s
uici
de s
trate
gies
, mis
sion
alY
act
ivity
or p
artic
ular
new
s ev
ents
suc
h as
Jon
esto
wn,
Dav
id K
ores
h or
the
Hea
ven'
s G
ate
UFO
gr
oup,
it is
inc
reas
ingl
y ob
viou
s th
at m
any
indi
vidu
als,
both
Chr
istia
ns
and
non-
Chr
istia
ns,
are
will
ing
to g
ive
thei
r liv
es f
or w
hat t
hey
belie
ve.
So w
hat m
akes
the
tran
sfor
mat
ions
of J
esus
' dis
cipl
es, e
ven
to th
e po
int
of b
eing
will
ing
to d
ie fo
r th
eir f
aith
, so
uni
que?
How
can
this
aspe
ct o
f ea
rly C
hris
tiani
ty b
e su
ch a
n im
port
ant
com
pone
nt o
f m
ost
argu
men
ts
for
the
resu
rrec
tion,
if it
is n
owhe
re n
ear u
niqu
e?
TH
E D
ISC
IPL
ES'
EX
PER
IEN
CE
S O
F T
HE
RIS
EN
JES
US
In c
onte
mpo
ralY
stu
dies
of
the
hist
oric
al J
esus
, so
me
item
s ar
e su
p-po
rted
by
a br
oad
scho
larly
con
sens
us. T
hat J
esus
' pro
clam
atio
n of
the
king
dom
of G
od w
as h
is c
entr
al m
essa
ge a
nd th
at Je
sus
died
by
cruc
i-fix
ion
are
two
of th
e m
ost r
eadi
ly a
gree
d-up
on e
vent
s in
Jesu
s' ·li
fe.
Ran
king
with
thes
e tw
o is
the
subs
tant
ially
una
nim
ous
verd
ict o
f con
-te
mpo
ralY
crit
ical
sch
olar
s th
at Je
sus'
early
disC
iple
s at
leas
t tho
ught
that
th
ey h
ad s
een
the
rise
n Je
sus.
Pro
min
ent
hist
oria
n E.
P S
ande
rs,
who
ca
lls h
imse
lf a
liber
al,l
sign
ifies
thi
s ag
reem
ent.
He
decl
ares
tha
t th
e "e
qual
ly s
ecur
e fa
cts"
inc
lude
tha
t Jes
us'
disc
iple
s "s
aw h
im (
in w
hat
sens
e is
not
certa
in)
afte
r hi
s de
ath.
. .
. T
here
afte
r hi
s fo
llow
ers
saw
hi
m."z
Su
ppor
tfor
the
disc
iple
s' e
xper
ienc
es.
It is
certa
inly
not
ewor
thy
that
the
vast
maj
ority
of s
chol
ars,
rep
rese
ntin
g m
any
view
poin
ts, i
n sp
ite
of e
xten
sive
dis
agre
emen
ts in
oth
er a
reas
, re
cogn
izes
tha
t the
dis
cipl
es
1 ,E. P
. San
ders
, Jes
us a
ndJu
dais
m (P
hila
delp
hia:
For
tress
, 19
85),
p. 3
24.
T P.
Sand
ers,
The
His
tori
cal F
igur
e o)
Jesu
s (Lo
ndon
: Pe
ngui
n, 1
993)
, pp.
11,
13.
182
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
actu
ally
had
rea
l ex
peri
ence
s of
som
e so
rt. I
t see
ms
equa
lly c
lear
tha
t th
is r
ecog
nitio
n is
due
to th
e pr
esen
ce o
f a r
athe
r ini
pres
sive
num
ber
of
stro
ng r
easo
ns f
or h
oldi
ng th
is c
oncl
usio
n. E
ven
a br
ief l
istin
g of
thes
e re
ason
s m
ay b
e in
stru
ctiv
e.
1. I
n co
ntem
porm
y cr
itica
l stu
dies
, th
e ap
ostle
Pau
l is
alm
ost a
lway
s th
ough
t to
be
the
best
witn
ess
amon
g th
e N
ew T
esta
men
t w
riter
s. A
fo
rmer
opp
onen
t of t
his
mes
sage
, Pa
ul c
lear
ly p
oint
s ou
t tha
t the
ris
en
Jesu
s ap
pear
ed p
erso
nally
to h
im. P
aul m
akes
this
cla
im m
ore
than
onc
e (1
Cor
9:1
; 15
:8;
Gal
1:1
6).
We
also
hav
e co
rrob
orat
ion
of P
aul's
tes
ti-m
ony
from
ano
ther
New
Tes
tam
ent a
utho
r, w
ho r
etel
ls t
he s
tory
thre
e tim
es (
Act
s 9:
1-8;
22:
3-11
; 26
:9-1
8).
The
data
beh
ind
the
fact
of P
aul's
con
vers
ion
from
bei
ng a
n en
emy
of th
e ch
urch
are
rec
ogni
zed
by a
ll. B
ut th
ere
need
s to
be
a re
ason
for
this
bril
liant
you
ng s
chol
ar b
eing
con
vinc
ed a
gain
st h
is f
orm
er b
elie
fs
and
pers
ecut
ion
of be
lieve
rs, a
s he
exp
lain
s (1
Cor
15:
9; G
al 1
:13-
14; P
hil
3:4-
7).
Paul
's re
ason
is v
ery
clea
r: he
was
per
suad
ed th
at h
e ha
d se
en
the
risen
Lor
d. T
here
fore
Pau
l was
obv
ious
ly a
n ey
ewitn
ess
to h
is o
wn
expe
rien
ce. T
he s
chol
arly
con
sens
us h
ere
is at
test
ed b
y M
icha
el M
artin
, a
philo
soph
ical
ath
eist
who
adm
its:
"How
ever
, we
have
onl
y on
e co
n-te
mpo
rary
eye
witn
ess
acco
unt
of a
pos
tres
urre
ctio
n ap
pear
ance
of
Jesu
s, n
amel
y Pa
ul's.
,,3
. 2.
Bey
ond
Paul
's ow
n ex
peri
ence
, thi
s ap
ostle
pre
sent
s pl
enty
of a
d-di
tiona
l evi
denc
e fo
r th
e cl
aim
that
Jesu
s ha
d ap
pear
ed to
his
early
fol-
low
ers.
Ess
entia
lly a
ll cr
itica
l sch
olar
s to
day
agre
e th
at i
n 1
Cor
inth
ians
15
:3-8
, Pau
l rec
ords
an
anci
ent o
ral t
radi
tion(
s) th
at s
umm
ariz
es th
e co
n-te
nt o
f the
Chr
istia
n go
spel
. Jes
us th
e C
hris
t die
d fo
r hum
an si
n, w
as b
ur-
ied
and
rais
ed f
rom
the
dea
d, a
fterw
ards
app
eari
ng to
bot
h in
divi
dual
s as
wel
l as
grou
ps o
f witn
esse
s. W
hile
Pau
l pen
ned
the
wor
ds, h
e is
clea
r th
at th
is m
ater
ial w
as n
ot h
is o
wn
but t
hat h
e ha
d pa
ssed
on
to h
is li
s-te
ners
yea
rs b
efor
e (1
Cor
15:
1-2)
wha
t he
had
rece
ived
from
oth
ers,
as
the
very
hea
rt o
f his
mes
sage
(1 C
or 1
5:3)
. If h
e w
ere
writ
ing
toda
y, h
e m
ight
hav
e fo
otno
ted
his
sour
ce!
Thus
thi
s te
stim
ony
is ac
tual
ly y
ears
ea
rlier
tha
n th
e bo
ok o
f 1
Cor
inth
ians
. R
egin
ald
Fulle
r in
dica
tes
the
3 Mic
hael
Mar
tin,
TIle
Case
Aga
il1St
Cbr
istia
ni()I
(Phi
lade
lphi
a: T
empl
e U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss),
p. 8
1.
Tbe
Cas
e fo
r C
bris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
183
scho
larly
agr
eem
ent h
ere:
"It
is al
mos
t uni
vers
ally
agr
eed
toda
y th
at P
aul
is he
re c
iting
trad
ition
.,,4
So P
aul p
rovi
des
a st
raig
htfO
Iwar
d ex
plan
atio
n th
at h
e de
liver
ed to
his
audi
ence
wha
t he
had
first
rece
ived
from
oth
ers
(1 C
or 1
5:3)
, whi
ch a
re
the
equi
vale
nt te
rms
for
pass
ing
rabb
inic
tra
ditio
n to
oth
ers
(d.
1 C
or
11:2
3). B
esid
es th
is c
lear
dec
lara
tion
of h
is a
ctio
ns, t
here
are
man
y ot
her
indi
catio
ns t
hat
this
is
exac
tly w
hat
happ
ened
. Th
e se
nten
ce s
truct
ure,
di
ctio
n, v
erba
l par
alle
lism
, the
thre
efol
d se
quen
ce o
f "an
d th
at,"
as w
ell
as t
he p
rese
nce
of s
ever
al n
on-P
aulin
e w
ords
, th
e pr
oper
nam
es o
f C
epha
s (d
. Lk
24:
34)
and
Jam
es,
and
indi
catio
ns t
hat
ther
e m
ay h
ave
been
an
Ara
mai
c or
igin
al a
ll po
int
clea
rly t
o th
is t
radi
tion
bein
g pr
e-Pa
ulin
e. C
ritic
al s
chol
ars
agre
e th
at P
aul r
ecei
ved
it fr
om o
ther
s.s
The
mos
t pop
ular
vie
w a
mon
g sc
hola
rs is
tha
t Pau
l firs
t re
ceiv
ed th
is
velY
ear
ly m
ater
ial
whe
n he
vis
ited
Jeru
sale
m ju
st th
ree
year
s af
ter
his
conv
ersi
on. H
e vi
site
d Pe
ter a
nd Ja
mes
, the
bro
ther
ofj
esus
(Gal
1:1
8-19
), bo
th o
f who
m a
re li
sted
as
havi
ng s
een
the
risen
Jesu
s (1
Cor
15:
5, 7
). St
rong
er e
vide
nce
to s
uppo
rt th
is c
oncl
usio
n co
mes
fro
m P
aul's
use
of
the
verb
his
tore
sai
in G
alat
ians
1: 1
8, w
hich
is u
sual
ly n
ot v
elY h
elp-
fully
tra
nsla
ted
into
Eng
lish.
The
Gre
ek te
rm in
dica
tes
that
Pau
l vis
ited
Pete
r for
the
purp
ose
of in
vest
igat
ing
a pa
rticu
lar s
ubje
ct. T
he im
med
iate
co
ntex
t rev
eals
that
sub
ject
: Pa
ul's
topi
c fo
r di
scus
sion
was
asc
erta
inin
g th
e na
ture
of t
he g
ospe
l mes
sage
(G
al 1
:11-
2:10
). A
nd Je
sus'
resu
rrec
-tio
n w
as t
he f
ocus
of
the
gosp
el m
essa
ge (
1 C
or 1
5:3-
4; G
al 1
:11,
16)
. W
ithou
t it,
faith
is v
ain
(1 C
or 1
5:14
, 17
). Cr
itica
l sch
olar
s usu
ally
con
cede
that
this
pre
-Pau
line
tradi
tion(
s) o
rig-
inat
ed a
t an
exce
ptio
nally
ear
ly d
ate.
For
Ulri
ch W
ilcke
ns,
this
con
tent
"i
ndub
itabl
y go
es b
ack
to th
e ol
dest
pha
se o
f all
in th
e hi
stor
y of
prim
-iti
ve C
hrist
iani
ty.,,
6 W
alte
r Kas
per e
ven
thin
ks th
at th
is "
anci
ent t
ext"
was
"Reg
inal
d Fu
ller,
T7Je
Form
atio
n of
tbe R
esur
rect
ion
Nar
rativ
es (N
ew Y
ork:
Mac
mill
an, 1
980)
, p.
10.
5 0f
the
doze
ns o
f sc
hola
rly p
ublic
atio
ns h
ere,
the
fol
low
ing
are
amon
g th
e m
ore
help
ful
sour
ces:
Ful
ler,
T7Je
Form
atio
n of
tbe
Resu
rrec
tion
Nar
rativ
es,
pp.
10-1
1; P
inch
as L
apid
e, T
Ile
Resu
rrec
tion
of je
sus:
A j
ewis
b Pe
rspe
ctiv
e (M
inne
apol
is:
Aug
sber
g, 1
983)
, pp
. 97
-99;
Joh
n K
lopp
enbo
rg,
"An
Ana
lysis
of
the
Pre-
Paul
ine
Form
ula
in 1
Cor
inth
ians
15:
3b-5
in
Ligh
t of
So
me
Rec
ent L
itera
ture
," C
atbo
lic B
iblic
al Q
Ua/
1erly
40
(197
8), p
p. 3
51, 3
60; J
ohn
P. M
eier
, A
Mar
gina
ljew
, vol
. 2, M
ent0
1; k
Iess
age a
nd M
irac
le (N
ew Y
ork:
Dou
bled
ay, 1
994)
, p.1
39; S
and-
ers,
T7Je
Hist
ol1'
cal F
igur
e of
jesu
s, p
. 27
7.
184
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
poss
ibly
"in
use
by
the
end
of 3
0 A
.D.,,
7
Perh
aps
surp
risin
gly,
ske
ptic
s fre
quen
tly e
ven
agre
e. S
kept
ic G
erd
Ui-
dem
ann
asse
rts th
at "
the
elem
ents
in th
e tra
ditio
n ar
e to
be
date
d to
the
first
two
year
s af
ter t
he c
mci
fixio
n of
Jesu
s ..
. no
t lat
er th
an th
ree
year
s.
...
Tbef
orm
atio
n of
tbe
appe
aran
ce tr
aditi
ons
men
tione
d in
1 Co
r. 15
,J-
8fal
ls in
to tb
e tim
e be
twee
n 30
and
33
C.E
.,,8
Philo
soph
er T
hom
as S
hee-
han
thin
ks t
hat t
his
pre-
Paul
ine
form
ula
"pro
babl
y go
es b
ack
to a
t lea
st
32-3
4 C
.E.,
that
is, t
o w
ithin
two
to fo
ur y
ears
of t
he c
mci
fixio
n.,,9
MiC
hael
G
ould
er h
olds
tha
t th
is re
surr
ectio
n re
port
"go
es b
ack
at l
east
to
wha
t Pa
ul w
as ta
ught
whe
n he
was
con
verte
d, a
cou
ple
of y
ears
afte
r the
cm
-ci
fixio
n." 1
0
Oth
er sk
eptiC
s ar
e of
ten
not s
hy a
bout
exp
ress
ing
thei
r agr
eem
ent.]
] In
fact
, mos
t of t
he c
ritiC
al sc
hola
rs w
ho d
ate
thes
e ev
ents
con
clud
e th
at
Paul
rec
eive
d th
is m
ater
ial w
ithin
just
a f
ew y
ears
afte
r Jes
us' d
eath
, in
th
e ea
rly o
r mid
30S
.12 W
e w
ill s
ee h
ow th
e ex
iste
nce
and
circ
umst
ance
s at
suc
h an
ear
ly d
ate
trans
late
to
addi
tiona
l ey
ewitn
ess
test
imon
y be
-si
des
Paul
's.
3. Pa
ul w
as e
xcep
tiona
lly c
aref
ul to
asc
erta
in th
e co
nten
t of t
he g
ospe
l
6 Ulri
ch W
ilcke
ns, R
esur
rect
ion:
Bib
lical
Tes
tinw
ny to
the R
esU
iTec
tion:
An
His
tori
cal E
."am
ina-
tion
and
Expl
anat
ion
(Edi
nbur
gh:
St. A
ndre
w P
ress
, 19
77),
p. 2
. 7W
alte
r Kas
par,
jesu
s th
e Cb
rist,
trans
. V.
Gre
en (
Mah
wah
, N
.].:
Paul
ist,
1976
), p.
125
. 8 G
erd
Lude
man
n, 1
7Je R
esU
iTec
tion
o/je
sus,
tran
s. J
ohn
Bow
den
(Min
neap
olis
: For
tress
, 199
4),
p. 3
8 (L
lidem
ann'
s em
phas
is).
9 T
hom
as S
heeh
an,
17Je
Firs
t C
omin
g: H
ow t
he K
ingd
om 0
/ God
Bec
ame
Chr
istia
nity
(N
ew
Yor
k: R
ando
m,
1986
), p.
118
; cf.
pp.
110
-11.
lO
Mich
ael G
ould
er,
"The
Bas
eles
s Fa
bric
of
a V
isio
n,"
in R
esur
rect
ion
Reco
nsid
ered
, ed
. G
avin
D
'Cos
ta (
Oxf
ord:
One
wor
ld,
1996
), p.
48.
llF
or j
ust
a fe
w e
xam
ples
, se
e R
ober
t Fu
nk,
Roy
W.
Hoo
ver
and
the
Jesu
s Se
min
ar,
17Je
Fiv
e G
ospe
ls (N
ew Y
ork:
Mac
mill
an,
1993
), p.
24;
Jac
k K
ent,
17Je
Psy
cbol
ogic
al O
rigi
ns o
.lthe
Res
-U
lTec
tion
Myt
h (L
ondo
n: O
pen
Gat
e, 1
999)
, pp
. 16
-17;
A.]
. M
. Wed
derb
urn,
Bey
ond
reef
ion
(Pea
body
, Mas
s.: H
endr
icks
on, 1
999)
, p. 2
74 n
. 265
; G. A
. Wel
ls, D
idje
sus E
xist?
(Lon
-do
n: P
embe
rton
, 19
86),
p. 3
0.
"Som
e of
the
othe
r sch
olar
s w
ho a
gree
her
e in
clud
e: F
ulle
r, 17
Je F
orm
atio
n o.
l tbe
Resu
rrec
tion
Nar
rativ
es, p
p. 1
0, 1
4,48
; Ray
mon
d B
row
n, T
he V
irgi
nal C
once
ptio
n an
d Bo
diZV
Res
urre
ctio
n o.
l jesu
s (N
ew Y
ork:
Pau
list,
1973
), p.
81;
]. A
. Fitz
mye
r, "T
he R
esur
rect
ion
of Je
sus
Chr
ist A
c-co
rdin
g to
the
New
Tes
tam
ent,"
TIle
Mon
th,
SNS,
20
(987
), p
. 40
9; ]
. D
. G
. D
unn,
17J
e Evi
-de
nce/
orje
sus (
Loui
svill
e, K
y.: W
estm
inst
er, 1
985)
, p. 7
0; C
. E. B
. Cra
nfie
ld, "
The
Res
urre
ctio
n of
Jesu
s C
hris
t," E
."pos
ito/),
Tim
es 1
01 (
990)
, p.
169
; Pe
ter
Stuh
lmac
her,
jesl
ls o
.l Naz
aret
b---
Chr
ist o
.l Fai
th,
trans
. Si
egfr
ied
S. Sh
atzm
ann
(Pea
body
, M
ass.:
Hen
dric
kson
, 19
93),
p. 8
; Le
-an
der E
. Kec
k, W
',/)o
Isje
sus?
His
tol)'
in P
e/fe
ct T
ense
(C
olum
bia:
Uni
vers
ity o
f Sou
th C
arol
ina,
20
00),
p. 1
39;
Mei
er, A
Mar
gina
ljew
, vol
. 2,
Men
to/;
Mes
sage
and
Mir
acle
, p.
139
.
The
Cas
e/or
Chr
ist's
Res
urre
ctio
ll
185
mes
sage
, whi
ch c
ente
red
on th
e re
surr
ectio
n. T
o do
so,
he
mad
e a
sec-
ond
trip
to J
emsa
lem
spe
cific
ally
for
the
pur
pose
of
chec
king
out
his
gosp
el p
reac
hing
(Gal
2:1
-10)
. Am
azin
gly,
he
stat
es h
is fe
ar th
at p
erha
ps
he h
ad b
een
teac
hing
the
wro
ng m
essa
ge (G
al 2
:2).
Som
e th
ink
that
Act
s 15
:1-3
5 de
scri
bes
an a
maz
ing
thir
d tri
p to
Jem
sale
m to
do
the
sam
e.13
Paul
obv
ious
ly d
esir
ed to
be
abso
lute
ly p
ositi
ve o
f the
gos
pel t
mth
! Fu
r-th
er, P
aul w
as c
aref
ul to
ask
his
que
stio
ns o
f the
pro
per a
utho
riti
es-t
he
chie
f apo
stle
s. I
n hi
s in
itial
trip
, he
met
with
Pet
er a
nd Ja
mes
, the
bro
ther
of
Jesu
s (G
al 1
:18-
20).
On
the
seco
nd o
ccas
ion,
he
met
with
thes
e sa
me
two
men
, plu
s th
e ap
ostle
Joh
n (G
al 2
:9).
Mal
tin H
enge
l poi
nts
out t
hat
"evi
dent
ly th
e tra
ditio
n of
I Co
r. 15
.3 h
ad b
een
subj
ecte
d to
man
y te
sts"
l'
by P
aul.
4
It is
eas
y to
ove
rloo
k th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
thes
e m
eetin
gs. T
he fo
ur m
en
who
met
toge
ther
on
the
latte
r occ
asio
n w
ere
certa
inly
the
chie
f apo
stle
s in
the
early
chu
rch,
and
eac
h on
e ha
d be
en a
n ey
ewitn
ess
of Je
sus'
res-
urre
ctio
n ap
pear
ance
s (1
Cor
15:
5-7)
. Th
eref
ore,
whe
n Pa
ul r
ecei
ved
thei
r con
firm
atio
n th
at h
is g
ospe
l was
cor
rect
(Gal
2:9
; cf.
Act
s 15
:23-
35),
we
have
the
ir as
sura
nce
that
Pau
l's m
essa
ge o
f Jes
us' r
esur
rect
ion
ap-
pear
ance
s ag
reed
with
thei
r ow
n ex
peri
ence
s. C
erta
inly
, if t
hey
thou
ght
that
Pau
l err
ed o
n th
e ce
ntra
l fac
t of t
he g
ospe
l, th
is w
ould
hav
e cr
eate
d gr
ave
prob
lem
s, e
spec
ially
giv
en th
e ap
osto
lic c
once
rn to
insu
re d
octri
-na
l tm
th in
the
early
chu
rch.
So
Pau
l pr
ovid
es m
ore
than
his
ow
n ey
ewitn
ess
test
imon
y, a
s in
(1)
ab
ove.
Dur
ing
his
trips
to in
quir
e of
the
thre
e se
nior
apo
stle
s in
Jeru
sa-
lem
, Pa
ul p
asse
d th
eir
exam
inat
ion
rega
rdin
g hi
s go
spel
pro
clam
atio
n.
Thei
r bl
essi
ngs
assu
me
thei
r ow
n ey
ewitn
ess
test
imon
y co
ncer
ning
Je
sus'
resu
rrec
tion
appe
aran
ces,
sin
ce t
hey
had
also
exp
erie
nced
the
ri
sen
Jesu
s. H
ere
we
are
but o
ne s
tep
rem
oved
from
add
ition
al e
yew
it-ne
ss te
stim
ony.
4.
Not
onl
y di
d th
e ot
her a
post
les
conf
irm P
aul's
gos
pel m
essa
ge, b
ut
we
also
hav
e th
e re
vers
e te
stim
ony.
Afte
r rep
Olti
ng a
list
of Je
sus'
resu
r-re
ctio
n ap
pear
ance
s, P
aul e
xpla
ins
that
he
knew
wha
t the
oth
er a
post
les
1;O
ther
s ho
ld th
at th
e ac
coun
t in
Act
s 15
conf
irm
s th
e sa
me
mee
ting
as th
at in
Gal
2:1
-10.
"'M
artin
Hen
gel,
Tbe
Aton
emen
t: 1
7Je
Ori
gins
o.lt
be D
octr
ine
in th
e N
ew T
esta
men
t, tra
ns. J
ohn
Bow
den
(Phi
lade
lphi
a: F
ortre
ss,
1981
), p.
38.
186
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
wer
e pr
each
ing
on th
is su
bjec
t and
that
it w
as th
e sa
me
as h
is t
each
ing
abou
t Jes
us' a
ppea
ranc
es (1
Cor
15:
11).
Toge
ther
, th
ey p
rocl
aim
ed th
e ri
sen
Jesu
s (1
Cor
15:
12,
15).
So w
e ha
ve b
oth
the
prev
ious
, mor
e in
di-
rect
apo
stol
ic c
onfir
mat
ion
of P
aul's
gos
pel m
essa
ge p
rovi
ded
by th
e ap
-os
tolic
lea
ders
hip,
as
wel
l as
Pau
l's f
irsth
and,
mor
e di
rect
app
rova
l of
th
eir
resu
rrec
tion
mes
sage
. 5.
Insi
ghts
int
o th
e ea
rlies
t re
surr
ectio
n pr
each
ing
are
glea
ned
not
only
from
the
pre-
Paul
ine
repo
rt in
1 C
orin
thia
ns 1
5. O
ther
ear
ly c
reed
al
text
s fo
und
in th
e N
ew T
esta
men
t als
o pr
ovid
e sp
otlig
hts
on th
e ap
os-
tolic
witn
ess
to th
e re
surr
ectio
n ap
pear
ance
s. T
he b
ook
of A
cts
inco
rpo-
rate
s m
any
of th
ese
early
trad
ition
s, lo
cate
d in
the
ser
mon
s co
ntai
ned
ther
e. IS
Alth
ough
not
as
unan
imou
sly
as w
ith t
he c
reed
(s)
in 1
Cor
in-
thia
ns 1
5:3-
8, a
maj
ority
of c
ritic
al s
chol
ars
still
hold
that
at l
east
som
e of
th
ese
snip
pets
rep
rese
nt t
he e
arlie
st C
hris
tian
gosp
el p
reac
hing
.16 Li
ke
othe
r ea
rly tr
aditi
ons,
they
are
ide
ntifi
ed b
y th
eir
brev
ity,
lack
of t
heo-
logi
cal c
ompl
exity
, and
bec
ause
the
stru
ctur
e, s
tyle
and
/or d
ictio
n re
flect
la
ngua
ge p
atte
rns
othe
r tha
n th
e au
thor
's. C
ruci
ally
for o
ur p
urpo
ses,
the
rise
n Je
sus
is th
e ce
nter
of e
ach
of th
ese
tradi
tions
. Th
ese
Act
s cr
eeds
cou
ld p
rovi
de a
win
dow
on
the
anci
ent w
orld
of
apos
tolic
pre
achi
ng b
efor
e a
sing
le N
ew T
esta
men
t bo
ok w
as w
ritte
n.
John
Dra
ne th
inks
that
thes
e se
rmon
s in
Act
s ar
e ou
r "ea
rlies
t evi
denc
e"
for J
esus
' res
urre
ctio
n an
d th
at th
is m
ater
ial "
alm
ost c
erta
inly
goe
s ba
ck
to t
he t
ime
imm
edia
tely
afte
r th
e re
surr
ectio
n ev
ent
is al
lege
d to
hav
e ta
ken
plac
e ...
. B
ut th
ere
can
be n
o do
ubt t
hat i
n th
e fir
st fe
w c
hapt
ers
of A
cts
its a
utho
r has
pre
serv
ed m
ater
ial f
rom
vet
y ea
rly so
urce
s.,,1
7 G
er-
15Th
e co
nden
sed
cree
dal
segm
ents
are
fou
nd w
ithin
a n
umbe
r of
the
serm
ons
in A
cts:
Act
s 1:
21-2
2; 2
:22-
36;
3:13
-16;
4:8
-10;
5:2
9-32
; 10
:39-
43;
13:2
8-31
; 17
:1-3
; 17
:30-
31;
cf.
Lk 2
4:34
. 16 F
or ju
st a
smal
l sam
plin
g of
thes
e sc
hola
rs, s
ee G
erd
LUde
man
n, E
arly
Cbr
istia
ni(V
Acc
ordi
ng
10 th
e Tr
aditi
ons
in A
cts:
A C
omm
enta
/Y,
trans
. Joh
n B
owde
n (M
inne
apol
is:
Fortr
ess,
1989
), pp
. 47-
49, 1
12-1
5; H
enge
l, Tb
e Ato
nem
ent,
p. 3
4; p
hem
e Pe
rkin
s, R
esur
rect
ion:
New
Tes
tam
ent
Witn
ess
and
Con
tem
ponl
lY R
efle
ctio
n (G
arde
n Ci
ty,
N.Y.
: D
oubl
eday
, 19
84),
pp.
90,
228-
31;
Ray
mon
d E.
Bro
wn,
An
Intr
oduc
tion
to N
ew T
esta
men
t C
hris
t%gy
(Mah
wah
, N
.].:
Paul
ist,
1994
), pp
. 11
2-13
, 16
4; F
ulle
r, Th
e Fo
rmat
ion
of th
e Re
surr
ectio
n Na
rrat
ives
, pp
. 44
-45;
I\lo
p-pe
nbor
g, p
. 361
; Joh
nson
, Liv
ingJ
esus
: Lea
rnin
g tb
e Hea
rt o
ftbe
Gos
pel (
San
Fran
cisc
o: H
arpe
r Co
llins
, 19
99),
p. 3
4; a
lthou
gh o
lder
, tw
o of
the
bette
r stu
dies
are
C.
H. D
odd,
77J
e Apo
stol
ic
Prea
cbin
g an
d Its
Dev
elop
men
ts (r
eprin
t, G
rand
Rap
ids,
Mich
.: Ba
ker,
1980
), pp
. 17
-31,
and
M
ax W
ilcox
, 77
Je S
emiti
sms
C!t A
cts (
Oxf
ord:
Cla
rend
on, 1
965)
, esp
. pp.
79-
80,
164-
65.
17Jo
hn D
rane
, Int
rodu
cing
tbe
New
Test
amen
t (Sa
n Fr
anci
sco:
Har
per a
nd R
ow, 1
986)
, p.
99.
The
Cas
e fo
r C
bris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
187
aId
O'C
ollin
s co
nclu
des
mor
e sp
ecifi
cally
that
Act
s "i
ncor
pora
tes
resu
r-re
ctio
n fo
rmul
ae w
hich
ste
m fr
om t
he th
irties
.,,18
6. W
e ha
ve b
een
disc
ussi
ng t
he e
arlie
st a
post
olic
witn
ess
to J
esus
' re
surr
ectio
n ap
pear
ance
s. I
t is
seld
om q
uest
ione
d by
crit
ical
sch
olar
s th
at J
ames
, Jes
us' b
roth
er,
was
an
unbe
lieve
r an
d pr
obab
ly a
ske
ptic
du
ring
his
bro
ther
's pu
blic
min
istr
y (M
k 3:
21-3
5; J
n 7:
5).
Then
, ju
st a
fe
w y
ears
late
r, Ja
mes
is t
he p
asto
r of t
he Je
rusa
lem
chu
rch,
whe
re P
aul
finds
him
whe
n he
wen
t for
his
tw
o vi
sits
(G
al 1
:18-
19;
2:1-
10;
cf. A
cts
15:1
3-21
). In
bet
wee
n, th
e ea
rly
pre-
Paul
ine
cree
d in
1 C
orin
thia
ns 1
5:7
stat
es th
at Ja
mes
met
the
rise
n Je
sus.
One
can
onl
y im
agin
e w
hat t
ran-
spir
ed th
ere!
W
hile
ther
e m
ay n
ot s
eem
at f
irst l
ook
to b
e m
uch
text
ual d
ata
here
, cr
itica
l sc
hola
rs f
ind
at l
east
thr
ee m
ajor
rea
sons
for
con
clud
ing
that
Ja
mes
was
an
unbe
lieve
r bef
ore
he m
et th
e ri
sen J
esus
. Joh
n M
eier
stat
es
the
case
wel
l. Ja
mes
's un
belie
f is
atte
sted
by
mul
tiple
ind
epen
dent
so
urce
s.19
Furth
er, t
he c
riter
ion
of c
oher
ence
is s
atis
fied
in th
at Je
sus
fre-
quen
tly d
eman
ded
that
his
dis
cipl
es b
e w
illin
g to
leav
e th
eir f
amily
be-
hind
and
fol
low
him
, ev
en if
it e
ngen
dere
d th
eir
wra
th,
as i
t di
d w
ith
Jesu
s' ow
n fa
mily
. The
crit
erio
n of
emba
rras
smen
t pro
babl
y pr
ovid
es th
e st
rong
est r
easo
n he
re, s
ince
it is
hig
hly
unlik
ely
that
ear
ly c
hurc
h au
thor
s w
ould
mak
e su
ch p
oten
tially
"de
eply
off
ensi
ve"
com
men
ts r
egar
ding
bo
th a
n es
teem
ed l
eade
r as
wel
l as
Jes
us'
own
brot
her,
unle
ss t
hey
thou
ght t
hey
wer
e re
pOlti
ng fa
cts.
2o
Fulle
r co
nclu
des
that
eve
n if
the
pre-
Paul
ine
cree
d in
1 C
orin
thia
ns
15:7
had
nev
er b
een
reco
rded
, "w
e sh
ould
hav
e to
inv
ent"
an
appe
ar-
ance
to Ja
mes
to ju
stify
bot
h hi
s co
nver
sion
as
wel
l as
his
prom
otio
n to
th
e pa
stor
ate
in J
erus
alem
, th
e la
rges
t of
the
early
chu
rche
s!21
The
ma-
jorit
y of
sch
olar
s, i
nclu
ding
man
y sk
eptic
s, a
gree
tha
t Jam
es w
as c
on-
vette
d by
Jesu
s' ap
pear
ance
to h
im.n
lsG
eral
d O
'Col
lins,
IlIfe
lpre
tingJ
esus
(Lon
don:
Geo
ffre
y C
hapm
an,
1983
), pp
. 10
9-10
. 19 T
he Je
sus
Sem
inar
eve
n th
inks
that
two
inde
pend
ent s
ourc
es in
dica
te th
at a
teac
hing
may
be
olde
r tha
n its
sou
rce.
See
Fun
k, H
oove
r and
the
Jesu
s Se
min
ar,
77Je
Fiv
e G
ospe
ls, p
. 26
. 2°
Meie
r, A
Mar
gilla
lJew
, vo
l. 2,
MeI
ltOI;
Mes
sage
and
Mira
cle,
pp.
68-
71.
21Fu
ller,
Tbe
Form
atio
l! C!
ttbe
Resu
rrec
tion
Nar
rativ
es,
p. 3
7.
"For
inst
ance
, see
LU
dem
ann,
The
ReS
llrre
ctio
n C!
fTes
lls,
p. 1
09;
Hel
mut
Koe
ster,
His
tolY
& L
it-er
alw
'e
Cbris
tiani
(l', v
ol.
2 of
Int
rodu
clio
n to
the
New
Tes
tam
ent
(Phi
lade
lphi
a: F
or-
188
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
7. If
Jesu
s' bu
rial t
omb
was
late
r fou
nd e
mpt
y, th
is d
oes
not p
rove
that
a
resu
rrec
tion
occu
rred
. H
owev
er,
it ad
ds s
ome
cred
ibili
ty to
the
dis
ci-
ples
' cla
im to
hav
e se
en th
e ri
sen
Jesu
s, s
ince
it b
oth
seri
ousl
y co
mpl
i-ca
tes
the
sear
ch fo
r a
natu
ralis
tic h
ypot
hesi
s, a
s w
ell
as i
ndic
atin
g th
at
wha
teve
r hap
pene
d m
ost l
ikel
y in
volv
ed Je
sus'
body
. Th
ere
are
wel
l ov
er a
doz
en r
easo
ns s
uppo
rtin
g Je
sus'
empt
y to
mb,
on
ly a
few
of w
hich
we
will
sim
ply
men
tion
here
. Th
e G
ospe
ls a
re i
n co
mpl
ete
agre
emen
t th
at w
omen
wer
e th
e ea
rlies
t w
itnes
ses
to t
he
empt
y to
mb,
a s
impl
y re
mar
kabl
e re
port
sin
ce f
emal
e te
stim
ony
was
ge
nera
lly d
isal
low
ed i
n a
law
cou
rt f
or d
ecla
ratio
ns o
n cr
ucia
l to
pics
. Th
us,
to f
abric
ate
this
sto
ry w
ith w
omen
as
the
cent
ral w
itnes
ses
mos
t lik
ely
wou
ld s
erve
onl
y to
hav
e th
e ca
se d
ism
isse
d w
ithou
t a
hear
ing.
Th
is re
p0l1
onl
y m
akes
sen
se if
it re
flect
ed w
hat a
ctua
lly h
appe
ned.
Jeru
-sa
lem
is a
bsol
utel
y th
e la
st p
lace
on
eart
h fo
r Jes
us' f
ollo
wer
s to
pro
clai
m
that
he
had
been
rais
ed, u
nles
s hi
s gr
ave
was
em
pty.
Oth
erw
ise,
a S
un-
day
afte
rnoo
n st
roll
wou
ld c
lear
ly i
ndic
ate
that
the
sto
ne w
as s
till
in
plac
e, r
evea
ling
thei
r er
rone
ous
mes
sage
. Th
e em
pty
tom
b ac
coun
ts a
re s
urpr
isin
gly
atte
sted
by
mul
tiple
so
urce
s, b
eing
fou
nd i
n al
mos
t ev
elY
Gos
pel
sour
ce.
Anc
ient
his
toria
n Pa
ul M
aier
rem
arks
, "M
any
fact
s fr
om a
ntiq
uity
rest
on
just
one
anc
ient
so
urce
, w
hile
tw
o or
thr
ee s
ourc
es i
n ag
reem
ent
gene
rally
ren
der
the
fact
uni
mpe
acha
ble.
,,23
The
early
pre
-Pau
line
cree
d in
1 C
orin
thia
ns 1
5:3-
4 at
leas
t im
plie
s an
em
pty
tom
b. T
he s
eque
nce
invo
lved
in th
e tri
ple
"and
that
" ph
rase
s, e
s-pe
cial
ly fo
r a
Jew
, int
imat
es th
at if
Jesu
s di
ed, w
as b
urie
d, r
ose
and
ap-
pear
ed,
then
wha
t had
bee
n liv
ing
was
pla
ced
in th
e gr
ound
and
late
r em
erge
d. I
n su
ch a
cas
e, th
e to
mb
wou
ld h
ave
been
vac
ated
. Wha
t may
be
ano
ther
ear
ly c
reed
(Act
s 13
:29-
31, 3
6-37
) eve
n m
ore
clea
rly in
dica
tes
tress
, 19
82),
p. 8
4; J
ohn
Shel
by S
pong
, Th
e Ea
ster M
omeJ
lt (S
an F
ranc
isco
: H
arpe
r an
d Ro
w,
1987
), p.
68;
Wed
derb
urn,
Bey
ond
Resu
rrec
tion,
p. 1
16; F
unk,
Hon
est t
oJes
us (S
an F
ranc
isco
: H
arpe
r Co
llins
, 19
96),
p. 3
3; M
eier
, A M
argi
na/J
ew, v
ol.
2, lV
ientO
l; M
essa
ge a
nd M
iracl
e, pp
. 70
-71;
Pet
er S
tuhl
mac
her,
"The
Res
urre
ctio
n of
Jesu
s an
d th
e R
esur
rect
ion
of th
e D
ead,
" tra
ns.
Jona
than
M. W
hitlo
ck, E
xAud
itu 9
(199
3), p
. 49;
E. P
. San
ders
, "B
ut D
id It
Hap
pen?
" Th
eSpe
c-ta
tor 2
76 (
1996
), p.
17.
23 Pau
l M
aier
, In
the
Ful
ness
of T
ime:
A H
isto
rian
Loo
ks a
t Ch
ristm
as,
Easte
r an
d th
e Ea
rly
Chu
rch
(San
Fra
ncis
co:
Har
per
Colli
ns,
1991
), p.
197
.
The
Cas
e fo
r C
hris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
189
that
Jesu
s w
as b
urie
d in
a t
omb,
was
rai
sed
and
appe
ared
. N
ot o
nly
did
the J
ewis
h le
ader
s no
t dis
pute
the
empt
y to
mb,
but
thei
r re
port
ed r
espo
nse
even
con
cede
d it
(Mt 2
8:11
-15)
. So
enem
y at
test
atio
n al
so s
uppo
rts
the
empt
y to
mb.
W
hile
the
empt
y to
mb
is no
t as
unan
imou
sly
held
as a
re th
e ot
her h
is-
toric
al r
easo
ns t
hat w
e ha
ve g
iven
for
the
dis
cipl
es' e
xper
ienc
es,
mos
t cr
itica
l sch
olar
s sti
ll th
ink
that
the
tom
b w
here
Jesu
s w
as b
urie
d w
as la
ter
disc
over
ed to
be
empt
y.2c ,]
. D
. G. D
unn
firm
ly s
tate
s: "
I hav
e to
say
qui
te
forc
eful
ly: t
he p
roba
bilit
y is
that
the
tom
b w
as e
mpt
y. A
s a
mat
ter o
f his
-to
rical
rec
onst
ruct
ion,
the
wei
ght
of e
vide
nce
poin
ts f
irmly
to
the
con-
clus
ion.
" Th
e al
tern
ativ
e ex
plan
atio
ns a
re a
ll w
orse
.25 H
isto
rian
Mic
hael
G
rant
exp
lain
s th
at "
the
hist
oria
n ..
. ca
nnot
just
ifiab
ly d
eny
the
empt
y to
mb"
sin
ce n
orm
al h
isto
rical
crit
eria
atte
st t
hat,
"the
evi
denc
e is
firm
an
d pl
ausi
ble
enou
gh to
nec
essi
tate
the
con
clus
ion
that
the
tom
b w
as
inde
ed fo
und
empt
y.,,2
6 8.
Last,
the
re is
no
ques
tion
that
the
disc
iple
s' be
lief t
hat t
hey
had
ac-
tual
ly s
een
Jesu
s af
ter
his
deat
h le
d to
a r
adic
al t
rans
form
atio
n in
the
ir liv
es,
even
to t
he p
oint
of b
eing
will
ing
to d
ie f
or t
heir
faith
. B
ut s
ince
th
e qu
estio
n re
gard
ing
the
degr
ee o
f th
e un
ique
ness
her
e is
the
chie
f co
ncer
n of
the
seco
nd s
ectio
n of
this
cha
pter
, w
e w
ill n
ot b
elab
or th
e po
int h
ere.
W
e ha
ve li
sted
eig
ht d
iffer
ent r
easo
ns th
at in
dica
te w
hy c
onte
mpo
rary
sc
hola
rs a
lmos
t w
ithou
t ex
cept
ion
conc
lude
tha
t th
e di
scip
les
truly
th
ough
t tha
t Jes
us h
ad a
ppea
red
aliv
e to
them
afte
r he
had
die
d on
the
cros
s. Pa
ul's
own
eyew
itnes
s te
stim
ony,
the
exc
eptio
nally
ear
ly d
ate
whe
n he
rec
eive
d th
e cr
eed(
s) r
ecor
ded
in 1
Cor
inth
ians
15:
3-8,
che
ck-
ing
his
own
gosp
el m
essa
ge a
t lea
st t
wic
e w
ith th
e ch
ief a
post
les
who
w
ere
also
witn
esse
s, a
nd h
is k
now
ledg
e of
thei
r eye
witn
ess
teac
hing
on
the
resu
rrec
tion
appe
aran
ces
form
a s
impl
y re
mar
kabl
e, i
nter
conn
ecte
d
2"M
y st
udy
of h
undr
eds
of sc
hola
rly
sour
ces
on th
e re
surr
ectio
n, c
ited
abov
e, n
otes
alm
ost t
wo
doze
n ar
gum
ents
for
the
em
pty
tom
b. A
bout
75
perc
ent
of th
e su
rvey
ed s
chol
ars
embr
ace
one
or m
ore
of th
e su
ppor
ting
argu
men
ts.
"Dun
n, T
be E
uide
nce f
orJe
sus,
p. 6
8.
}''M
icha
el G
rant
, Jes
us:
All H
isto
rian
's Re
uiew
oft
be G
ospe
ls (N
ew Y
ork:
Col
lier,
1992
), p.
176
. A
n ex
celle
nt t
reat
men
t of
add
ition
al a
rgum
ents
for
the
em
pty
tom
b is
Will
iam
Lan
e Cr
aig,
"T
he H
isto
ricity
of t
he E
mpt
y To
mb
of Je
sus,
" N
ew T
esta
men
t Stu
dies
31
(198
5) 3
9-67
.
190
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
trail
of e
vide
nce
that
is v
irtua
lly u
nhea
rd o
f in
anci
ent d
ocum
ents
. Em
i-ne
nt s
chol
ar H
owar
d Cl
ark
Kee
mak
es t
he a
stou
ndin
g co
mm
ent
that
Pa
ul's
rese
arch
"ca
n be
crit
ical
ly e
xam
ined
and
com
pare
d w
ith o
ther
tes-
timon
y fr
om e
yew
itnes
ses
of Je
sus,
just
as
one
wou
ld e
valu
ate
evid
ence
in
a m
oder
n co
urt o
r ac
adem
ic s
ettin
g. ,,2
7 Fu
rther
, ot
her
early
cre
edal
witn
esse
s su
ch a
s th
ose
in A
cts,
the
con-
vers
ion
of Ja
mes
the
skep
tic, t
he e
mpt
y to
mb
and
the
disc
iple
s' tra
nsfo
r-m
atio
n all
pro
vide
sup
port
that
the
disc
iple
s w
ere
utte
rly c
onvi
nced
that
th
ey h
ad se
en th
e ris
en Je
sus.
Add
ition
al fa
ctor
s co
uld
be m
entio
ned.
For
ex
ampl
e, t
he c
entra
lity
of th
e re
surr
ectio
n m
essa
ge i
n th
e ea
rly c
hurc
h pr
ovid
ed a
mpl
e op
port
unity
for
belie
vers
who
wer
e pr
epar
ed to
die
for
th
e m
essa
ge t
o re
peat
edly
foc
us o
n its
tru
th,
but w
ithou
t re
futa
tion
or
reca
ntin
g, a
s fa
r as
we
know
. A
nd t
he J
ewis
h le
ader
s pa
rticu
larly
had
bo
th a
mot
ive
and
the
pow
er to
opp
ose
a m
essa
ge th
at th
reat
ened
thei
r ex
iste
nce
and
cam
e up
em
pty-
hand
ed.28
No
othe
r hy
poth
esis
is e
ven
a vi
able
riv
al t
o th
e co
nclu
sion
that
the
early
dis
cipl
es a
t le
ast
thou
ght
that
the
y ha
d w
itnes
sed
Jesu
s' ap
pear
-an
ces
afte
r he
had
die
d. B
ut c
an w
e so
meh
ow m
ove
from
the
rec
og-
nize
d hi
stor
ical
fact
that
the
disc
iple
s be
lieve
d th
is to
thei
r act
ually
hav
-in
g se
en th
e ri
sen
Jesu
s? T
o m
ake
this
mov
e co
uld
wel
l be
the
mos
t cr
ucia
l as
pect
of
an h
isto
rical
arg
umen
t fo
r Jes
us' r
esur
rect
ion
appe
ar-
ance
s.
Fro
m c
onvi
ctio
n to
eve
nt.
Each
of t
he e
ight
reas
ons
abov
e po
ints
to
the
belie
f tha
t Jes
us w
as s
een
agai
n af
ter
his
deat
h. I
n ot
her w
ords
, th
e cl
aim
to w
hich
virt
ually
all
scho
lars
agr
ee is
a v
isua
l cla
im. T
he d
isci
ples
w
ere
sure
tha
t Jes
us' p
erso
n ha
d im
ping
ed o
n th
eir
visu
al f
ield
. Th
is is
w
hat P
aul
clai
med
. Pe
ter
agre
ed.
So d
id J
esus
' bro
ther
Jam
es.
Furth
er,
the
tom
b w
as n
o lo
nger
occ
upie
d by
his
body
. As
a r
esul
t, th
ey w
ere
chan
ged
fore
ver.
Even
rec
ent s
kept
ical
sch
olar
s ag
ree.
Koe
ster
ass
erts
tha
t "W
e ar
e on
27H
owar
d C
lark
Kee
, W
hat C
an W
e Kno
w a
bout
jesu
s? (C
ambr
idge
: Cam
brid
ge U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss,
1990
), pp
. 1-
2.
1Rpo
r det
ails
on
thes
e tw
o ad
ditio
nal r
easo
ns, a
s w
ell a
s m
uch
mor
e in
form
atio
n, in
clud
ing
both
fa
ctua
l an
d sc
hola
rly
agre
emen
t, re
gard
ing
the
prev
ious
eig
ht a
rgum
ents
, see
Gar
y R.
Hab
er-
mas
, Th
e Ri
senj
eslls
and
Fut
ure
Hop
e (L
anha
m, M
d.:
Row
man
and
Litt
lefie
ld, 2
003)
, cha
p. 1
.
The
Cas
e fo
r C
hris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
191
muc
h fir
mer
gro
und
with
res
pect
to t
he a
ppea
ranc
es o
f the
ris
en Je
sus
and
thei
r eff
ect."
The
se a
ppea
ranc
es "
cann
ot v
ety
wel
l be
ques
tione
d.,,2
9 Ba
rt Eh
rman
sta
tes
that
"w
e ca
n sa
y w
ith c
ompl
ete
certa
inty
that
som
e of
his
dis
cipl
es a
t so
me
late
r tim
e in
sist
ed t
hat
he s
oon
appe
ared
to
them
....
His
toria
ns, o
f cou
rse,
hav
e no
diff
icul
ty w
hats
oeve
r spe
akin
g ab
out
the
belie
f in
Jes
us'
resu
rrec
tion,
sin
ce i
t is
a m
atte
r of
pub
lic
reco
rd. ,,
30 Tr
augo
tt H
oltz
con
clud
es th
at th
e di
scip
les'
"exp
erie
nce
of re
s-ur
rect
ion
...
is in
fact
an
unde
niab
le h
isto
rical
eve
nt. ,,3
1 Li.i
dem
ann
even
re
min
ds u
s th
at P
aul's
resu
rrec
tion
lang
uage
is th
e la
ngua
ge o
f rea
l sig
ht:
"act
ive
sens
ual p
erce
ptio
n ...
. Pa
ul is
cla
imin
g a
visu
al s
ide
to t
he a
p-pe
aran
ce.,,
32 M
oreo
ver,
Paul
was
tea
chin
g th
at J
esus
app
eare
d in
his
"tra
nsfo
rmed
spi
ritua
l res
urre
ctio
n co
rpor
ealit
y.,,3
3 It
see
ms
clea
r, th
en,
that
Jesu
s' di
scip
les
wer
e ut
terly
con
vinc
ed th
at
he h
ad a
ppea
red
to th
em a
fter h
is d
eath
. It i
s gr
ante
d by
virt
ually
all
crit-
ical
sch
olar
s be
caus
e th
e da
ta a
re e
xtra
ordi
naril
y st
rong
. But
how
do
we
get f
rom
the
disc
iple
s' re
surr
ectio
n co
nvic
tion
to th
e re
surr
ectio
n e'v
ent,
nam
ely,
to
rea
l app
eara
nces
of t
he r
isen
Jesu
s?
This
may
see
m li
ke a
rat
her
stra
ight
forw
ard
ques
tion,
yet
it c
an g
et a
lit
tle s
lippe
ty.
Bel
ieve
rs p
resu
mab
ly w
ould
thi
nk t
hat
they
wer
e qu
ite
just
ified
in th
eir s
tanc
e th
at r
easo
ns li
ke t
hose
abo
ve e
stab
lish
thei
r po
-si
tion.
Afte
r all
, ea
ch o
f th
e ev
iden
ces
poin
ts t
o a
visu
al e
vent
tha
t ch
ange
d th
e di
scip
les'
lives
, whi
ch th
ey w
ere
utte
rly c
onvi
nced
was
an
appe
aran
ce o
f the
ir be
st fr
iend
. U
nbel
ieve
rs w
ould
see
min
gly
have
to r
eply
by
seve
ring
the
conn
ec-
tion
betw
een
wha
t the
dis
cipl
es t
houg
ht a
nd w
hat r
eally
hap
pene
d. T
o do
this,
the
y m
ight
mov
e in
tw
o di
rect
ions
, by
indi
rect
ly o
r di
rect
ly r
e-pl
ying
to a
cas
e lik
e th
at w
hich
we
have
out
lined
her
e.
Initi
ally
, per
haps
they
mig
ht tt
y an
indi
rect
man
euve
r by
posi
ng v
ari-
29K
oeste
r, H
istol
Ji a
nd L
itera
ture
, p. 8
4.
"JBar
t Ehr
man
, jes
us: A
poca
lypt
ic P
ropb
et o
f the
New
Mill
enni
um (
New
Yor
k: O
xfor
d U
nive
rsity
Pr
ess,
199
9), p
p. 2
30-3
1.
31My
tran
slat
ion
of th
e G
erm
an te
xt in
Tra
ugot
t Hol
tz, "
Ken
ntni
s vo
n Je
sus
und
Ken
ntni
s Jes
u,"
Theo
logi
scbe
Lite
ratu
rzei
tung
104
(97
9)' p
. 10
. 32
Wde
man
n, T
he R
esur
rect
ion
of je
slls,
p. 5
0; c
f. p.
37.
33G
erd
Lude
man
n, W
hat R
ealZ
v H
appe
ned
to je
sus:
A H
isto
rica
l App
roac
h to
the
Res
urre
ctio
n,
with
All'
Oze
n, t
rans
. Joh
n B
owde
n (L
ouis
ville
, Ky.
: W
estm
inst
er Jo
hn K
nox,
199
5), p
. 10
3.
192
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
ous
a pr
iori
obje
ctio
ns34
that
, w
hate
ver
the
data
, Jes
us w
as s
impl
y no
t ra
ised
from
the
dead
. The
se s
orts
of m
irac
ulou
s ev
ents
just
do
not o
ccur
in
our
wor
ld.
Thes
e ph
iloso
phic
al r
espo
nses
tak
e us
far
bey
ond
our
stud
y of
the
resu
rrec
tion
of Je
sus,
esp
ecia
lly in
that
suc
h ob
ject
ions
are
ty
pica
lly n
ot c
once
rned
with
this
eve
nt a
t all.
Usu
ally
, th
ey m
ake
mor
e ge
nera
l inq
uirie
s re
gard
ing
the
back
grou
nd in
form
atio
n or
the
natu
re o
f th
e ev
iden
ce, b
oth
area
s w
here
the
resu
rrec
tion
exce
ls.35
Or,
anot
her i
ndire
ct m
ove
is to
res
pond
with
the
agno
stic
ple
a th
at w
e do
not
kno
w w
hat o
ccur
red.
The
dis
cipl
es in
deed
bel
ieve
d th
at th
ey s
aw
Jesu
s, b
ut w
e ca
nnot
det
erm
ine
a ca
use.
Th
is f
ence
-stra
ddlin
g ap
proa
ch is
ver
y di
ffic
ult t
o m
aint
ain,
sin
ce o
ne
mus
t dod
ge m
any
fact
ual c
onsi
dera
tions
, whe
n ju
st o
ne m
ight
cau
se th
e th
esis
to
topp
le.
A f
ew b
rief
and
gen
eral
pro
blem
s w
ill h
ave
to s
uffic
e he
re.
(1)
The
agno
stic
pos
ition
sm
acks
of
reje
ctin
g th
e po
ssib
ility
of
a re
surr
ectio
n be
fore
follo
win
g th
e ev
iden
ce to
its
conc
lusi
on o
r eve
n re
-se
ntin
g th
at th
e di
scus
sion
mig
ht le
ad to
the
trut
h of
Chr
istia
nity
.36
(2) T
o as
sert
that
we
cann
ot d
isco
ver a
cau
se fo
r the
dis
cipl
es' f
aith
ass
umes
its
own
burd
en o
f pro
of. B
ut o
n w
hat g
roun
ds s
houl
d su
ch a
n as
sert
ion
be
mad
e?
Mor
e cr
ucia
lly, (
3) w
e ha
ve p
lent
y of
evi
denc
e al
read
y to
dec
ide
the
case
, es
peci
ally
sin
ce w
e us
ed o
nly
thos
e da
ta t
hat v
irtua
lly a
ll cr
itica
l sc
hola
rs a
ccep
t. So
crit
ics
mus
t not
reje
ct o
r pu
ll up
sho
rt o
f the
res
ults
th
at a
re in
dica
ted
by th
eir
own
rese
arch
!37
(4)
The
obje
ctio
n of
ten
does
no
t lev
el c
ompl
aint
s ag
ains
t thi
s sp
ecifi
c re
surr
ectio
n da
ta,
so b
elie
vers
).iIt
mig
ht b
e no
ted
here
that
not
all
a pr
iori
ques
tions
are
aut
omat
ical
ly r
uled
out
as
ques
tion
begg
ing.
Som
e as
k by
var
ious
mea
ns if
it is
pos
sibl
e to
pos
tula
te in
adv
ance
a r
easo
n fo
r que
s-tio
ning
cer
tain
occ
urre
nces
. 3'
For d
istin
ctio
ns b
etw
een
vario
us s
orts
of a
prio
ri ar
gum
ents
, al
ong
with
a d
etai
led
resp
onse
to
sev
eral
spe
cific
exa
mpl
es, s
ee G
ary
R. H
aber
mas
and
Mic
hael
Lic
ona,
77J
e Cas
e for
the R
es-
urre
ctio
n qt j
eslls
(G
rand
Rap
ids,
Mic
h.:
Kre
gel,
2004
), ch
ap.
9. Fo
r a
mor
e te
chni
cal
treat
-m
ent,
see
Hab
erm
as,
77Je
Ris
ellje
slIs
and
Fut
ure
Hop
e, es
p. c
hap.
2.
36 For
det
ails
on
how
Jesu
s.' r
esur
rect
ion
and
othe
r re
leva
nt d
ata
lead
to a
cas
e fo
r th
e he
art o
f C
hris
tiani
ty, s
ee H
aber
n;as
, Th
e Ri
sen j
esus
and
Fut
ure
Hop
e, ch
aps.
1-6
. A m
ore
popu
lar a
p-pr
oach
is d
etai
led
in G
ary
R. H
aber
mas
, "Ev
iden
tial A
polo
getic
s,"
in F
ive
View
s on
Apol
oget
ics,
ed. S
teph
en B
. Cow
an (
Gra
nd R
apid
s, M
ich.
: Zo
ndel
van,
200
0).
37 For a
dditi
onal
com
men
ts o
n ho
w th
ese
met
hodo
logi
cal c
onsi
dera
tions
use
d by
crit
ical
sch
ol-
ars
lead
to t
he h
isto
ricity
of t
he r
esur
rect
ion,
see
esp
. Hab
erm
as,
77Je
Ris
en je
sus a
nd F
utur
e H
ope,
chap
. 1.
The
Cas
e fo
r C
hris
t's R
esur
rect
ioll
19
3
are
mor
e th
an j
ustif
ied
in h
oldi
ng t
heir
vie
w in
lig
ht o
f th
e m
any
evi-
denc
es fo
r th
is e
vent
. O
ur m
ajor
met
hodo
logy
is
appl
icab
le
to
this
ag
nost
ic
posi
tion.
Th
roug
hout
, we
have
use
d da
ta th
at a
re re
cogn
ized
by
virtu
ally
all
scho
l-ar
s. Th
ese
sam
e m
inim
al h
isto
rical
fac
ts th
at e
ven
agno
stic
s ac
cept
cl
early
ind
icat
e th
at m
ore
than
an
unde
fine
d so
met
hing
occ
urre
d to
Je
sus'
disc
iple
s. W
e po
inte
d ou
t abo
ve t
hat
all t
he e
vide
nce
supp
orts
a
visu
al c
laim
-the
dis
cipl
es t
houg
ht t
hey
saw
Jes
us a
fter
his
deat
h. B
y fa
iling
to a
ccou
nt v
iabl
y fo
r the
maj
ority
of t
he re
cogn
ized
fact
s th
at e
ven
they
gen
eral
ly a
ccep
t, lik
e th
e ei
ght m
entio
ned
abov
e, a
gnos
tics
miss
the
caus
e of
the
disc
iple
s' ex
peri
ence
s. B
ut it
is i
nsuf
ficie
nt to
sim
ply
stop
th
ere
and
refu
se to
inve
stig
ate
furth
er. W
hat t
hey
fail
to e
xpla
in m
ay b
e pr
ecis
ely
the
data
tha
t ar
e ca
pabl
e of
est
ablis
hing
the
res
urre
ctio
n ap
-pe
aran
ces
as th
e m
ost l
ikel
y ex
plan
atio
n, a
s po
inte
d ou
t bel
ow. A
s Fu
ller
asse
rts,
wha
t w
e kn
ow "
ther
efor
e re
quir
es t
hat
the
hist
oria
n po
stul
ate
som
e ot
her
even
t" b
esid
es t
he d
isci
ples
' fai
th.
We
mus
t as
certa
in "
the
caus
e of
the
East
er fa
ith .
.. o
utsi
de o
f the
ir be
lief.,
,38
Prec
isel
y in
ord
er to
add
ress
dire
ctly
thes
e fa
cts,
the
mor
e po
pula
r ap-
proa
ch t
hrou
gh t
he c
entu
ries
has
bee
n to
pos
e a
natu
ralis
tic th
eOlY
to
acco
unt f
or th
e da
ta. S
uch
a m
ove
basi
cally
atte
mpt
s to
allo
w fo
r hi
stor
-ic
al fa
cts
whe
re th
e ev
iden
ce is
the
stro
nges
t, w
hile
vee
ring
off
in a
nat
-ur
al d
irect
ion
befo
re g
ettin
g to
the
punc
h lin
e in
volv
ing
the
resu
rrec
tion.
H
ere
they
nee
d to
pro
pose
an
alte
rnat
ive
scen
ario
: "J
esus
did
n't
real
ly
rise
from
the
dead
. Wha
t rea
lly h
appe
ned
was
(fill
in
the
blan
k)."
H
owev
er,
this
is
prob
ably
the
mos
t di
ffic
ult
met
hod
of a
ll. I
n fa
ct,
whe
n fa
ced
with
this
opt
ion,
the
vast
maj
ority
of c
ritic
al s
chol
ars
opt o
ut.
They
are
oft
en w
ell a
war
e th
at w
hen
an o
ptio
n is
chos
en, t
he w
eigh
t of
the
know
n hi
stor
ical
fac
ts co
mes
cra
shin
g do
wn
agai
nst t
heir
prop
osal
. In
fact
, the
y ar
e so
wel
l aw
are
of th
is e
vent
ualit
y th
at o
nly
a fe
w a
ttem
pt
it. E
ven
amon
g sc
hola
rs, i
t is
gene
rally
con
cede
d th
at n
one
of th
ese
op-
tions
wor
k.
For
inst
ance
, R
aym
ond
E.
Bro
wn
calls
th
ese
thes
es
"gra
tuito
us
char
ges.,
,39
Dun
n co
nclu
des:
"al
tern
ativ
e in
terp
reta
tions
of
the
data
fai
l
3"Fu
ller,
Tbe
Form
atio
n qt
tbe
Resu
rrec
tion
Nar
rativ
es, p
p. 1
69, 1
81.
194
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
to p
rovi
de a
mor
e sa
tisfa
ctO
lY e
xpla
natio
n" th
an th
e re
surr
ectio
n.40
Dav
is
resp
onds
: "A
ll of
the
alte
rnat
ive
hypo
thes
es w
ith w
hich
I am
fam
iliar
are
hi
stor
ical
ly w
eak;
som
e ar
e so
wea
k th
at t
hey
colla
pse
of t
heir
own
wei
ght o
nce
spel
led
out .
... T
he a
ltern
ativ
e th
eori
es th
at h
ave
been
pro
-po
sed
are
not o
nly
wea
ker b
ut fa
r wea
ker a
t exp
lain
ing
the
avai
labl
e hi
s-to
rical
evi
denc
e.',4
1 R
obin
son
note
s th
at "
it is
inde
ed v
eiY
diff
icul
t to
dis-
mis
s !J
esus
' app
eara
nces
] an
d sti
ll fin
d a
cred
ible
exp
lana
tion.
,,42
Giv
en th
at th
e sk
eptic
wou
ld h
ave
to a
ccou
nt fo
r th
e di
scip
les
bein
g su
re th
at th
ey h
ad s
een
the
risen
Jesu
s, th
e m
ost p
opul
ar n
atur
alis
tic re
-sp
onse
(al
thou
gh s
till
a re
al m
inor
ity r
ejoi
nder
) is
to s
ugge
st t
hat
they
sa
w h
allu
cina
tions
. A
det
aile
d cr
itiqu
e is
impo
ssib
le h
ere,
but
we
can
. 43
pr
ovid
e a
list o
f som
e of
the
myr
iad
prob
lem
s w
ith s
uch
a re
spon
se.
For e
xam
ple,
(1)
hal
luci
natio
ns a
re p
rivat
e ex
peri
ence
s, w
hile
cle
arly
w
e ha
ve s
tron
g re
ason
s to
ass
eit t
hat g
roup
s of
peo
ple
clai
med
to h
ave
seen
Jesu
s. (
2) T
he d
isci
ples
' des
pair
indi
cate
s th
at th
ey w
ere
not i
n th
e pr
oper
fram
e of
min
d to
see
hal
luci
natio
ns. (
3) P
erha
ps th
e m
ost s
erio
us
prob
lem
is t
hat t
here
wer
e fa
r too
man
y di
ffer
ent t
imes
, pla
ces
and
per-
sona
litie
s in
volv
ed in
the
appe
aran
ces.
To
belie
ve th
at w
ith e
ach
of th
ese
vary
ing
pers
ons
and
circ
umst
ance
s a
sepa
rate
hal
luci
natio
n oc
curr
ed
bord
ers
on c
redu
lity.
(4)
Fur
ther
, on
this
vie
w, J
esus
' bod
y sh
ould
stil
l ha
ve b
een
loca
ted
safe
ly i
n th
e to
mb!
(5)
Hal
luci
natio
ns v
eiY r
arel
y tr
ansf
orm
live
s, bu
t we
have
no
reco
rds
of a
ny o
f the
eye
witn
esse
s re
-ca
ntin
g th
eir
faith
. Tw
o hu
ge p
robl
ems
are
the
conv
ersi
ons
of b
oth
(6)
Paul
and
(7)
Jam
es,
neith
er o
f who
m h
ad a
des
ire
to s
ee Je
sus.
The
se
are
just
a v
ery
few
of t
he s
erio
us q
uest
ions
for
this
alte
rnat
ive
view
. All
othe
r pro
pose
d na
tura
l hyp
othe
ses
have
sim
ilarly
bee
n di
spro
ven.
44
Now
we
are
read
y to
stat
e a
gene
ral p
rinci
ple
for m
ovin
g fr
om th
e di
s-
39B
row
n A
n 11
1tro
duct
ion
to N
ew T
esta
men
t Cbr
istol
ogy,
p.
163;
d.
pp. 1
63-6
7.
"oD
unn,
'The
Evi
denc
efor
jesu
s, p
. 76.
Ano
ther
mor
e re
cent
and
sim
ilar
is th
at
T. W
right
, "C
hris
tian
Orig
ins
and
the
Res
urre
ctio
n of
Jesu
s: T
he R
esur
rect
ion
of Je
sus
as a
HIS
-to
rical
Pro
blem
," S
ewan
ee 1
7Jeo
logi
cal R
evie
w 4
1 (1
998)
: 11
8-22
. . il
Step
hen
T. D
avis
, "Is
Bel
ief i
n th
e R
esur
rect
ion
Ratio
nal?
" Pb
ilo 2
(199
9):
57-5
8.
.i2].
A. T
. Rob
inso
n, C
an W
e Tr
ust t
be N
ew T
esta
mel
1f?
(Gra
nd R
apid
s, M
ich.
: Ee
rdm
ans,
197
7),
p.12
4.
'>3Po
r a tr
eatm
ent o
f the
late
st tr
ends
plu
s a d
etai
led
criti
que,
see
Gar
y R.
Hab
erm
as, "
Expl
aini
ng
Aw
ay Je
sus'
Res
urre
ctio
n: T
he R
ecen
t Rev
ival
of H
allu
cina
tion
Theo
ries,
" C
bris
tian
Rese
arcb
jo
umal
23 (2
001)
, pp.
26-
31, 4
7-49
.
Tbe
Cas
e fo
r C
bris
t's R
es1l
rrec
tion
195
cipl
es' c
onvi
ctio
ns t
o th
e hi
stor
ical
res
urre
ctio
n ap
pear
ance
s. T
he s
trong
re
ason
s fo
r su
ppO
lting
the
disc
iple
s' ex
peri
ence
s of
seei
ng Je
sus,
in c
on-
junc
tion
with
the
fai
lure
of
alte
rnat
ive
thes
es e
ven
by c
ritic
al s
tand
ards
,
, in
dica
tes
that
by
far
the
mos
t lik
ely
scen
ario
is t
hat t
he d
isci
ples
act
ually
sa
w th
e ris
en Je
sus.
Furth
er, t
he m
ore
thor
ough
ly th
e na
tura
l hyp
othe
ses
fail,
the
mor
e lik
ely
are
the
hist
oric
al r
esur
rect
ion
appe
aran
ces.
To
stat
e th
is pr
inci
ple
mor
e br
iefly
as
a m
ock
mat
hem
atic
al e
quat
ion:
giv
en a
rea
-so
nabl
e ex
plan
atio
n, th
e di
scip
les'
expe
rien
ces
plus
the
failu
re o
f alte
rna-
tives
equ
als
the
hist
oric
al r
esur
rect
ion
appe
aran
ces
of Je
sus.
This
follo
ws
beca
use,
due
to th
e fa
ilure
of a
ltern
ativ
es, t
he im
pres
sive
ev
iden
ces
that
mak
e th
e ca
se fo
r th
e di
scip
les'
expe
rien
ces
as s
trong
as
anyt
hing
in
the
New
Tes
tam
ent n
ow b
ecom
e im
pres
sive
evi
denc
es f
or
the
resu
rrec
tion
appe
aran
ces
them
selv
es.
In b
rief,
the
disc
iple
s' ex
peri
-en
ces
are
reco
gniz
ed f
or w
hat
they
act
ually
wer
e: J
esus
' pos
tdea
th a
p-pe
aran
ces.
TH
E U
NlQ
iJE
NE
SS O
F T
HE
DIS
CIP
LE
S' T
RA
NSF
OR
MA
TIO
NS
Toda
y, m
any
have
bee
n w
illin
g to
die
for t
heir
relig
ious
or e
ven
polit
ical
co
nvic
tions
. Fr
om c
omm
unis
ts t
o M
uslim
s to
Chr
istia
ns,
we
are
wel
l-ac
quai
nted
with
exa
mpl
es. H
owev
er, m
any
thro
ugho
ut h
istO
lY h
ave
also
pr
opag
ated
false
bel
iefs
. Wha
t sep
arat
es Je
sus'
disc
iple
s fr
om th
ese
latte
r ca
ses?
Is t
heir
tran
sfor
mat
ion
in a
ny w
ay u
niqu
e?
Virt
ually
no
one
disp
utes
the
disc
iple
s' ra
dica
l tra
nsfo
nnat
ions
. Bef
ore
Jesu
s di
ed, h
is f
ollo
wer
s ab
ando
ned
and
even
den
ied
him
."5 I
n co
ntra
st,
afte
r th
e re
surr
ectio
n th
e re
mai
nder
of t
heir
live
s w
ere
unde
niab
ly a
nd
radi
cally
alte
red.
The
y w
ere
will
ing
to d
ie fo
r the
ir fa
ith, a
nd m
any
wer
e m
arty
red.
46 Th
e di
scip
les'
met
amor
phos
es a
re a
lso
visi
ble
from
thei
r eth
-
+'In
"Ex
plai
ning
Aw
ay Je
sus'
Res
urre
ctio
n,"
I lis
t nin
etee
n di
ffer
ent p
robl
ems
for v
ario
us f
orm
s of
the
hallu
cina
tion
theo
ry.
Por
a re
adab
le t
reat
men
t of
man
y ot
her
pote
ntia
l na
tura
listic
re-
spon
ses,
see
the
mor
e th
an o
ne h
undr
ed p
ages
dev
oted
to th
e to
pic
in I-
Iabe
rmas
and
Lic
ona,
Tb
e C
asef
or tb
e Re
sltlT
ectio
l1 q
lJes
us, e
sp. c
haps
. 7-9
. '''S
ome
exam
ples
are
fou
nd in
Mt 2
6:56
,69-
74;
Mk
14:5
0, 6
6-72
; Lk
22:
55-7
2; J
n 18
:25-
27 .
<!6
J. /,
See
Act
s 2:
41-4
7; 4
:1-4
, 8-2
1,29
-31;
5:1
7-32
, 40-
42. F
or th
eir w
illin
gnes
s to
die
, see
Jn 2
1:18
-19
; Act
s 7:
57-6
0; 1
2:1-
3; 2
1:13
; 25
:11;
Rom
14:
8; 1
Cor
15:
30-3
2; 2
Cor
4:7
-14;
11:
23-3
2; P
hil
1:20
-24;
d.
2 Pe
t 1:
13-1
5. W
e ha
ve e
arly
ref
eren
ces
to t
he m
arty
rdom
s of
Pet
er a
nd P
aul
(Cle
men
t of R
ome
Cor
intb
ians
5)
ancl
tw
o ac
coun
ts o
f the
mar
tyrd
om o
f Jam
es,
the
brot
her
ofje
sus
(Jos
ephu
s An
tiqui
ties 2
0:9:
1; I
-Ieg
esip
pus
in E
useb
ius
Eccl
esia
stic
al H
ist01
J' 2:
23).
Eu-
196
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
ics,
evan
gelis
m a
nd o
ther
teac
hing
s, r
efle
cted
thro
ugho
ut th
e N
ew T
es-
tam
ent.
Extra
bibl
ical
sou
rces
, bo
th s
ecul
ar a
nd C
hris
tian,
als
o at
test
to
thes
e ch
ange
s:i7
Wha
t is
resp
onsi
ble
for
the
chan
ges
in th
e di
scip
les?
The
New
Tes
ta-
men
t is
unm
ista
kabl
y cl
ear t
hat J
esus
' res
urre
ctio
n ap
pear
ance
s wer
e th
e in
terv
enin
g ev
ents
, th
e ca
taly
st b
etw
een
thei
r co
nfus
ion
and
exal
tatio
n.
Criti
cal s
chol
ars
are
in to
tal a
gree
men
t her
e. B
en M
eyer
sta
tes
it cl
early
: "T
hat i
t was
the
East
er e
xper
ienc
es w
hich
aff
ecte
d [th
e di
scip
les']
tra
ns-
form
atio
n is
beyo
nd re
ason
able
dou
bt.,,4
8 H
ugo
Stau
ding
er a
gree
s: "
Onl
y th
e ap
pear
ance
s of
Jes
us b
roug
ht a
bout
a n
ew c
hang
e of
moo
d in
th
em.,,4
9 N.
T. W
right
dec
lare
s: "
the
first
gene
ratio
n of
Chr
istia
ns .
.. a
n-no
unce
d an
d ce
lebr
ated
the
victO
lY o
f Jes
us o
ver
evil.
...
Tha
t was
the
basi
s of
thei
r re
mar
kabl
e jo
y."so
A
dmitt
edly
, life
con
vers
ions
hav
e ha
ppen
ed fo
r un
tme
caus
es.
But
I w
ould
ass
ert
that
the
re i
s a
qual
itativ
e di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n w
hat
oc-
curr
ed t
o t
he d
isci
ples
and
wha
t w
e se
e to
day.
Gra
nted
, th
ere
is th
e of
ten-
ackn
owle
dged
pre
cept
tha
t th
ose
who
are
will
ing
to d
ie f
or a
ca
use
genu
inel
y be
lieve
in it
. The
dis
cipl
es d
id s
uffe
r fo
r th
eir
belie
f in
a ca
use,
lik
e ev
etyo
ne e
lse.
But
her
e th
e m
ain
sim
ilarit
ies
betw
een
the
disc
iple
s an
d ot
hers
sto
p.
Dis
tinct
ly u
nlik
e th
e ot
her c
ases
, as
we
have
see
n in
this
cha
pter
, the
di
scip
les
died
for
mor
e th
an b
eing
sol
d ou
t to
a c
ause
. Th
ey w
illin
gly
gave
the
ir liv
es p
reci
seZv
bec
ause
the
y w
ere
abso
lute
Zv c
onvi
nced
that
th
ey h
ad se
en t
he r
isen
jesu
s. In
sho
rt, t
heir
tran
sfor
mat
ions
wer
e no
t ca
used
by
an id
eolo
gy,
like
the
othe
rs,
but t
heir
new
out
look
was
ex-
pres
sly
base
d on
a p
erso
nal e
xper
ienc
e-th
eir
prof
ound
con
vict
ion
that
sebi
us r
ecor
ds th
at Ja
mes
the
brot
her
of Jo
hn, P
eter
and
Pau
l all
died
for
thei
r fai
th (
Eccl
esi-
astic
al H
is[O
IY 2
:9, 2
5).
.I7Se
cular
ref
eren
ces
appe
ar in
Tac
itus
(Ann
als
15.4
4), j
osep
hus'
s di
sput
ed p
arag
raph
(Ant
iqui
-tie
s 18.
3.3)
and
in M
ara
Bar
-Ser
apio
n's
lette
r to
his
son
(loc
ated
in th
e B
ritis
h M
useu
m).
Chr
is-
tian
test
imon
ies
are
reco
rded
by
Cle
men
t of R
ome
(Cor
inth
ians
42)
, Ign
atiu
s (S
myr
neaJ
1s 3
) an
d B
arna
bas
(5).
""Be
n M
eyer
, 17
Je A
ims
of je
sus
(Lon
don:
SCM
, 197
9), p
. 60.
.,9
Hug
o St
audi
nger
, "Th
e R
esur
rect
ion
of Je
sus
Chris
t as
Savi
ng E
vent
and
as
'Obj
ect'
of H
isto
r-ic
al R
esea
rch,
" Sc
ottis
h jo
urna
l of 1
7Jeo
logy
36
(198
3), p
. 32
1.
"'N. T
. Wrig
ht, j
esus
and
the
VictO
l]! o
f God
, vol
. 2 o
f Ci
Jrist
ia}7
Ori
gins
and
the
Que
stio
n qf
God
(M
inne
apol
is:
Fortr
ess,
1997
), p.
659
.
Tbe
Cas
e fo
r C
hris
t's R
esur
rect
ion
197
they
had
act
ually
see
n th
e ri
sen
Jesu
s.
Apa
rt fr
om th
eir r
esur
rect
ion
expe
rien
ces,
the
re w
ould
hav
e be
en n
o tra
nsfo
rmat
ions
, for
witl
10ut
this
eve
nt th
eir f
aith
was
vai
n (1
Cor
. 15:
14,
17).
As P
aul a
rgue
s, t
hey
actu
ally
saw
Jesu
s (1
Cor
15:
1-11
), an
d th
is is
w
hat c
onfi
rmed
thei
r et
erna
l life
, for
if Je
sus
was
rai
sed,
so
they
wou
ld
be r
aise
d (1
Cor
15:
17-2
0).
Dea
th h
ad n
o m
ore
stin
g fo
r th
em (
1 C
or
15:5
3-55
). Pe
ter
sim
ilarly
but
sur
pris
ingl
y de
clar
es t
hat
beca
use
Jesu
s' re
surr
ectio
n se
cure
d he
aven
, eve
n th
e se
riou
s st
rugg
les
of li
fe c
ould
be
face
d w
ith re
joic
ing
(1 P
et 1
:3-7
). Th
ink
abou
t it.
If y
our
eter
nity
dep
ende
d on
Jesu
s be
ing
rais
ed f
rom
th
e de
ad, w
hich
wou
ld y
ou ra
ther
hav
e-a
stro
ng c
onvi
ctio
n or
you
r ac-
tual
ly h
avin
g se
en th
e ri
sen
Jesu
s al
ong
with
an
even
stro
nger
con
vict
ion
prec
isel
y be
caus
e yo
u di
d so
? In
oth
er w
ords
, whi
ch c
ircum
stan
ce w
ould
ca
rry
a gr
eate
r con
vict
ion:
you
r bei
ng c
onvi
nced
cen
turie
s la
ter t
hat y
ou
ough
t to
follo
w s
omeo
ne's
teac
hing
s, o
r sim
ply
the
know
ledg
e th
at y
ou
actu
ally
had
bee
n w
ith th
at s
ame
pers
on la
st n
ight
, how
ever
unu
sual
the
parti
cula
rs?
Now
can
you
imag
ine
the
disc
iple
s' jo
y w
hen
they
saw
Jesu
s al
ive-
face
to f
ace,
gaz
ing
stra
ight
int
o hi
s ey
es?
In th
at m
omen
t whe
n th
ey s
aw Je
sus,
hea
ven
ente
red
eart
h's
real
m a
nd e
tern
ity b
urst
upo
n th
em. A
fter a
ll, w
hat i
s a
resu
rrec
tion
appe
aran
ce o
f Jes
us?
Whe
n th
e di
s-ci
ples
saw
the
ris
en J
esus
, th
ey s
aw w
alki
ng,
talk
ing,
ete
rnal
life
! N
o w
onde
r th
ey w
ere
assu
red
of h
eave
n!S!
So
her
e is
the
chie
f di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n Je
sus'
disc
iple
s an
d ot
hers
w
ho h
old
relig
ious
con
vict
ions
. In
addi
tion
to th
eir f
ortif
ied
conv
ictio
ns ,
the
disc
iple
s ha
d an
evi
denc
ed e
xper
ienc
e th
at n
o on
e el
se e
ver h
as b
e-fo
re o
r sin
ce. 52
Th
ey s
aw h
eave
n in
the
pers
on o
f Jes
us C
hrist
. al
-th
ough
bel
ieve
rs to
day
have
not
seen
Jesu
s (1
Pet
1:8
), w
e ha
ve th
e ne
xt
best
thin
g-ve
ty p
ower
ful e
vide
nce
that
the
disc
iple
s di
d!
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N
I con
tend
that
the
mos
t cm
cial
asp
ect o
f an
argu
men
t for
the
hist
oric
ity
"For
an
item
ized
arg
umen
t fro
m J
esus
' res
urre
ctio
n to
ete
rnal
life
, se
e H
aber
mas
, 77
.7e R
isen
je
sus a
nd F
utur
e H
ope,
chap
s. 1
-7.
"Gar
y R.
H
aber
mas
, "R
esur
rect
ion
Cla
ims
in N
on-C
hris
tian
Relig
ions
," Re
ligio
lls S
tudi
es 2
5 (9
89):
167-
77.
198
To
E
VE
RY
ON
E
AN
A
NS
WE
R
of Je
sus'
resu
rrec
tion
is th
at t
he d
isci
ples
wer
e to
tally
con
vinc
ed t
hat
they
had
see
n ap
pear
ance
s of
the
rise
n Je
sus.
The
com
mun
ity o
f crit
ical
sc
hola
rs h
olds
tha
t th
ese
expe
rien
ces
are
thor
ough
ly h
isto
rical
. Th
ese
sam
e sc
hola
rs n
early
alw
ays
reco
gniz
e th
at n
atur
al a
ltern
ativ
e re
spon
ses
do n
ot e
xpla
in th
e da
ta. T
here
fore
, the
impr
essi
ve e
vide
nces
that
est
ab-
lish
the
disc
iple
s' ex
peri
ence
s, e
spec
ially
in li
ght o
f the
fai
lure
of t
hese
al
tern
ativ
es, n
ow b
ecom
e im
pres
sive
evi
denc
es fo
r th
e re
surr
ectio
n ap
-pe
aran
ces
them
selv
es.
Furth
er,
that
the
se a
ppea
ranc
es w
ere
the
reas
on f
or t
he d
isci
ples
' tra
nsfo
rmat
ions
sep
arat
es th
em fr
om o
ther
relig
ious
and
pol
itica
l met
a-m
orph
oses
. Th
at t
he d
isci
ples
act
ually
saw
the
ris
en J
esus
bas
es t
heir
conv
ictio
ns o
f hea
ven
on th
eir
fore
tast
e of
that
rea
lity,
whi
ch th
ey h
ad
pers
onal
ly w
itnes
sed.
Exc
iting
ly, a
lthou
gh th
ey h
ave
not s
een
the
resu
r-re
cted
Jes
us,
belie
vers
tod
ay h
ave
the
next
bes
t th
ing-
very
pow
erfu
l ev
iden
ce th
at th
e di
scip
les
diel!
The
argu
men
t is f
irm a
nd h
eave
n sti
ll fo
l-lo
ws!
FO
R F
UR
TH
ER
REA
DIN
G
Crai
g, W
illia
m L
ane,
and
John
Dom
inic
Cro
ssan
. W
ill th
e Re
alje
slls
Ple
ase
Stan
d UP
? Ed
ited
by P
aul C
opan
. G
rand
Rap
ids,
Mic
h.:
Bak
er,
1998
. Cr
aig,
Will
iam
Lan
e, a
nd G
erd
Lude
man
n. je
slls
' Res
w're
ctio
n: F
act o
r Fig
men
t?
Edite
d by
Pau
l C
opan
and
Ron
ald
Tace
lli.
Dow
ners
Gro
ve,
Ill.:
Inte
rVar
sity
Pr
ess,
2000
. H
aber
mas
, Gar
y R.
T7J
e Ris
enje
sus a
nd F
utur
e H
ope.
Lan
ham
, Md.
: R
owm
an &
Littl
efie
ld, 2
003.
_
__
. T7J
e His
tori
calje
sus:
Anc
ient
Evi
denc
eJor
tbe L
ife o
JCbr
ist.
Rev.
ed.
JoP-
lin, M
o.:
Col
lege
Pre
ss, 1
996.
H
aber
mas
, G
ary
R.,
and
Mic
hael
Lic
ona.
T7J
e C
aseJ
or tb
e Re
sUlT
ectio
n o
f Jes
us.
Gra
nd R
apid
s, M
ich.
: K
rege
l, 20
04.
Wrig
ht, N
. T.
T7Je
Resu
rrec
tion
oj th
e So
n oj
God
. Vol
. 3 o
f C
hris
tian
Ori
gins
and
th
e Q
uest
ion
oj G
od. M
inne
apol
is:
Fortr
ess,
2003
.
PA
RT
4
PHIL
OSO
PHIC
AL
AN
D
CU
LTU
RA
L C
HA
LLEN
GES
T
O C
HR
IST
IAN
FA
ITH
j.
P. M
orel
and
TH
E S
TRU
CTU
RE O
F TH
IS B
OO
K F
OLL
OW
S A
VER
Y C
ARE
FULL
Y C
RAFT
ED P
RO
GR
ES-
sion
of i
deas
. In
part
1 w
e ta
ckle
d th
e w
hole
que
stio
n of
faith
and
reas
on
in o
rder
to d
efen
d th
e ve
ry p
ract
ice
of a
polo
getic
s. H
avin
g gi
ven
a ra
-tio
nale
and
som
e pr
actic
al a
dvic
e fo
r its
empl
oym
ent,
parts
2 a
nd 3
took
on
the
task
of p
rovi
ding
a d
efen
se o
f the
exi
sten
ce o
f God
and
the
trut
h of
Chr
istia
nity
. Aga
in, t
he o
rder
is i
mpo
rtan
t. If
mon
othe
ism
is tr
ue, t
hen
it is
clea
rly p
ossi
ble
that
God
cou
ld p
erfo
rm m
iracl
es i
n hu
man
his
tory
an
d re
veal
him
self
in w
ays
cons
iste
nt w
ith h
is re
ality
as
know
n fr
om th
e cr
eatio
n its
elf
and
the
argu
men
ts f
or h
is e
xist
ence
. So
und
erst
ood,
the
ar
gum
ents
of
palt
2 do
not
mer
ely
prov
ide
grou
nds
for
God
's re
ality
; th
ey a
lso
prov
ide
som
e in
form
atio
n ab
out h
is n
atur
e (th
at h
e is
wis
e, in
-te
llige
nt, g
ood,
pow
erfu
l and
exc
elle
nt in
all
way
s ap
prop
riat
e to
bei
ng
a pe
rson
). Pa
rt 3
capt
ured
the
sear
ch to
see
if G
od h
as in
fac
t re
veal
ed
him
self
in a
spe
cial
way
, and
the
case
for t
he N
ew T
esta
men
t's d
epic
tion
of C
hris
t and
the
cred
ibili
ty o
f mira
cles
, esp
ecia
lly th
e re
surr
ectio
n of
the
Lord
Jesu
s, c
onst
itute
the
appr
opri
ate
end
of th
at s
earc
h.
How
ever
, no
case
is c
ompl
ete
if it
cons
ider
s on
ly e
vide
nce
in it
s fav
or,
and
the
case
for t
he C
hris
tian
wor
ldvi
ew is
no
exce
ptio
n to
this
rul
e. S
o in
pm
ts 4
and
5, w
e pr
ovid
e a
stat
emen
t and
resp
onse
to s
ome
impo
rtan
t ph
iloso
phic
al, c
ultu
ral a
nd re
ligio
us c
halle
nges
freq
uent
ly ra
ised
aga
inst