Castor and Pollux

For other uses, see Castor and Pollux (disambiguation).In Greek andRomanmythology,Castor[1] andPollux[2]

Dioscuri (Pollux or Castor), Rome, Capitol

or Polydeuces[3] were twin brothers, together known astheDioskouri.[4] Their mother was Leda, but Castor wasthe mortal son of Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, and Pol-lux the divine son of Zeus, who seduced Leda in the guiseof a swan. Though accounts of their birth are varied, theyare sometimes said to have been born from an egg, alongwith their twin sisters and half-sisters Helen of Troy andClytemnestra.In Latin the twins are also known as theGemini[5] orCa-stores.[6] When Castor was killed, Pollux asked Zeus tolet him share his own immortality with his twin to keepthem together, and they were transformed into the con-stellation Gemini. The pair were regarded as the patronsof sailors, to whom they appeared as St. Elmo’s fire, andwere also associated with horsemanship.They are sometimes called the Tyndaridae or Tyn-darids,[7] later seen as a reference to their father and step-father Tyndareus.

Dioscuri (Castor or Pollux), Rome, Capitol

1 Birth and functions

The best-known story of the twins’ birth is that Zeus dis-guised himself as a swan and seduced Leda. Thus Leda’schildren are frequently said to have hatched from twoeggs that she then produced. The Dioscuri can be rec-ognized in vase-paintings by the skull-cap they wear, thepilos, which was explained in antiquity as the remnantsof the egg. Whether the children are thus mortal or half-immortal is not consistent among accounts, nor is whetherthe twins hatched together from one egg. In some ac-counts, only Polydeuces was fathered by Zeus, while Ledaand her husband Tyndareus conceived Castor. This ex-plains why they were granted an alternate immortality. Itis a common belief that one would live among the gods,while the other was among the dead. The figure of Tyn-dareus may have entered their tradition to explain theirarchaic name Tindaridai in Spartan inscriptions or in lit-erature Tyndaridai,[8] in turn occasioning incompatibleaccounts of their parentage.Castor and Pollux are sometimes both mortal, sometimesboth divine. One consistent point is that if only one of

1

2 3 MYTHOLOGY

Castor depicted on a calyx krater of ca. 460–450 BC, holding ahorse’s reins and spears and wearing a pilos-style helmet

them is immortal, it is Pollux. In Homer’s Iliad, Helenlooks down from the walls of Troy and wonders why shedoes not see her brothers among the Bold text. The nar-rator remarks that they are both already dead and buriedback in their homeland of Lacedaemon, thus suggestingthat at least in some early traditions, both were mortal.Their death and shared immortality offered by Zeus wasmaterial of the lost Cypria in the Epic cycle.The Dioscuri were regarded as helpers of humankind andheld to be patrons of travellers and of sailors in particular,who invoked them to seek favourable winds.[9] Their roleas horsemen and boxers also led to them being regardedas the patrons of athletes and athletic contests.[10] Theycharacteristically intervened at the moment of crisis, aid-ing those who honoured or trusted them.[11]

2 Classical sources

Ancient Greek authors tell a number of versions of thestory of Castor and Pollux. Homer portrays them ini-tially as ordinary mortals, treating them as dead in theIliad, but in the Odyssey they are treated as alive eventhough “the corn-bearing earth holds them.” The authordescribes them as “having honour equal to gods,” livingon alternate days due to the intervention of Zeus. In boththe Odyssey and in Hesiod, they are described as the sonsof Tyndareus and Leda. In Pindar, Pollux is the son ofZeus while Castor is the son of the mortal Tyndareus.

Pair of Roman statuettes (3rd century AD) depicting the Dioscurias horsemen, with their characteristic skullcaps (MetropolitanMuseum of Art)

The theme of ambiguous parentage is not unique to Cas-tor and Pollux; similar characterisations appear in the sto-ries of Hercules and Theseus.[12] The Dioscuri are alsoinvoked in Alcaeus' Fragment 34a,[13] though whetherthis poem antedates the Homeric Hymn to the twins[14]is unknown.[15] They appear together in two plays byEuripides, Helen and Elektra.Cicero tells the story of how Simonides of Ceos was re-buked by Scopas, his patron, for devoting too much spaceto praising Castor and Pollux in an ode celebrating Sco-pas’ victory in a chariot race. Shortly afterwards, Si-monides was told that two young men wished to speakto him; after he had left the banqueting room, the rooffell in and crushed Scopas and his guests.[11]

3 Mythology

Both Dioscuri were excellent horsemen and hunters whoparticipated in the hunting of the Calydonian Boar andlater joined the crew of Jason's ship, the Argo.

3.1 As Argonauts

During the expedition of the Argonauts, Pollux took partin a boxing contest and defeated King Amycus of theBebryces, a savage mythical people in Bithynia. Afterreturning from the voyage, the Dioskouroi helped Jasonand Peleus to destroy the city of Iolcus in revenge for thetreachery of its king Pelias.

3.2 Rescuing Helen

When their sister and half-sister Helen was abducted byTheseus, the half-brothers invaded his kingdom of Atticato rescue her. In revenge they abducted Theseus’s motherAethra and took her to Sparta while setting his rival,

3

Menestheus, on the throne of Athens. Aethra was thenforced to become Helen’s slave. She was ultimately re-turned to her home by her grandsons Demophon andAcamas after the fall of Troy.

3.3 The Leucippides, Lynceus and death

Roman sarcophagus (160 AD) depicting the rape of theLeucippides, Phoebe and Hilaeira (Vatican Museum)

Castor and Pollux aspired to marry the Leucippides(“daughters of the white horse”), Phoebe and Hilaeira,whose father was a brother of Leucippus (“whitehorse”).[lower-alpha 1] Both women were already betrothedto cousins of the Dioscuri, the twin brothers Lynceus andIdas of Thebes, sons of Tyndareus's brother Aphareus.Castor and Pollux carried the women off to Spartawherein each had a son; Phoebe bore Mnesileos to Polluxand Hilaeira bore Anogon to Castor. This began a familyfeud among the four sons of the brothers Tyndareus andAphareus.

Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus by Rubens, ca. 1618

The cousins carried out a cattle-raid in Arcadia togetherbut fell out over the division of the meat. After stealingthe herd, but before dividing it, the cousins butchered,quartered, and roasted a calf.[17] As they prepared to eat,the gigantic Idas suggested that the herd be divided intotwo parts instead of four, based on which pair of cousinsfinished their meal first.[17] Castor and Pollux agreed.[17]Idas quickly ate both his portion and Lynceus’ portion.[17]Castor and Pollux had been duped. They allowed theircousins to take the entire herd, but vowed to somedaytake revenge.[17]

Some time later, Idas and Lynceus visited their uncle’shome in Sparta.[17] The uncle was on his way to Crete, sohe left Helen in charge of entertaining the guests, whichincluded both sets of cousins, as well as Paris, prince ofTroy.[17] Castor and Pollux recognized the opportunity toexact revenge, made an excuse that justified leaving thefeast, and set out to steal their cousins’ herd.[17] Idas andLynceus eventually set out for home, leaving Helen alonewith Paris, who then kidnapped her.[17] Thus, the fourcousins helped set into motion the events that gave rise tothe Trojan War.Meanwhile, Castor and Pollux had reached their desti-nation. Castor climbed a tree to keep a watch as Polluxbegan to free the cattle. Far away, Idas and Lynceus ap-proached. Lynceus, named for the lynx because he couldsee in the dark, spied Castor hiding in the tree.[17] Idasand Lynceus immediately understood what was happen-ing. Idas, furious, ambushed Castor, fatally woundinghim with a blow from his spear—but not before Castorcalled out to warn Pollux.[17] In the ensuing brawl, Pol-lux killed Lynceus. As Idas was about to kill Pollux,Zeus, who had been watching from Mt. Olympus, hurleda thunderbolt, killing Idas and saving his son.[17]

Returning to the dying Castor, Pollux was given thechoice by Zeus of spending all his time on Mount Olym-pus or giving half his immortality to his mortal brother.He opted for the latter, enabling the twins to alternate be-tween Olympus and Hades.[18][19] The brothers becamethe two brightest stars in the constellation Gemini (“thetwins”): Castor (Alpha Geminorum) and Pollux (BetaGeminorum). As emblems of immortality and death, theDioskouri, like Heracles, were said to have been initiatedinto the Eleusinian mysteries.[lower-alpha 2]

4 Iconography

Castor and Pollux are consistently associated with horsesin art and literature. They are widely depicted as hel-meted horsemen carrying spears.[18] The Pseudo-Oppianmanuscript depicts the brothers hunting, both on horse-back and on foot.[21]

On votive reliefs they are depicted with a variety ofsymbols representing the concept of twinhood, such asthe dokana (δόκανα – two upright pieces of wood con-

4 5 SHRINES AND RITES

Coin of Antiochus VII with Dioskouri

nected by two cross-beams), a pair of amphorae, a pairof shields, or a pair of snakes. They are also often shownwearing felt caps, sometimes with stars above. Theyare depicted on metopes from Delphi showing them onthe voyage of the Argo (Ἀργώ) and rustling cattle withIdas. Greek vases regularly show them in the rape of theLeucippides, as Argonauts, in religious ceremonies and atthe delivery to Leda of the egg containing Helen.[12] Theycan be recognized in some vase-paintings by the skull-capthey wear, the pilos (πῖλος), which was already explainedin antiquity as the remnants of the egg from which theyhatched.[22]

5 Shrines and rites

The Dioskouri were worshipped by the Greeks and Ro-mans alike; there were temples to the twins in Athens,such as the Anakeion, and Rome, as well as shrines inmany other locations in the ancient world.[24]

The Dioskouri and their sisters grew up in Sparta, inthe royal household of Tyndareus; they were particu-larly important to the Spartans, who associated themwith the Spartan tradition of dual kingship and appre-ciated that two princes of their ruling house were ele-vated to immortality. Their connection there was veryancient: a uniquely Spartan aniconic representation ofthe Tyndaridai was as two upright posts joined by across-bar;[25][26] as the protectors of the Spartan army the“beam figure” or dókana was carried in front of the armyon campaign.[27] Sparta’s unique dual kingship reflectsthe divine influence of the Dioscuri. When the Spartanarmymarched to war, one king remained behind at home,accompanied by one of the Twins. “In this way the realpolitical order is secured in the realm of the Gods”.[28]

Their herōon or grave-shrine was on a mountain top atTherapne across the Eurotas from Sparta, at a shrine

Fragmentary remains of the Temple of Castor and Pollux inRome.

known as the Meneláeion where Helen, Menelaus, Cas-tor and Pollux were all said to be buried. Castor himselfwas also venerated in the region of Kastoria in northernGreece.They were commemorated both as gods onOlympus wor-thy of holocaust, and as deceasedmortals inHades, whosespirits had to be propitiated by libations. Lesser shrines toCastor, Pollux and Helen were also established at a num-ber of other locations around Sparta.[29] The pear tree wasregarded by the Spartans as sacred to Castor and Pollux,and images of the twins were hung in its branches.[30] Thestandard Spartan oath was to swear “by the two gods” (inDoric Greek: νά τώ θεὼ, ná tō theō, in the Dual number).The rite of theoxenia (θεοξενία), “god-entertaining”, wasparticularly associated with Castor and Pollux. The twodeities were summoned to a table laid with food, whetherat individuals’ own homes or in the public hearths orequivalent places controlled by states. They are some-times shown arriving at a gallop over a food-laden table.Although such “table offerings” were a fairly commonfeature of Greek cult rituals, they were normally made inthe shrines of the gods or heroes concerned. The domes-tic setting of the theoxeniawas a characteristic distinctionaccorded to the Dioskouri.[12]

The image of the twins attending a goddess are

7.1 Etruscan Kastur and Pultuce 5

Relief (2nd century BC) depicting the Dioskouri galloping abovea winged Victory, with a banquet (theoxenia) laid out for thembelow

widespread[lower-alpha 3] and link the Dioskouri with themale societies of initiates under the aegis of the AnatolianGreat Goddess[32] and the great gods of Samothrace. TheDioscuri are the inventors of war dances, which charac-terize the Kuretes.

6 Indo-European analogues

Main article: Divine twins

The heavenly twins appear also in the Indo-Europeantradition as the effulgent Vedic brother-horsemen theAshvins,[8][11] the Lithuanian Ašvieniai, and the Ger-manic Alcis.[33][34]

7 Italy and the Roman Empire

From the fifth century BC onwards, the brothers wererevered by the Romans, probably as the result of cul-tural transmission via the Greek colonies of Magna Grae-cia in southern Italy. An archaic Latin inscription ofthe sixth or fifth century BC found at Lavinium, whichreads Castorei Podlouqueique qurois (“To Castor and Pol-

lux, the Dioskouri”), suggests a direct transmission fromthe Greeks; the word “qurois” is virtually a transliterationof the Greek word κούροις, while “Podlouquei” is ef-fectively a transliteration of the Greek Πολυδεύκης.[35]The construction of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, lo-cated in the Roman Forum at the heart of their city, wasundertaken to fulfil a vow (votum) made by Aulus Postu-mius Albus Regillensis in gratitude at the Roman victoryin the Battle of Lake Regillus in 495 BC. The establishingof the temple may also be a form of evocatio, the trans-ferral of a tutelary deity from a defeated town to Rome,where cult would be offered in exchange for favor.[36] Ac-cording to legend, the twins fought at the head of the Ro-man army and subsequently brought news of the victoryback to Rome.[18] The Locrians of Magna Graecia hadattributed their success at a legendary battle on the banksof the Sagras to the intervention of the Twins. The Ro-man legend may in fact have had its origins in the Locrianaccount and possibly supplies further evidence of culturaltransmission between Rome and Magna Graecia.[37]

The Romans believed that the twins aided them on thebattlefield.[9] Their role as horsemen made them partic-ularly attractive to the Roman equites and cavalry. Eachyear on July 15, the feast day of the Dioskouri, the 1,800equestrians would parade through the streets of Rome inan elaborate spectacle in which each rider wore full mili-tary attire and whatever decorations he had earned.[38]

In translations of comedies by Plautus, women generallyswear by Castor, andmen by Pollux; this is exemplified bythe slave-woman character Staphyla in A Pot of Gold (acti, ll.67-71) where she swears by Castor in line 67, thenthe negative prefix in line 71 denotes a refutation againstswearing by Pollux.[39]

7.1 Etruscan Kastur and Pultuce

The Etruscans venerated the twins as Kastur and Pultuce,collectively the tinas cliniiaras, “sons of Tinia,” the Etr-uscan counterpart of Zeus. They were often portrayed onEtruscan mirrors.[40] As was the fashion in Greece, theycould also be portrayed symbolically; one example can beseen in the Tomba del Letto Funebre at Tarquinia where alectisternium for them is painted. They are symbolised inthe painting by the presence of two pointed caps crownedwith laurel, referring to the Phrygian caps they were oftendepicted wearing.[41]

7.2 Christianization

Even after the rise of Christianity, the Dioskouroi contin-ued to be venerated. The fifth-century pope Gelasius I at-tested to the presence of a “cult of Castores” that the peo-ple did not want to abandon. In some instances, the twinsappear to have simply been absorbed into a Christianframework; thus fourth-century AD pottery and carvingsfrom North Africa depict the Dioskouroi alongside the

6 10 REFERENCES

Etruscan inscription to the Dioskouri as “sons of Zeus” on thebottom of an Attic red-figure kylix (ca. 515–510 BC)

Zeus, Hera, and Amor observe the birth of Helen and theDioscuri (Dutch majolica, 1550)

Twelve Apostles, the Raising of Lazarus or with SaintPeter. The church took an ambivalent attitude, rejectingthe immortality of the Dioskouroi but seeking to replacethem with equivalent Christian pairs. Saints Peter andPaul were thus adopted in place of the Dioskouroi as pa-trons of travelers, and Saints Cosmas and Damian tookover their function as healers. Some have also associatedSaints Speusippus, Eleusippus, and Melapsippus with theDioskouroi.[21]

TheNewTestament scholar DennisMacDonald identifiesCastor and Pollux as basis characters for the appearanceof James son of Zebedee and his brother John who appearin the narrative by Mark the Evangelist.[42] MacDonaldcites the origin of this identification to 1913 when J. Ren-

del Harris published his work Boanerges,[43] aGreek termfor Thunder, the epithet of Zeus father of Pollux in whatMacDonald calls a form of early Christian Dioscurism.

8 See also

• Asvin

9 Notes[1] Phoebe (“the pure”) is a familiar epithet of the moon,

Selene; her twin’s name Hilaeira (“the serene”) is also alunar attribute, their names “appropriate selectively to thenew and the full moon”.[16]

[2] In the oration of the Athenian peace emissary sent toSparta in 69, according to Xenophon (HellenicaVI), it wasasserted that “these three heroes were the first strangersupon whom this gift was bestowed.”[20]

[3] Kerenyi draws attention especially to the rock carvings inthe town of Akrai, Sicily.[31]

10 References[1] /ˈkæstər/; Latin: Castōr; Greek: Κάστωρ Kastōr “beaver”

[2] /ˈpɒləks/; Latin: Pollūx

[3] /ˌpɒlɨˈdjuːsiːz/; Greek: Πολυδεύκης Poludeukēs “muchsweet wine”Bloomsbury (1996), “Dioscuri”,Dictionary ofMyth, Lon-don: Bloomsbury Publishing

[4] /daɪˈɒskjəraɪ/; Latin: Dioscūrī ; Greek: ΔιόσκουροιDioskouroi “sons of Zeus”, fromDias (=Zeus) and Kouros

[5] /ˈdʒɛmɨnaɪ/; “twins”

[6] /ˈkæstəriːz/

[7] /tɪnˈdɛrɨdiː/ or /ˈtɪndərɪdz/; Τυνδαρίδαι, Tundaridai

[8] Burkert 1985, p. 212.

[9] Cotterell, Arthur (1997), “Dioscuri”, A Dictionary ofWorld Mythology, Oxford University Press.

[10] Howatson, MC; Chilvers, Ian, eds. (1996), “Dioscūri”,The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature,Oxford University Press.

[11] Roberts, John, ed. (2007), “Dioscūri”, Dictionary of theClassical World, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[12] Parker, Robert Christopher Towneley (2003), “Dioscuri”,in Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony, The OxfordClassical Dictionary, Oxford University Press.

[13] of Mytilene, Alcæus (May 2011), “Fragment 34a”,Toutcoule (World Wide Web log), Google.

7

[14] Homer, Hymn, Theoi.

[15] Campbell, David (1967), Greek Lyric Poetry, Bristol:Classical Press.

[16] Kerenyi 1959, p. 109.

[17] Stratikis, Potis (1987), Greek Mythology B, pp. 20–23.

[18] “Dioscuri.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.

[19] Routledge (2002), “Castor and Polydeuces”, Who’s Whoin Classical Mythology, London: Routledge.

[20] Kerenyi, Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal Image ofMother and Daughter, Princeton: Bollingen, p. 122.

[21] Kazhdan, Alexander; Talbot, Alice-Mary (1991), “Diosk-ouroi”, in Kazhdan, Alexander P, The Oxford Dictionaryof Byzantium, Oxford University Press.

[22] Scholiast, Lycophron.[23]

[23] Kerenyi 1959, p. 107 note 584.

[24] Browning, WRF (1997), “Dioscuri”, A Dictionary of theBible, Oxford University Press.

[25] Burkert 1985.

[26] Kerenyi 1959, p. 107.

[27] Sekunda, Nicholas ‘Nick’ Victor; Hook, Richard (1998),The Spartan Army, Osprey Publishing, p. 53, ISBN 1-85532-659-0.

[28] Burkert, p. 212.

[29] Pomeroy, Sarah B (2002), Spartan Women, US: OxfordUniversity Press, p. 114, ISBN 0-19-513067-7.

[30] Davenport, Guy (1999), Objects on a Table: HarmoniousDisarray in Art and Literature, Basic Books, p. 63, ISBN1-58243-035-7.

[31] Kerenyi 1959, p. 111.

[32] Chapouthier, Fernand (1935), Les Dioscures au serviced'une déesse.[8]

[33] Tacitus, Germania 43.

[34] Maier 1997, p. 96.

[35] Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon (1998), Religionsof Rome, 1. A History, Cambridge University Press, p.21, ISBN 0-521-45646-0.

[36] Smith, Christopher (2007), “The Religion of ArchaicRome”, A Companion to Roman Religion, Blackwell, p.37.

[37] Mommsen, Theodor (2004), The History of Rome II,Kessinger Publishing, p. 191, ISBN 1-4191-6625-5.

[38] McDonnell, Myles Anthony (2006), Roman Manliness,Cambridge University Press, p. 187, ISBN 0-521-82788-4.

[39] http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/plautus/aulularia.shtml

[40] Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (2002), The Etr-uscan Language, Manchester University Press, p. 204,ISBN 0-7190-5540-7.

[41] de Grummond, Nancy Thomson; Simon, Erika (2006),The Religion of the Etruscans, University of Texas Press,p. 60, ISBN 0-292-70687-1.

[42] Dennis MacDonald, The Homeric Epics and the Gospel ofMark, Yale University Press, 2000, pp 24-32.

[43] J. Rendel Harris, Boanerges, Cambridge University Press,1913, pp 1-4.

11 Sources• Ringleben, Joachim, “An Interpretation of the 10thNemean Ode”, Ars Disputandi, Douglas Hedley andRussell Manning, transl. Pindar's themes of the un-equal brothers and faithfulness and salvation, withthe Christian parallels in the dual nature of Christ.

• Burkert, Walter (1985), Greek Religion, Cambridge:Harvard University Press, pp. 212–13.

• Kerenyi, Karl (1959), The Heroes of the Greeks,Thames and Hundson, pp. 105–12 et passim.

• Maier, Bernhard (1997), Dictionary of Celtic Reli-gion and Culture, Boydell & Brewer.

• Pindar, Tenth Nemean Ode.

• “Dioskouroi”, Ouranios, Theoi Project. Excerpts inEnglish of classical sources.

12 External links• Images of the Castor and Pollux in the Warburg In-stitute Iconographic Database

8 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Castor and Pollux Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux?oldid=677978642 Contributors: The Epopt, Archibald

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13.2 Images• File:07leucip.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/07leucip.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/rubens/22mythol/28mythol.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a>Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/rubens/22mythol/28mythol.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artworkOriginal artist: Peter Paul Rubens

• File:Antiochos_VII_with_Dioscuri.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Antiochos_VII_with_Dioscuri.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, photographed at the MET Original artist: Uploadalt

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• File:Dioscuri_(Castor_or_Pollux),_Rome,_Capitol.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Dioscuri_%28Castor_or_Pollux%29%2C_Rome%2C_Capitol.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: NoJin

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• File:Dioscuri_rape_Vatican_Inv2796.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Dioscuri_rape_Vatican_Inv2796.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown

• File:Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.18.1-2_n03.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011) Original artist: ?

• File:Dioskouroi_theoxenia_Louvre_Ma746.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Dioskouroi_theoxenia_Louvre_Ma746.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011) Original artist: Unknown

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• File:She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own book scan from Emmanuel Müller-Baden (dir.), Bibliothek desallgemeinen und praktischen Wissens, I, Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co, Berlin-Leipzig-Wien-Stuttgart, 1904. Image copied fromde:Bild:Kapitolinische-woelfin 1b-640x480.jpg Original artist: Benutzer:Wolpertinger on WP de

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