case studies and observational research slides prepared by alison l. o’malley passer chapter 6
TRANSCRIPT
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Case Studies and Observational Research
Slides Prepared by Alison L. O’Malley
Passer Chapter 6
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Case Studies
• In-depth analysis of an individual, social unit, or event•Remember Phineas Gage? •How do psychological scientists conducting case studies acquire their data?
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Case Studies: Concerns
•Difficulty drawing causal conclusions •Generalizability of findings •Potential for observer bias
How can these concerns be overcome?
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Observer Bias: Expectations can color perception
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Observational Research
• Umbrella term for various types of nonexperimental research designs wherein trained observers record ongoing behavior
• Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches
• As opposed to case studies, involve multiple participants
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Observational Research
Naturalistic observationParticipant observationStructured observation
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Naturalistic Observation
• Researcher(s) strive for little to no interaction with participants
• Disguised: participants are not aware they’re being observed
• Undisguised: participants know they’re being observed
I’m watching you!
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Naturalistic Observation
• Behavior examined in “ecologically valid” (i.e., real life) conditions
• But research design lacks control and some data may be overlooked
• Reactivity occurs when behavior is altered through the process of being observed
• Must remain mindful of APA Ethics Code
When are researchers permitted to forego informed consent?
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Participant Observation
• Researchers embed themselves in the phenomena of interest
• Disguised vs. undisguised distinction still applies – participants may not know researchers are among them
• Ethnographic approaches are qualitative and incorporate interviews to develop a narrative of the research topic
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Participant Observation
• Is participant observation more or less subject to reactivity than naturalistic observation?
• Is disguised participant observation ethical?
Critical Questions
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Structured Observation
• Researchers “tweak” the research setting, influencing what happens when
• Sometimes called analogue behavioral observation in keeping with goal of creating “analogues” of naturally occurring situations
• Affords more efficiency and control compared to other forms of observational research, but greater potential for reactivity
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Recording Observations
• Narrative records – extensive description of behavior as it unfolds
• Field notes – less comprehensive records of behavior
• Behavioral coding systems – categorize behaviors into mutually exclusive categories
Discuss whether each approach is more qualitative or quantitative.
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Recording Observations
Develop a coding scheme for handshakes. Make sure that each category is accompanied by a clear operational definition.
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Recording Observations
• Rating and ranking scales – observers evaluate participants’ standing on various dimensions
• Diaries – participants observe and record their own behaviors
Supplements to ongoing behavioral observations
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What observational research strategy isused here? What sort of research questions could this researcher answer based upon her data?
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Sampling Behavior
• Focal sampling – Focus on one participant at a time
• Scan sampling – Observe everyone for a short period of time at predetermined intervals
• Situation sampling – Observe behavior across multiple settings
• Time sampling – Conduct observations over representative set of time periods
Obtaining representative data without recording everything and everyone!
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Practice Question
Questions of external validity pervade observational research. Which sampling strategy may be regarded as the most externally valid? a.Time sampling
b.Scan sampling
c.Focal sampling
d.Situation sampling
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Overcoming Observer Bias
•Well-developed coding system•Observer training•Blind observation •Verify reliability of observer practices
10 6.5
4.5
3.0
Poor interrater reliability !
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Avoiding Reactivity
•Disguised observation (an extreme form of unobtrusive measurement) •Habituation •Physical trace measures •Archival records
Archives
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•How can observational research, correlational research, and experimental research work in concert to help satisfy the goals of science? •Description•Explanation•Prediction•Control
Closing Considerations