caterpillar service training

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Marine

AnalystService

Handbook


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Caterpillar

Service Training

January 2004 - 6th Edition


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January 2004LEBV4830-05

This book contains a list of formulas and terms for use by a qualifiedCaterpillar Marine Analyst. Many of the formulas are Rules of Thumbbut they do provide guidance in their respective areas. These formu-las are generally accepted in the marine field. This book is intended

as an aid to the Marine Analyst and NOTa replacement for profes-sional ship design personnel.

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Table of Contents

Engine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Boat Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Exhaust System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13Lubrication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Fuel Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Driveline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Mounting and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22

Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-90

Marine Engines Sea Trial Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-87

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Engine Performance

Application Guidelines

Knowledge of the engines operating requirements is essential to estab-lish a proper match of engine rating to boat operating requirements.To help determine the acceptability of a rating for a particular boatsapplication, the following parameters should be considered:

1. Time at full throttle

2. Annual operating hours

3. Propeller match

Time at Full Throttle

Time at full throttle is the amount of time the engine is operated at ratedrpm without load cycling during a normal duty cycle. This is normallyspecified in terms of percent of total cycle time or in minutes per hour.

Annual Operating Hours

The annual operation hours are based on the accumulated service

meter units* during a 12-month period.

Propeller Match

The propeller must be sized to allow the engine to operate slightlyabove rated rpm under the boats most severe load conditions: full fueland water tanks, stores aboard for extended voyaging, and adversesea conditions.

*Clock hours are the same as Service Meter Units on all Caterpillar Engines usingelectric service meters. Some Caterpillar Engines (D399, D398, D379 and earlierengines) used service meters which counted engine revolutions. One service meterunit on those engines, corresponds to a clock hour only when the engine is oper-ating at rated speed (rpm). The ratio between clock hours and service meter unitsis proportional to engine speed.

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Ratings

Ratings are statements of the engines power and speed capabilityunder specified load conditions. The Caterpillar rating system simplymatches engines to particular applications. It consists of the followingstandard ratings.

Continuous A Rating

For heavy-duty service in ocean-going displacement hulls such asfreighters, tugboats, bottom-drag trawlers, and deep river towboatswhen the engine is operated at rated load and speed up to 100% of thetime without interruption or load cycling. Expected usage should befrom 5000 to 8000 hours per year.

Medium Duty B Rating

For use in midwater and shrimp trawlers, purse seiners, crew and sup-ply boats, ferry boats with trips longer than one hour, and towboats inrivers where locks, sandbars, curves, or traffic dictate frequent slowingand engine load is constant with some cycling. Full power operationto be limited to 80% of operation time. Expected usage should be from3000 to 5000 hours per year.

Intermittent C Rating

For use in yachts with displacement hulls as well as ferries with trips ofless than one hour, fishing boats moving at higher speed out and back(e.g. lobster, crayfish, and tuna), and short trip coastal freighters whereengine load and speed are cyclical. Full power operation to be limitedto 50% of operation time. Expected usage should be from 2000 to4000 hours per year.

Patrol Craft D Rating

Continuous power for use in patrol, customs, police, and some fireboats. Full power limited to 16% of operation. Expected usage shouldbe from 1000 to 3000 hours per year.

High Performance E Rating

For use in pleasure craft with planing hulls as well as for pilot, harborpatrol, and harbormaster boats. Full power operation to be limited to 8%of operation time. Expected usage should be from 200 to 1000 hoursper year.

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Rating Conditions

Ratings are based on SAE J1128/ISO 8665 standard ambient condi-tions of 29.61 in. of Hg (100 kPa) and 77 F (25 C). Ratings also applyat AS1501, BS5514, DIN6271 and ISO 3046/1 standard conditions of29.61 in. of Hg (100 kPa), 81 F (27 C) and 60% relative humidity.

Power is based on a 35 API [60 F (16 C)] fuel having a LHV of 18,390 B/lb(42,780 kJ/kg) used at 85 F (29 C) with a density of 7.001 lb/U.S. gal(838.9 g/L).

Ratings are gross output ratings: i.e., total output capability of theengine equipped with standard accessories: lube oil, fuel oil and jacketwater pumps. Power to drive auxiliaries must be deducted from thegross output to arrive at the net power available for the external (fly-

wheel) load. Typical auxiliaries include cooling fans, air compressors,charging alternators, marine gears, and sea water pumps.

Marine Engine Ratings to DIN Standards

The DIN (Deutsche Industrie Norme) 6270 Standard covers rated out-put data for internal combustion engines in general applications. Whenrequired, DIN 6270 main propulsion ratings can be quoted accordingto the following stipulations.

Continuous Output AThis is the published Caterpillar Continuous A Rating rating in kWunits. No additional reference is necessary*.

Output BOutput B is defined as the maximum useful output that the engine candeliver for a definite time limit corresponding to the engine application.The fuel setting is pre-set such that output B cannot be exceeded, so

no overload capability need be demonstrated.

On the basis of this definition, we can offer two output B ratings with kWvalues corresponding to Caterpillars Medium Duty B Rating orCaterpillars Intermittent C Rating.

In each case, it is mandatory that reference be made to the applicablerating definitions.

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General CommentsDIN 6270 conditions are slightly different from the SAE conditions usedin the U.S. We believe that they are virtually equivalent for all practicalpurposes. No correction to ratings should be made to account for theslightly different reference conditions.

Useful output as described under DIN 6270 is defined as the outputavailable to drive the load after suitable deductions are made for enginedriven accessories. This is equivalent to the net rating. Caterpillar rat-ings indicate gross output. At the kW requirement to drive such acces-sories as charging alternator and sea water pump are low and wellwithin our rating tolerance, no deductions for main propulsion enginedriven accessory loads need to be made.

*A condition in the Continuous Output A definition is that the output limiting devicemust be set to provide a margin of extra capacity. This overload capability can bedemonstrated, if required, by increasing the fuel setting from the factory-set con-tinuous output value to the value corresponding to our B rating level. With a fewexceptions, this increased fuel setting will correspond to an overload capability ofapproximately 10%.The propeller should be sized for the continuous rating with theappropriate safety margins the Technical Marketing Information File (TMI).The fuelsetting must be readjusted to the name-plate value upon completion of the demon-stration test.

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Performance Curve Format

Caterpillar Performance Curves follow the following format:

Engine Performance MAR C Rating3406 DITA DM6120-00

ZONE LIMIT DATAFuel Fuel Boost

Engine Cons Rate Press Air Exh ExhSpeed Power lb/ gal/ in. Hg- Flow Temp Flowrpm bhp hp-hr hr Gauge cfm F cfm

Curve 1 1800 398 0.334 19.0 276.7 809 735 18941600 267 0.347 13.4 134.4 544 759 13011400 211 0.354 10.7 78.2 417 761 10001200 177 0.354 9.0 53.2 332 757 7881000 147 0.359 7.6 38.4 265 763 633

Curve 2 1800 473 0.329 22.3 36.2 937 746 22021600 300 0.344 14.7 16.0 576 791 14141400 229 0.352 11.5 9.0 431 795 10601200 189 0.354 9.5 6.0 339 793 8271000 155 0.359 8.0 4.4 269 799 661

Curve 3 2100 599 0.342 29.4 59.6 1446 648 31211900 598 0.339 29.0 56.2 1262 708 29051700 456 0.334 21.8 32.9 845 804 20711500 287 0.346 14.2 14.1 523 838 13251300 226 0.352 11.4 8.6 392 835 1004

1100 183 0.355 9.4 5.9 307 836 785Curve 4 2100 599 0.342 29.4 59.6 1446 648 3121

1900 598 0.339 29.0 56.2 1262 708 29051700 456 0.334 21.8 32.9 845 804 20711500 287 0.346 14.2 14.1 523 838 13251300 226 0.352 11.4 8.6 392 835 10041100 183 0.355 9.4 5.9 307 836 785

EnginePower-bhp

FuelR

ate-gal/hr

Engine Speed - rpm

1

2

3,4

P

M

5

8

11

18

21

26

29

900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500

600

500

400

300

200

100

13

16

24

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MAXIMUM POWER DATA

Fuel Fuel BoostEngine Cons Rate Press Air Exh Exh

Speed Power lb/ gal/ in. Hg- Flow Temp Flowrpm bhp hp-hr hr Gauge cfm F cfm

2100 599 0.342 29.4 59.6 1446 648 3121

1900 599 0.339 29.0 56.2 1262 708 29091700 599 0.334 28.6 53.9 1124 799 27431500 598 0.336 28.7 48.2 930 966 25941300 441 0.352 22.3 31.1 636 1208 20111100 292 0.380 15.9 16.3 403 1181 1301

PROPELLER DEMAND DATA

Fuel Fuel BoostEngine Cons Rate Press Air Exh Exh

Speed Power lb/ gal/ in. Hg- Flow Temp Flowrpm bhp hp-hr hr Gauge cfm F cfm

2100 599 0.342 29.4 59.6 1446 648 31211900 443 0.334 21.2 34.2 951 697 21521700 317 0.342 15.5 18.7 647 752 15341500 218 0.354 11.1 8.8 459 748 10781300 142 0.364 7.4 3.6 343 625 7251100 86 0.375 4.6 1.0 265 486 488

Brake Mean Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 kPa

Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 293 kW

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ZONE LIMIT DATA

Fuel Boost Air ExhEngine Cons Fuel Press Flow Exh Flow

Speed Power g/ Rate kPa cu m/ Temp cu m/ rpm bkW kW-hr L/hr Gauge min C min

Curve 1 1800 298 203 71.9 934.8 22.9 390 53.6

1600 200 211 50.5 453.9 15.4 403 36.81400 158 215 40.4 264.2 11.8 404 28.31200 132 215 33.9 179.6 9.4 402 22.31000 110 218 28.6 129.9 7.5 405 17.9

Curve 2 1800 354 200 84.3 122.3 26.5 396 62.31600 224 209 55.7 54.0 16.3 420 40.01400 171 214 43.6 30.5 12.2 422 30.01200 141 215 36.1 20.4 9.6 421 23.41000 116 218 30.2 14.7 7.6 424 18.7

Curve 3 2100 448 208 111.1 201.3 40.9 344 88.31900 447 206 109.7 189.7 35.7 376 82.2

1700 341 203 82.5 111.0 23.9 427 58.61500 215 210 53.7 47.5 14.8 445 37.51300 169 214 43.0 29.0 11.1 443 28.41100 137 216 35.4 20.0 8.7 444 22.2

Curve 4 2100 448 208 111.1 201.3 40.9 344 88.31900 447 206 109.7 189.7 35.7 376 82.21700 341 203 82.5 111.0 23.9 427 58.61500 215 210 53.7 47.5 14.8 445 37.51300 169 214 43.0 29.0 11.1 443 28.41100 137 216 35.4 20.0 8.7 444 22.2

EnginePower-bkW

FuelRate-L/h

r

Engine Speed - rpm

1

23,4

P

M

20

40

80

90

100

900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

60

50

70

30

110

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MAXIMUM POWER DATA



2100 448 208 111.1 201.3 40.9 344 88.3

1900 448 206 109.8 189.7 35.7 376 82.31700 448 203 108.3 182.2 31.8 424 77.61500 447 204 108.7 162.7 26.3 513 73.41300 330 214 84.3 105.2 18.0 641 56.91100 218 231 60.1 55.1 11.4 627 36.8

PROPELLER DEMAND DATA



2100 448 208 111.1 201.3 40.9 344 88.31900 331 203 80.1 115.7 26.9 370 60.91700 237 208 58.7 63.3 18.3 399 43.41500 163 215 41.9 29.8 13.0 397 30.51300 106 221 27.9 12.0 9.7 332 20.51100 64 228 17.5 3.3 7.5 258 13.8

Brake Mean Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 kPa

Heat Rejection to Coolant (total) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1746 kW

Features of the Performance Curve:

Vertical Axis [left side] . . . Graduated in units of Power [Brake kW orBrake Horsepower]

Horizontal Axis . . . Graduated in units of Engine Speed [Revolutionsper Minute]

Curve P . . . Propeller Demand Curve, describes the power demandedby a fixed pitch propeller used in a displacement hull. Semi-displace-ment and planing hulls will have higher load demand than shown inthe P curve. Each semi-displacement and planing hull has differentdemand, which makes it impossible to show the load demand for eachhull. Semi-displacement and planing hulls will need to be sea trialedwith fuel measurements taken at different engine speeds to determineactual fuel and load demand.

Curve 1 . . . Continuous Limit Line, describes the upper limit of con-tinuous operation, without interruption or load cycling.

Zone 1-2 . . . Zone 1-2 is located between Curve 1 and Curve 2. It isthe zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 4 hours,followed by a one hour period at combination of power and speed onor under Line 1.

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Zone 2-3 . . . Zone 2-3 is located between Curve 2 and Curve 3. It isthe zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to 1 hour,followed by a one hour period at combinations of power and speed onor under Line 1.

Zone 3-4 . . . Zone 3-4 is located between Curve 3 and Curve 4. It is

the zone within which operation is permitted for periods up to five (5)minutes, followed by a one hour period at combinations of power andspeed on or under Line 1.

Curve 4Maximum Limit Curve, the maximum power available withinthe rating development limits (cylinder pressure, turbo speed, exhausttemperature).

Curve MMaximum Power Data, the maximum power capability of

the engine without regard to the rating development limits.Fuel Rate Lines . . . Parallel, slightly curving, dotted lines, with grad-uations on their right ends, are lines of constant fuel rate. [gal/hr or L/hr]

The most efficient engine rpm to generate any given amount of powerwill be found directly under the high point of the fuel rate line nearestthe required power. This will be most useful in those applications whichcan vary the engine speed at which power is extracted, such as con-trollable pitch propellers.

The graphical representation of the engine performance is accompa-nied by a full set of tabular information. Included is intake manifoldpressure, exhaust stack temperature, combustion air flow, exhaust gasflow, fuel rate, engine power and engine speed, and fuel efficiency forall the curves shown.

Each standard rating of the engines will have its performance docu-mented as shown above. There can be a delay of the formal version of

the data in the case of new ratings or engine configurations.

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Engine Configuration Effects on Ratings

Engine configurations can be altered to allow efficient use of largeramounts of fuel. This is done by increasing the amount of air which canbe utilized in an engine. Air flow through an engine is called aspiration.Caterpillar engines have one of the following methods of aspiration:

Naturally Aspirated

In a naturally aspirated engine, the volume of air drawn into each cylin-der is moderate, since only atmospheric pressure is forcing air throughthe cylinders intake valve. There is no pressurization of the enginesintake manifold by an external device and engine intake manifold pres-sure is always a partial vacuum.

Turbocharged

Greater amounts of air can be forced into an engines cylinders byinstalling a turbocharger. Turbochargers are turbine-like devices whichuse exhaust energy (which naturally aspirated engines waste) to com-press outside air and force it into the intake manifold. The increasedamount of air flowing through turbocharged engines does two goodthings:

1. The greater flow of air cools the valves, piston crowns and cylinderwalls, making them better able to resist the firing forces.

2. Fuel can be burned more efficiently, due to the increased amountof air for combustion.

This makes the engine more powerful. Compression does increase thetemperature of the intake air, however. It is very useful to remove theheat-of-compression from the intake air, upstream of the combustion

chambers. Cooling the air before it enters the combustion chambersmakes the air more dense and increases cooling of the combustionchamber components.

Turbocharged/Aftercooled

An air-cooling heat exchanger (aftercooler) is installed between the tur-bocharger and the combustion chamber on Turbocharged/Aftercooledengines. The aftercooler cools the incoming air, carrying the heat away

with a flow of water. The water can come from two sources. If jacketwater (the same water that cools the cylinder head and block) is usedin the aftercooler, then the air can only be cooled to approximately 200 F(93 C). Jacket water temperature is thermostatically controlled atapproximately 180 F (82 C). Even cooler air can be obtained by cool-ing the aftercooler with water from a separate circuit, such as sea wateror some other circuit, with colder water than the engine jacket water.

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Lower aftercooler water temperatures permit higher engine ratingsbecause cooler, denser air permits burning more fuel.

Extended Periods of Low Load

Prolonged low load operation should be followed by periodic opera-

tion at higher load to consume exhaust deposits. Low load operationis defined as below approximately 20% load. The engine should beoperated above 40% load periodically to consume the exhaustdeposits. Caterpillar engines can be run well over 24 hours beforeexhaust slobber becomes significant. The amount of additional timedepends upon the engine configuration, water temperature to the after-cooler, inlet air temperature to the engine and type of fuel.

Auxiliary Engine Ratings

Marine engines used for auxiliary power are of the same general con-figuration as propulsion engines. Their power output is limited by thesame design factors. Horsepower ratings are also determined by thetype of aspiration, the aftercooling system and by engine application.

Caterpillar prime power ratings are used for marine generator sets whenapplied as ship-board power and as emergency power at both 60 Hzand 50 Hz. The engine is set at the factory to provide 110% of ratedoutput as required by Marine Classification Societies (MCS).

Normally, other auxiliary power requirements, such as hydraulic pumps,winches, fire and cargo pumps, and compressors, are applied at a rat-ing based on their duty cycle and load factor.

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Boat Performance

The performance of the boat is the result of a complex interaction of allthree aspects of the installation; the engine, the hull, and the propeller.

Tolerances on Hull, Propeller and Engine

Proper component sizing is very important to the life and performanceof the entire propulsion system. There are tolerances in several aspectsof the propulsion system. In worst-case conditions, the result can beshort life and/or unsatisfactory performance. For example: the effectof these tolerances is shown below in Figure 1.1:

FIGURE 1.1

The engine power may be expected to vary due to manufacturing tol-erance by as much as 3% on either side of its rated or 100% power.

The propeller power absorption may be as much as 5% higher, or lower,than originally expected. This could result from manufacturing toler-ance in pitch, surface finish, and blade profile.

The hull resistance may vary as much as 20% from calculated values or

previous experience due to inevitable differences in weight and shape.

160Hull Propeller Engine

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

6050

40

30

20

10

00 20 40 60 80 100 120

Percent Design Hull Speed

Tolerances on Power

Percent

EnginePower

(+20%)

Hull

Demand

(-20%)

PropellerMatchLine

Engine Power ( 3%)

(5%

)

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Propeller Sizing

The propeller is as important as the hull or the engine to the perform-ance of the boat.

The propeller directly influences: top speed, fuel efficiency, and engine life.

General Information

While many operators will choose to operate at reduced throttle set-tings while cruising, the engine must be able to reach its rated speed(rpm) when the boat is ready for sea; fully loaded with fuel, water, andstores. For the ultimate in engine life and economy, expected engineoperating speeds during sea trials should be approximately 1-3% overfull load rated engine speed (rpm). This is done to compensate foranticipated boat loading and hull fouling.

Table of Engine rpm at Sea Trials

Rated Expected EngineSpeed Speed During Sea Trials(rpm) (rpm)

2800 2820-2850

2500 2520-2550

2400 2420-2450

2300 2320-2350

2100 2120-2150

1925 1945-1980

1800 1820-1850

Eliminating Engine Overloading on Overwheeled Vessels

When the engine speed (rpm) measured during the sea trial of a ves-sel fails to attain the required sea trial speed, the reason generally is oneof the following:

Excessive hull fouling Solvable by cleaning the hull and re-runningthe sea trial.

Low engine power Resolved by measuring and recording engineperformance parameters such as inlet, exhaust and fuel rate.

Incorrect transmission or propeller A detailed discussion of theresolution of this condition follows: Simply, this discussion will berestricted to fixed pitch propellers.

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Engine fuel setting adjustment Many vessel operators and ship-yards want to increase the engine fuel (rack) setting when their enginedoes not reach rated speed during sea trials. At first glance, this seemsto be the easiest and least costly remedy.

However, in such a situation, this solution is incorrect, even if the engine

speed (rpm) does increase to the expected rated rpm. Increasing thefuel (rack) setting will result in reduced engine life, increased wear, orin worst case, early engine failure. The vessel operators engine repairand maintenance costs will likely far exceed the cost of replacing ormodifying the existing transmission or propeller.

High idle adjustment Another often considered alternative is increas-ing high idleengine speed to the specified free running speed. Thiswill not provide the desired results since the fuel stop is already at the

maximum fuel position, and an increase in high idle will not result inany appreciable speed change.

Properly sized propeller and/or reduction ratio The correct, but morecostly, remedy is to install a properly matched propeller and/or trans-mission ratio to allow the engine to operate within its rating guidelines.

Avoiding driveline component changes There is another alternativewhich we will consider in cases where driveline component changescannot or will not be considered. This method consists of a reductionof both the engine fuel setting and the high idle speed. Of course, theengine power and rated speed are reduced in the process; however,we are taking advantage of the fact that the propellers power demanddrops off much faster than the engine power capability when engineand propeller speed is reduced (refer to Figure 1.2).

FIGURE 1.2

300

2001300

Propeller hpDemand

1400 1500Engine Speed (rpm)

1600 1700 1800 1900

400

500

Marine Engine Performance Curve3412 TA (520 hp (388 kw) at 1800 rpm)

hp Capability

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The net result is that the engine will perform within its application lim-its and the engine/propeller match have been optimized. The following for-mula generally applies for a standard fixed pitch propeller:

= [ ]or by rewriting the equation

hp2 = hp1 [ ]Where:

hp1 = Engine power produced at the full throttle speed recorded dur-ing the sea trial. This power level is determined by referring to the

appropriate marine engine performance curve corresponding to theoriginal engine rating sold by the dealer and reading the power on thecurve at the recorded speed.

hp2 = Calculated propeller power demand at the new reduced enginespeed (rpm) proposed for this application.

N1 = Engine speed (rpm) observed and recorded during the original seatrial prior to fuel setting and high idle modifications. (This speed shouldalways be measured with a precision tachometer.)

N2 = New, reduced engine speed (rpm) which must be determined inorder to provide an acceptable engine, transmission, and propeller match.

For example: Consider a 3408B DITA engine, sold at a continuous rat-ing of 365 hp at 1800 rpm. During the sea trial, the maximum attain-able engine speed was only 1620 rpm. This engine was operating inan unacceptable overload (or lug) condition. The Marine EnginePerformance Curve (for a continuous rating of 365 hp (272 kw) at1800 rpm) indicates that the engine was producing (and the propeller

was demanding) 344 hp at the limited speed of 1620 rpm. This powerrequirement exceeds the approved continuous rating of 330 hp at1620 rpm. The solution is to further reduce the rpm until the approvedengine rating, as shown on the 3408B marine engine rating curve,exceeds the propeller demand.

For this example we will calculate the power required if the rated enginerpm was reduced to 1550.

hp2 = 334 [ ] = 301 hp3

1550____1620

3N2__N1

3N1__N2

hp1___hp2

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Reducing the engine speed by 70 rpm has resulted in a decrease inpropeller demand of 43 hp. The approved engine continuous rating at1550 rpm is 314 hp and the propeller demand has been reduced to301 hp.

At the initial trials, the recorded vessel speed was 10.2 knots for this

21 m long seiner. Resetting the engine from 344 hp @ 1620 rpm to314 hp @ 1550 rpm would decrease the vessel speed to 9.7 knots, arelatively insignificant difference, especially considering the gain inengine life.

Propeller Pitch Correction

An overpitched propeller must have its pitch reduced to allow theengine to reach rated rpm. The pitch must be reduced by an amount

proportional to the engine rpm ratio. The following formula defines thisrelationship:

P required = P present

Where:

P required = pitch the propeller must have to allow the engine to run atrated rpm

P present = pitch of the propeller which is preventing the engine fromreaching its rated rpm

Engine rpm while overloaded = engine rpm under normal working con-ditions when equipped with the propeller whose pitch is too great

Desired Engine rpm = desired expected engine speed during SeaTrial (see Table on p. 14)

Propeller Errors and Propeller Measurement

Fast boats need more precise propellers than slow speed workboats.

Propeller pitch errors which would be insignificant on a 10 knot rivertowboat, will cost a high speed patrolboat or yacht 2 or 3 knots of itstop speed.

Propellers on fast boats must be precisely manufactured if design per-formance is to be attained and they must remain within nearly newspecifications to prevent severe performance deterioration. This is par-ticularly true of propellers leading and trailing edges. Tiny errors inprofile, almost too small to be detected by feel, can constitute sites forinitiation of cavitation. In severe cases, this can result in blade failureor loss after as little as 24 hours of high speed running.

Engine rpm while over loaded__________________________

Desired Engine rpm

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Most industry professionals can relate instances where new propellershave been found to be several inches out of the specified pitch. Whenpropellers are repaired or repitched, it is even more difficult to restorethe necessary precision for highest performance vessels.

The problem usually is the tooling. Most propeller pitch measurement

machines can not resolve or detect the small errors which prevent aboat from attaining first-class performance. All other things being equal,the skill of the propeller finishing machinist will make the differencebetween barely-adequate and first-class boat performance.

Propeller Measurement ToolsThere are several basic types of tools commonly used for propellerpitch measurement:

Swing Arm TypeThis machine generally consists of: a stand which supports the pro-peller in a horizontal position, a vertical column which passes throughthe center of the propellers hub, a swing armwhich rotates around thevertical column, and a vertical measuring rod which can slide in andout on the swing arm.

FIGURE 1.3

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This machine reaches down from a horizontally mounted swing armand touches the blade at several radial locations, at some standardincrements of angle. The difference in elevation, the radial position, andthe angular increment between readings allow pitch to be calculatedbetween any two locations. The accuracy of this device is related tothe rigidity of the swing arm and the degree of looseness in the required

bearings. The potential accuracy of the propellers measured will bedirectly proportional to the number of measurements on each blade(places at which it touches each blade). For commercial (workboat) pro-pellers, it is common to examine the blade at six (6) to nine (9) placesper blade. On high-performance civilian propellers, it is common toexamine each blade at twenty-five (25) to fifty (50) places while mili-tary propellers may be examined at several hundred places per blade.The skill of the machinist is applied in smoothing or fairing the areasbetween the measurements.

Pitch BlocksPitch blocks are precisely shaped anvils, against which individual pro-peller blades are hammered to repair or correct their shape.

They can be used to measure propellers by comparing the shape of anunknown propeller to a set of incremental pitch blocks until a match is found.

Angle-Measuring Type

Angle-Measuring Devices relate the angle of a circumferential line onthe blade to a horizontal reference plane and calculate the pitch fromthe angle and the radial position.

Caterpillar markets an angle-measuring pitch measuring tool PartNumber 8T5322.

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Ducted Propellers (Kort Nozzles)

The Propeller Duct, sometimes called a Kort nozzle is a ring, wrappedaround a generally square-tipped, propeller. The ring has an airfoil-shaped cross section.

The ducted propeller is best used on vessels such as trawlers, tugs,and towboats with towing speeds of 3-10 knots. Ducted propellersshould not be used on relatively fast vessels.

To aid in selection, perform the following calculation. If the result is lessthan 30, the use of the ducted propeller should not be considered asit may result in a net loss of vessel performance.

shpBp = (srpm)

(_______)

(Va)2.5

Where:

Bp = Basic Propeller Design Variable

srpm = Propeller Shaft Speed (rpm)

shp = Shaft Horsepower (shp)

Va = Velocity of Advance of the Propeller (knots) generally equals

0.7 to 0.9 times boat speed

FIGURE 1.4

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The nozzle configuration or profile most often used is a No. 19A noz-zle although a No. 37 specifically designed for backing is obtainable.Nozzles are made of mild steel with a stainless steel liner to stand upto erosion. They may be mounted to steel, wood or fiberglass hulls.

A comparison of bollard pull ahead and astern for the open water pro-

peller versus the No. 19A (taken as 100% in ahead) and the No. 37nozzle follows.

Ahead Astern

Nozzle No. 19A 100% 59%

Nozzle No. 37 99% 82%

Open Propeller 69% 55%(B4.70 Type)

These are actual figures for a 2000 hp (1491 kW) installation with 79 inch(2007 mm) diameter propellers. A larger diameter open propeller wouldshow up somewhat better, though not as good as the nozzles.

More specific information on ducted propeller systems generally canbe obtained from propeller manufacturers, many of which also manu-facture propeller ducts.

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Hull Types

All hull types discussed here refer only to the portion of the hull belowthe waterline. What is above the waterline concerns seaworthiness,seakindliness, stability, comfort, and eye appeal, but has little impact onthe propulsion machinery.

There are two basic types of hulls: Displacement Hulls and PlaningHulls. There are also some special types of hulls. These include theSemi-Displacement Hull, Catamaran, Wave-Piercing Catamaran,Hydrofoil, Surface Effects Ship (with both flexible skirts and rigid side-walls), and the Small-Waterplane-Area-Twin-Hull (SWATH) Ship.

Displacement Hull

A displacement hull can be described in most basic terms as a block,with tapered ends.

Displacement Hulls Most Basic FormTo illustrate the basic shapes this allows, five blocks in what arerearranged to form four simple, but fundamental forms which covermost all displacement hull forms.

FIGURE 1.5

1

1

2

2

3

3

45

12

34 5

12

34

5

12

3

4

4

5

5

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Keep in mind that this discussion concerns only the portion of the hullbelow the waterline and that the blocks represent only the submergedpart of the hull.

When any one of the hulls shown above moves through the water,waves are formed. The bow pushes the water aside, forming a bow

wave. The momentum imparted to the water carries it beyond theboundaries of the hull, leaving a hollow behind it. The wave surgesback, into the hollow. At slow speeds, this causes the return surge tobounce off the hull, starting the familiar diverging pattern of troughsand crests originating with the bow wave.

Relation of Hull Length to Boat SpeedThe length of a displacement hull determines its eventual top speed.It is literally possible to measure the length of a displacement hull andcalculate its highest practical top speed based on this measurement.

This is due to the relationship of boat speed, boat length and wave length.

Boat Length and Wave LengthWave length and wave speed are directly proportional: the faster awave, the longer its length.

Since the movement of the hull causes the bow wave, the faster thehull moves, the faster the speed of the bow wave . . . and the longer

its length.

As the boat increases its speed, the length of the bow wave will even-tually approach the length of the hull.

The speed at which the length of the bow wave equals the hull lengthis called the Hull Speed Limit.

Further increases in hull speed, beyond the Hull Speed Limit will causethe stern of the hull to drop into the trough of the bow wave.

This has the following bad effects:

air can enter the displacement hulls propeller/s (reducing propeller thrust)

the bellyof the hull is exposed to the oncoming waves (increasinghull resistance)

the increased incline of the propeller shaft/s reduces the amount ofshaft thrust for forward motion (part of the forward component of pro-

peller thrust is wasted in holding up the stern of the boat).This greatly increases the hulls resistance-to-further-speed-increase.To go faster, the displacement hull must climb the crest of its own bowwave. For example, the last 10% of a displacement hulls top speedcosts 27% of its engine power (and fuel consumption).

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Mathematical Representation of Hull Speed RatioThis relationship can be described mathematically. It is called the HullSpeed Ratio.

Boat SpeedHull Speed Ratio (SLR) = ______________

Hull Length

When the bow wave length is equal to the hull length, the speed lengthratio formula can be expressed as follows:

________________1.34 (Hull Length feet) = (Boat Speed knots)

or

__________________4.5 (Hull Length meters) = (Boat Speed km/hr)

Planing Hull

The planing hull skims over the surface of the water with relatively littledisturbance of the water. The main resistance to planing hull speed isthe skin friction. Hulls of this type are very sensitive to the smoothnessof the hull, making good hull maintenance essential for top perfor-mance. Planing hulls are very sensitive to boat weight.

FIGURE 1.6

Semi-Displacement Hull

The semi-displacement hull looks very much like the planing hull andis easily mistaken for the planing hull. Semi-displacement hulls can bedescribed as having characteristics of both planing and displacementhulls, but are not one or the other.

Displacement hulls have trouble with speed length ratios above 1.34(4.5) due to their hull shape. The planing hulls have difficulties belowspeed length ratios of approximately 2.5 (8.4) because of their straightfore-and-aft lines.

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FIGURE 1.7

Semi-displacement hulls are designed to operate well in this speed range.

Semi-displacement hulls are characterized by the angle of the quar-ter-beam afterbody buttock line. Visualize a pair of vertical, parallelplanes intersecting the hull midway from the longitudinal center ofthe hull to the waterline at the side of the boat. The intersection of the

planes with the bottom of the hull near the stern form the quarter-beam afterbody buttock line (there are two, one on each side, but theyhave the same shape). The angle of the quarter-beam buttock line isformed between it and a line parallel to the at-rest waterline, Fig. 1.8.

FIGURE 1.8

If the angle of the quarter-beam buttock line is very small (less than2 degrees), the hull is capable of planing performance. At an angle of4 degrees, the limiting speed length ratio will be around 2.0. An angleof 7 degrees will limit the speed to speed length ratios of 1.5, or justabove displacement hull speeds. These angles should be measuredrelative to the hulls waterline at rest.

1/4 Beam Buttock

1/4 W.L. Beam

1/2 W.L.Beam

Measure This Angle

WL

CL

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Rules of Thumb

Power to Reach Hull Speed

A useful rule of thumb for vessels below 100 tons displacement is:

Power to Reach Hull Speed horsepower = 5 [Displacement long tons]

Fuel Consumption

A useful rule of thumb for basic budgetary purposes is:

Fuel Consumption = 1 Liter per hour per 5 horsepower

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Formula for Calculating Horsepower

2 r TORQUE RPMHorsepower = ______________________

33000

This formula was established by James Watt in the 1800s and requires

some known values:

Average horse walks at 2 12 MPH

Average horse pulls with a force of 150 pounds

1 mile = 5,280 feet

r = distance from center line of shaft, usually 1 foot

With this background, we will be able to establish the Horsepower for-

mulas used today.

5,280 feet 2 12 MPH = 13,200 FEET per HOUR

13200 FT/HR____________ = 220 FEET per MINUTE60 Minutes

220 FT/MIN 150 POUNDS = 33,000 FT LBS per MINUTE

2r = 6.2831853

33000__________ = 52526.2831853

Thus we get the familiar formula used today in calculating Hp.

Torque RPMHp = _____________ or expressed another way as

5252

Hp 5252Torque = __________

RPM

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Displacement Hull Calculation

If a vessels displacement is not known, it can be determined from thedimensions of the vessel, using the following formula.

L B D CbW = ________________

M

Where:

W = The vessels displacement expressed in long tons

L = The length of the vessel, in feet, measured at the actual ordesigned load waterline (LWL)

B = The extreme width or beam of the vessel, in feet, at the designedload waterline

D = The vessels molded draft, in feet, measured at its midship sec-tion, exclusive of appendages or projections such as the keel

Cb = The block coefficient for the vessel

Light Cargo, Fishing Vesselsand Sailing yachts 0.40 0.55

Heavy Cargo, Fishing and Tugs 0.50 0.65

River Tow Boats 0.55 0.70Self-propelled Barges 0.70 0.90

Barges 0.85 0.90

M = The volume of water (cubic feet) per long ton

35 for sea water

36 for fresh water

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Horsepower Requirementsfor Displacement Hulls

A displacement hull is define by having a taper at the bow, a taper atthe stern, and a 14 beam buttock angle of 8 degrees or greater.

The speed which corresponds to SL = 1.34 is referred to as the dis-placement hull limiting speed. Attempting to power a displacement hullabove this speed will cause the stern of the vessel to drop into its ownbow wave trough, exposing the oncoming water to the underside ofthe vessel and entraining air in the propeller. This will effectively causethe vessel to climb uphill and reduce the amount of power the pro-peller is capable of absorbing. This occurs at an SL = 1.34 for a puredisplacement vessel, and any attempt to power a displacement vesselin excess of this speed would be considered a waste of fuel and money.

Now that the limiting speed of a displacement hull is defined, we canpredict the power requirements to propel displacement hulls at differ-ent speeds.

The amount of power required to drive a displacement or a semi-dis-placement hull of a given weight at a given speed can be approxi-mated by the relationship of the weight to the horsepower (Lbs/Hp).This is expressed as the formula:

10.665SL = ______

3

Lbs____

Hp

SL = Speed Length Ratio

Hp = Horsepower Delivered to the Propeller

Lbs = Vessel Displacement in PoundsThis formula can be rewritten as:

10.665______ 3 = Lbs/Hp( SL )Due to the bow wave limitation discussed earlier, only the portion ofthe SL versus Lbs/Hp relationship below 1.34 applies to displacement

hulls. This implies that it would not be appropriate to power a dis-placement hull with more than 1 horsepower delivered to the propellerfor each 504 pounds of vessel displacement.

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An example of how to apply this relationship will help clear this up.Consider a pure displacement hull with the following characteristics:

Waterline length = 200 feet

Vessel displacement = 440,000 pounds loaded

Desired speed = 18 knots14 beam buttock angle = 9 degrees

With a 14 beam buttock angle of 9 degrees (greater than 8), it can beassumed that this vessel will be subject to the speed limit of 1.34.

The next step is to see if the designed SL is within the limits establishedfor a displacement hull, using the formula:

Speed 18SL = ______ SL = _____ SL = 1.27WL 200

Since the 1.27 calculated SL is below the limit of 1.34 the speed of18 knots for this vessel is attainable.

The next step is to determine the Lbs/Hp relationship for this boat usingthe design SL of 1.27. This is done using the following formula:

10.665 10.665______ 3 = Lbs/Hp ______ 3 = 592 Lbs/Hp( SL ) ( 1.27 )The power required to drive this vessel at 18 knots would then be:

440000 LbsHp = ___________

592 Lbs/Hp

Hp = 743

This horsepower requirement seems low, but it must be consideredthat this is the required horsepower delivered to the propeller, and itdoes not account for losses in the shafting, marine gear, and engine.It also does not allow for reserve horsepower to allow for added resis-tance due to wind and waves, towing, dragging nets, power takeoffs,or other load increases, which may occur. In actuality, the installedhorsepower of this vessel may be higher than the 743 Hp requirementjust calculated.

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Horsepower Requirements forSemi-Displacement Hulls

Because of the way these hulls ride in the water, the calculations ofrequired horsepower uses a different formula. A semi-displacementhull is defined as having a point at the bow and tapers to a full beam

at the mid-section and then partially tapers to a narrow section at itsstern. A semi-displacement hull can be described as a displacementhull with a portion of its after body cut off, or a planing hull with a por-tion of a tapered after body added on. Semi-displacement hulls canbe expected to have a 14 beam buttock angle of between 2 and 8.

Semi-displacement vessels have displacement hull characteristics in thatthey are somewhat limited in attainable speed by the bow wave phe-nomenon. However, semi-displacement hulls also have some planing hull

characteristics, which allow them to partially climb or plane out of thewater at higher speeds. This partial planing characteristic causes the bowwave limitation to occur at higher speed length ratios. In general, speed-length ratios fall between roughly 1.4 and 2.9 for semi-displacementvessels. Effectively, semi-displacement hulls operate at higher speedsthan displacement hulls because of their partial planing characteris-tics, yet are not as sensitive to weight addition as a planing hull, dueto their partial displacement hull characteristics. These combined char-acteristics allow for relatively large cargo or passenger carrying capac-

ity at speeds higher than displacement vessels of similar size.

To determine the power requirements for a semi-displacement hull, theSL versus Lbs/Hp relationship is utilized in the same manner as with dis-placement hulls. The problem in applying this relationship to semi-dis-placement hulls, however, lies in the fact that the limiting speed-lengthratios can vary between 1.4 and 2.9 for different hulls. Before attempt-ing a power requirement calculation for a semi-displacement hull at agiven speed, it is first necessary to determine the SL ratio limit for the

vessel to ensure that no attempt is made to power the vessel to speedshigher than this limit.

The limiting SL ratio for a semi-displacement hull is determined by eval-uating a factor referred to as the Displacement Length Ratio (DL). TheDL ratio can be defined by using the following formula:

disp TDL = __________

(0.01XWL)3

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Where:

DL = Displacement-length ratio

disp T = displacement in long tons(1 long ton = 2240 pounds)

WL = Waterline length in feet

Once the DL ratio has been calculated for a semi-displacement hull, theSL to DL relationship can be applied to determine the limiting SL ratio.This SL ratio will then define the maximum attainable speed of the semi-displacement hull. No attempt should be made to power a vessel overthis maximum attainable speed, as this is the point where the bow wavelimitation occurs on a semi-displacement hull.

The limiting SL can be defined using the following formula:

8.26SL ratio= _____

DL.311

Where:

SL ratio = Speed-length ratio

DL ratio = Displacement-length ratio

8.26 = constant used by Caterpillarfor this calculation

The following example will help explain how to apply the formulas forcalculating the horsepower required for a semi-displacement hull.

Lets use the following for boat characteristics:

WL = 62 feet14 beam buttock angle = 3

Displacement tons = 44 Long tons(98,560 pounds)

Designed speed = 11.5 knots

Beam width = 18 feet at mid-section, tapering to 15 feet atthe stern.

Based on this information (3 and slight taper) we can recognize a

semi-displacement hull. Since this is a semi-displacement vessel andthe DL ratio applies, the DL ratio must first be calculated in order todetermine the limiting SL ratio for this vessel. The DL ratio is calculatedin the following formula:

44DL = ___________

(0.01 62)3

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DL = 184.6 185

8.26SL = _______

(185).311

SL = 1.628 1.63

Any speed used in predicting a power requirement for this vessel mustcorrespond to an SL less than 1.63. 1.63 SL ratio corresponds to themaximum possible speed of this vessel due to bow wave limitation.

Since the maximum SL ratio of 1.63 has been calculated, the next stepis to determine the power required to drive the vessel 11.5 knots. As acheck before proceeding, the SL ratio corresponding to the designspeed of the boat should be calculated to ensure that it is less than themaximum attainable SL of 1.63.

11.5SL = _____

62

SL = 1.46

Since 1.46 is less than 1.63, it is appropriate to try to power this ves-sel for 11.5 knots. If the SL had been greater than the 1.63 maximumattainable SL then the design speed of the vessel would have to bereduced before attempting a power prediction.

Now that we have the design SL (1.46), we can go to the formula usedin the displacement hull problem. That formula was:

10.665 3LB/Hp = ______( SL )

10.665 3

LB/Hp = ______( 1.46 )LB/Hp = 389.8 390

98560 Lbs for vesselHP = ___________________

390 LB/Hp

Hp = 252.7 253 Hp

So to power this vessel to the 11.5 knots design speed, it would need253 Hp to the propeller. This is only for the movement of the vesselthrough the water and does not take into account auxiliary driven equip-ment, rough seas, or strong currents. Therefore the actual Hp of theengine in the boat may be larger than this calculation, due to the reserveHp requirements.

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Horsepower Requirements for Planing Hulls

A planing hull is a hull of a form which allows it to climb up on a fullplane at high speeds. When up on a full plane, the reduced draft of thevessel causes the bow wave to become very small, and they do notlimit the speed of the boat as with displacement and semi-displace-

ment hulls. Because of the reduced draft and lack of a bow wave lim-itation while up on plane, planing hulls can achieve very high speeds.However, their performance is very sensitive to the addition of weightto the boat.

A planing hull begins with a point at its bow, and tapers to full beam atits midsection, then continues aft with no taper or at most a slight taper.The planing hull also has a 14 beam buttock angle 2 or less.

Very few accurate methods exist for determining power requirementsand speed predictions on full planing hulls. Often times, planing hullsare equipped with engines based on past experience and tested dur-ing sea trials to determine their level of performance. One simplemethod in existence for estimating planing hull speed potential isreferred to as Crouchs Planing Speed Formula. The formula is:

CSpeed = _______

Lbs/Hp

Speed = Boat speed in knots

C = Coefficient Defining Hull Speed

Lbs = Vessel Weight in Pounds

Hp = Horsepower Delivered to the Propeller

This formula develops a power to speed relationship for planing hulls,and experimentation has determined which coefficients should be uti-lized to obtain acceptable results. The typical coefficients used atCaterpillar are:

150 = average runabouts, cruisers, passenger vessels

190 = high speed runabouts, light high-speed cruisers

210 = race boats

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The following example will help explain how all of this works.

Lets use a boat with a displacement of 14,000 pounds. The boat hasa narrow beam, deep vee planing hull powered by two (2) 435 Hpdiesels. The boat is equipped with performance propellers and low dragstern drives, so we can consider the boat a race type. It will therefore

have a C coefficient of 210.

First lets take the Hp of the engines 435 2 = 870. Then we must takeinto account the reduction gear efficiency, typically 3%. 870 Hp 0.97 =

Lbs844 Hp available to the propellers. Then we determine the ____ by

Hpdividing the boat displacement by the horsepower available.

14000 LbsIn our case Lbs/Hp = _________ or Lbs/Hp = 16.59. Now that we have

844 Hpour Lbs/Hp we can calculate the speed of the boat using CrouchsPlaning Speed Formula.

210Speed = _______ Speed = 51.56 Knots

16.59

Lets say this customer wants 60 knots. We can calculate the needed Hpby using the information from the previous formula and working out the

Canswer. The formula for this would be ______ = X. Then Lbs/Hp = X2Speed

Putting the data in from the previous formula we get the following:

210____ = 3.50260

Lbs/Hp = 12.25

Since the weight of the boat is 14,000 pounds, we can divide the weightof the boat by the Lbs/Hp ratio of 12.25 to get the Hp needed to oper-ate the vessel at the 60 knot speed.

14000 Pounds_____________ = 1,143 Hp required.12.25 Lbs/Hp

Demand Horsepower, for a hull of the propulsion system on an engine

is in a cubic relationship with the speed of the boat.

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Example: A vessel is cruising at 20 knots. The demand horsepoweron the engine is 500 Hp. The captain now wants to go 25 knots. Howmuch horsepower will it take?

25 knts_______ = 1.25 1.253 = 1.95312520 knts

500 Hp 1.953125 = 976.5625 Hp

Boat Speed(1) = 20 Knts

Act. Hp = 500 Hp New Hp = 977 Hp

What is the new boat speed?

Speed2

= 3 New Hp_______ Boat Speed(1)( Act Hp )Speed2 = 3

977 Hp_______ 20 Knts =( 500 Hp )1.250 20 = 25 Knts

31.954 20

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Hull Speed vs Wave Pattern

Miles per Hour 1.15 = Knots

Knots 101.3 = Feet per Minute

Miles per Hour 88 = Feet per Minute

VSPEED LENGTH RATIO (SLR) = ______

LWL

Where:

V = Vessel Speed

LWL = Loaded waterline length

The generally accepted SLR limits are as follows:

Displacement type hulls = SLR 1.34

Semi-displacement type hulls = SLR 2.3 2.5

Planing hulls = No specific high limit, but not goodbelow an SLR of 2.0

The maximum vessel speed can be calculated using the following formula:

V = SLR LWL

The maximum vessel speed can also be estimated by watching thewave action along a displacement hull type of the vessel. When thecrest to crest distance of the bow wave is equal to the LWL of the ves-sel, the hull is at its optimum speed. If the bow wave crest to crest dis-tance is equal to 12 the LWL then the vessel is at approximately

12 the

optimum hull speed.

Economical speed for displacement type vessels is in the SLR rangeof 1.0 to 1.2. The crest to crest distance for an SLR of 1.0 is (0.56)(LWL).The crest to crest distance for an SLR of 1.2 is (0.8)(LWL).

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Basic Propulsion Theory

The essence of marine propulsion is the conversion of engine powerinto thrust through some type of propulsion device. Because of its sim-plicity and efficiency, the screw propeller basically an axial flow pump has become the most widely used propulsive device.

Propellers

The ability of a propeller to move a vessel forward, through the water,depends upon several factors:

1. The rotational speed of the propeller, which corresponds to the pro-peller shaft RPM;

2. The angle or pitch of the propeller blades;

3. The diameter and blade area.

These factors, in combination impose a thrust force on the propellershaft. This thrust is transmitted through the shaft to the thrust bearing,the principle point where the forces generated by the rotating propelleract upon the hull, and cause forward motion.

FIGURE 1.9

Pitch Angle

Boss

Hub

Blade

Tip

Blade

KeywayBore

Diameter

Hub

HubDiameter

Right Hand

Left Hand

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Figure 1.9 shows a typical 3-bladed propeller. To more intelligently under-stand the operation of a screw propeller, it is necessary to define theparts of a propeller:

The bladedoes the work; it pulls water. Naturally, the wider the bladeface, the more water it can pull. The more water that can be pulled,the stronger the thrust on the vessel and therefore, a greater amount

of work can be done.

Propeller diameteris the diameter of the circle described by the tips ofthe rotating propeller blades.

Blade Angleis the angle the blade makes in relation to the center lineof the hub. It is normally expressed as the distance, in inches. Pitchis the distance the blade would advance in one revolution, if it werea screw working in a solid substance.

An important concept in understanding propellers is the pitch ratio.The pitch ratio expresses the relation between the pitch and the diam-eter of the propeller; often it is referred to as the pitch/diameter ratio. Itis obtained by dividing the pitch by the diameter. For example, if a pro-peller is 60 inches in diameter and has 42 inches of pitch (written as60" 42") then the pitch ratio is 42/60 = 0.70.

A general guide for the selection of approximate pitch ratio values isshown, by vessel application, in Figure 1.10.

PITCH RATIO BY VESSEL APPLICATION

Deep water tug boat 0.50 0.55

River towboat 0.55 0.60

Heavy round bottom work boat 0.60 0.70

Medium wt. round bottom work boat 0.80 0.90

Planing hull 0.90 1.2

FIGURE 1.10

The propeller may be viewed as an axial pump that is delivering astream of water aft of the vessel. It is this stream of water, equivalent insize to the diameter of the propeller, that is the power that providesthrust to move the vessel through the water. However, to produce thrust,

the propeller must accelerate the mass of water it pulls against. In sodoing, a portion of the pitch advance is lost to the work of accelerat-ing the water mass. This is known as propeller slip; Figure 1.11 illus-trates this concept.

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FIGURE 1.11

A propeller with a fixed pitch theoretically has a pitch velocity or linearspeed it would travel in the absence of slip. However, because of thework needed to accelerate a mass of water, slip manifests itself as thedifference between the pitch velocity and the velocity of the propellerthrough the vessels wake or speed of advance.

As a vessel moves through the water, hull resistance, wave formationand converging water at the stern have a tendency to follow the hull.This results in a movement of water under the stern in a forward direc-tion known as wake. The added factor of wake reduces slip to what isknown as apparent slip. It also adds to the speed of advance to pro-duce the actual vessel speed. It is obvious from this that propellersfunction in a very complex manner. There are many factors to be con-

sidered when selecting a propeller. The point to realize is that there isno formula that will automatically provide the ideal propeller size for agiven vessel and application. This can only be approximated to vari-ous degrees of accuracy. The only true test is trial and error under actualoperating conditions. Remember, all propellers are a compromise. Thegeneral practice is to use the largest diameter propeller turning at thebest speed for the vessels application within practical limits. Theselimitations are:

1. The size of the aperture in which the propeller is to be installed.2. The application or type of work the vessel will be doing towboat,

crew boat, pleasure craft, and so forth.

3. Excessive shaft installation angles that may be required when usinglarge diameter propellers.

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4. The size of shafting that can be accommodated by the structuralmembers of the hull where the shaft passes through.

5. Comparative weight of propellers, shafts and marine gears withrespect to the size of the vessel.

6. The size of marine gears which the hull can accommodate without

causing an inordinate degree of shaft angularity.7. The vessels inherent ability to absorb the high torque that results

from the use of large slow turning propellers.

8. Comparing the cost of using large diameter propellers against anyincreases in efficiency or performance.

Number Of Propeller Blades

In theory, the propeller with the smallest number of blades (i.e. two) isthe most efficient. However, in most cases, diameter and technical lim-itations necessitate the use of a greater number of blades.

Three-bladed propellers are more efficient over a wider range of appli-cations than any other propeller. Four and sometimes five-bladed pro-pellers are used in cases where objectionable vibrations develop whenusing a three-bladed propeller.

Four-bladed propellers are often used to increase blade area on towboats operating with limited draft. They are also used on wooden ves-sels where deadwood ahead of the propeller restricts water flow.However, two blades passing deadwood at the same time can causeobjectionable hull vibration.

All other conditions being equal, the efficiency of a four-blade propelleris approximately 96% that of a three-blade propeller having the samepitch ratio and blades of the same proportion and shape. A rule ofthumb method for estimating four-blade propeller requirements is toselect a proper three-blade propeller from propeller selection charts,then multiply pitch for the three-blade propeller by 0.914. Maximumdiameter of a four-blade propeller should not exceed 94% of the rec-ommended three-blade propellers diameter. Therefore, we multiplydiameter by 0.94 to obtain the diameter of a four-blade propeller.

For example, if a three-blade recommendation is:48 34

Multiply pitch (34") by 0.914 = 31"

Multiply diameter (48") by 0.94 = 45"

Four-blade recommendation 45" 31"

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As a word of caution, remember that this is a general rule...for esti-mating only. Due to the wide variation in blade area and contours fromdifferent propeller manufacturers, consult your particular manufacturerbefore final specifications are decided upon.

A Rule of the Thumb for all propeller selection is:

Towboats big wheel, small pitch

Speedboats little wheel, big pitch

All other applications can be shaded between these two statements ofextremes.

Propeller Tip Speed

Tip speed, as the name implies, is the speed at which the tips of a rotat-ing propeller travel in miles per hour (MPH). The greater the tip speed,the more power consumed in pure turning. As an example, a 30 inch pro-peller with a tip speed of 60 MPH absorbs approximately 12 horse-power in pure turning effort. This is a net horsepower loss because itcontributes nothing to the forward thrust generated by the propeller.

The following formula can be used to calculate tip speed:

D SHAFT RPM 60 T = _________________________12 5280

Where:

T = Tip speed in MPH

D = Propeller diameter in inches

CavitationWhen propeller RPM is increased to a point where suction ahead ofthe propeller reduces the water pressure below its vapor pressure,vapor pockets form, interrupting the solid flow of water to the propeller.This condition is known as cavitation.

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One of the more common causes of cavitation is excessive tip speed,a propeller turning too fast for water to follow the blade contour.Cavitation can usually be expected to occur at propeller tip speedsexceeding 130 MPH. Cavitation results in a loss of thrust and damag-ing erosion of the propeller blades.

Reduction Gears

The reduction gear enables the propulsion engine and propeller to bematched so they both operate at their most efficient speeds.

The proper selection of the reduction gear ratio is an important deci-sion in preparing a marine propulsion system. There is a range of com-mercially available reduction ratios that can help assure optimum vesselperformance under a given set of operating conditions.

It is difficult to discuss the selection of reduction gear ratios withoutmentioning some of the other factors that can influence the selection.The major influencing factors are:

Expected vessel speed Type of vessel

Vessel duty cycle Pitch Ratio

Propeller tip speed Engine horsepower

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Propeller Overhang

The maximum distance from the stern bearing to the propeller should

be limited to no more than one shaft diameter. Propeller shafts are aptto vibrate and produce a whip action if these limits are exceeded. Thiscondition is greatly accelerated when a propeller is out of balance dueto faulty machining or damage.

Propeller Rotation

Propeller rotation is determined from behind the vessel, facing forward.

The starboard side is on the right and the port side on the left. Rotationof the propeller is determined by the direction of the wheel when thevessel is in forward motion. Thus, a clockwise rotation would describea right-hand propeller and a counter-clockwise rotation would be a left-hand propeller.

Right-hand propellers are most frequently used in single screw instal-lations. Twin screw vessels in the U.S. are normally equipped with out-board turning wheels. However, there are some installations where

inboard turning wheels will be found. A rotating propeller tends to driftsideways in the direction of the rotation. In a single screw vessel thiscan be partially offset by the design of the sternpost and the rudder. Ina twin screw vessel this can be completely eliminated by using counter-rotating propellers. Although the question of inboard and outboard rotat-ing propellers has been debated many times, authorities on the subjectagree that there are no adverse effects on maneuverability with either

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rotation. In fact, there are those who feel that a gain in maneuverabil-ity is obtained with outboard rotating propellers. One point in favor ofinboard rotation is a decreased tendency for the propellers to pick-updebris off the bottom in shallow water.

Multiple Propellers

The most efficient method of propelling a vessel is by the use of a sin-gle screw. However, there are other factors which, when taken into con-sideration, make the use of a single propeller impossible. If a vesselhas to operate in shallow water, the diameter of the propeller is limited.Therefore, it may be necessary to install two and sometimes three pro-pellers to permit a proper pitch ratio for efficient propulsion.

Another condition requiring multiple propellers is encountered when

higher speed yachts need more horsepower than a single engine candevelop and still be accommodated in the engine space. As a generalrule to follow for calculations in this text, the total SHP of all engines isused when making estimated speed calculations. For calculating pro-peller size, SHP of each individual engine is used.

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Propeller Pitch Correction

An overpitched propeller will overload the engine. To permit the engineto reach its Full power and speed the load must be removed. The loadmust be reduced by amount proportional to the engine RPM ratio. Thiscan be defined by the following formula:

RPM1LF = ______

RPM2

Where:

LF = % of Load

RPM1 = The engine RPM while overloaded What you have.

RPM2 = The anticipated engine RPM What you want to have.

EXAMPLE FORMULA

The M/V Cat has an engine that produces Full power at 1800 engineRPM. While being tested the engine would only turn to 1750 RPM.Applying the above formula we get the following equation:

1750LF = _____

1800LF = 0.97 100

LF = 97%

This means to get the engine to turn the correct RPM we would haveto reduce the load by 3%. If the overload is due to an overpitched pro-peller then the amount of pitch to be taken out of the current propellercan be determined using the following formula:

RPM1Pr = Pp ______

RPM2

Where:

Pr = Propeller pitch required

Pp = Present propeller pitch

RPM1 = The engine RPM while overloaded What you have.

RPM2 = The anticipated engine RPM What you want to have.

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Ducted Propellers

Ducted propellers are best used on vessels such as trawlers, tugs, andtowboats with towing speeds of 3-10 knots. Ducted propellers shouldnot be used on vessels with relative high speeds.

To help assist in the selection of a ducted propeller, you can performthe following calculation. If the resultant Bp is


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Propeller Formulas and Related Tables

(5252 Hp) Hp = HorsepowerTorque = ____________

Rpm Rpm = Revolutions per minute

Propeller Horsepower Curve Formula

PHp = Csm Rpmn

Csm = sum matching constant

n = exponent from 2.2 to 3.0, with 2.7 being used for average boats

Rpm = Revolutions per minute

Displacement Speed Formula

10.665SL Ratio = ______

3

LB____SHP

Where:

SL Ratio = Speed-Length Ratioand

KntsSL Ratio = _____

WL

Knts = Speed in knots = Boat speed or V

SHP = Shaft Horsepower at propeller

LB = Displacement in poundsWL = Waterline length in feet

Displacement Length Ratio Formula

disp TDL Ratio = ___________

(00.01XWL)3

Where:

disp T = Displacement in long tons of 2,240 pounds, mt = 1.016 longtons

WL = Waterline length in feet

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Theoretical Thrust Formula

Thrust = Force = F

WF = MA or F = __ (V0 V1)

g

Where:

W = Weight in pounds the column of water accelerated astern by thepropeller

g = the acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/sec.

V0 = velocity of water before entering the propeller in feet per second

V1 = velocity of water after leaving propeller in feet per second

M = Mass in slugs

A = Acceleration in feet per second squared

Developed Area to Projected Area Formula

Ap___ = 1.0125 (0.1 PR) (0.0625 PR2)Ad

Where:

Ap___ = Approximate ratio of projectedarea to developed areaAd

PR = Pitch ratio of propeller

Mean-Width Ratio Formula

Mean-Width Ratio = MWR

Average Blade Width,MWR = ____________________ or

D

Expanded Area of One BladeMWR = ___________________________ D

Blade Height from Root to Tip

Where:D = Diameter

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Disc-Area Ratio

D2Disc Area = ____ or 0.7854D2

4

Disc-Area Ratio = DAR

Expanded Area of all BladesDAR = __________________________

Disc Area

Where:

D = Diameter

3.1412

Disc-Area Ratio vs Mean-Width Ratio

DAR = Number of Blades 0.51 MWR

or

DARMWR = ________________________

Number of Blades 0.51

Where:

DAR = Disc-area ratio

MWR = Mean-width Ratio

Note:These ratios assume a hub that is 20% of overall diameter, whichis very close to average. Small propellers for pleasure craft may haveslightly smaller hubs, while heavy, workboat propellers, particu-

larly controllable-pitch propellers, may have slightly larger hubs.

Developed Area vs Disc-Area Ratio Formula

D2

Ad = __ DAR(2 )

Developed Area vs Mean-Width Ratio Formula

D2

Ad = __ MWR 0.51 Number of Blades(2 )

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where for both the formulas on page 1-53:

Ad = Developed Area

D = Diameter

DAR = Disc-area ratio

MWR = Mean-width ratio 3.1412

Developed Area for Any Hub Diameter and MWR Formula

DAd = MWR D (1 Hub%) __ Number of Blades2

or

D2Ad = MWR __ (1 Hub%) Number of Blades

2

Where:

Ad = Developed Area

MWR = Mean-width ratio

D = Diameter

Hub% = Maximum hub diameter divided by overall diameter, D

Blade-Thickness Fraction Formula

t0BTF = __D

Where:

BTF = Blade-Thickness Fraction

D = Diameter

t0 = Maximum Blade Thickness as Extended to Shaft Centerline

Rake Ratio Formula___BO

Rake Ratio = ___D

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Where:___BO = Distance between tip of blade projected down to the shaft cen-

terline and face of blade extended down to shaft centerline

D = Diameter

Apparent Slip Formula

P__ RPM (Knts 101.3)(12)Slip A = __________________________

P__ RPM(12)Which can be restated as:

Knts 1215.6P = _________________

RPM (1 Slip A)

Where:

Slip A = Apparent Slip

P = Propeller face pitch in inches

Knts = Boat speed through the water or V in KnotsRPM = Revolutions per minute of the propeller

Slip vs Boat Speed Formula

1.4Slip = _______

Knts0.057

Where:Knts = Boat speed in knots

DIA-HP-RPM Formula

632.7 SHP0.2D = ______________

RPM0.6

Where:D = Propeller diameter in inches

SHP = Shaft Horsepower at the propeller

RPM = Shaft RPM at the propeller

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Optimum Pitch Ratio Formulas

Average Pitch Ratio = 0.46 Knts0.26

Maximum Pitch Ratio = 0.52 Knts0.28

Minimum Pitch Ratio = 0.39 Knts0.23

These formulas have been found to check well with a wide varietyof vessels.

Minimum Diameter Formula

Dmin = 4.07 (BWL Hd)0.5

Dmin = Minimum acceptable propeller diameter in inchesBWL = Beam on the waterline in feet

Hd = Draft of hull from the waterline down (excluding keel,skeg ordeadwood) in feet

(Hull draft is the depth of the hull body to the fairbody line, rabbet,or the hulls intersection with the top of the keel. It thus excludeskeel and/or skeg.)

Dmin for twin screws = 0.8 Dmin

Dmin for triple screws = 0.65 Dmin

Allowable Blade Loading Formula

PSI = 1.9 Va0.5 Ft0.08

Where:PSI= Pressure, in pounds per square inch, at which cavitation is likely

to begin

Va = The speed of the water at the propeller in knots

Ft = The depth of immersion of the propeller shaft centerline, duringoperation, in feet

Actual Blade Loading Formula

326 SHP ePSI = _______________

Va Ad

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Where:

PSI = Blade loading in pounds per square inches


e = Propeller efficiency in open water

Va = Speed of water at the propeller, in knotsAd = Developed area of propeller blades, in square inches

Thrust Formula

326 SHP eTA = _______________

Va

Where:T = Thrust


e = Propeller efficiency

Va = Speed of water at the propeller, in knots

Approximate Bollard Pull Formula

DTs = 62.72 (SHP

__)0.6712

Ts = Static thrust or bollard pull, in pounds



This formula can also be expressed as:

Ts ton = 0.028 (SHP Dft)0.67

Ts ton = Thrust in long tons of 2240 pounds

SHP = Shaft Horsepower

Dft = Propeller diameter, in feet

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Taylor Wake Fraction Formula

V VaWt = ______V

or

Va = V (1 Wt)

Where:

Wt = Taylor wake fraction

V = Boat speed through the water

Va = Speed of the water at the propeller

Wake Factor Formula

Wf = 1 Wt

Speed of Advance Formula

Va = V Wf

Where:V = Boat Speed

Wf = Wake Factor

Wt = Taylor Wake Fraction

Wake Factor vs Block Coefficient Formulas for vesselswith an SL Ratio of under 2.5

Single Screw Wf = 1.11 (0.6 Cb)

Twin Screw Wf = 10.6 (0.4 Cb)

Where:

Wf = Wake factor (percent of V seen by the propeller)

Cb = Block coefficient of the hull

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Block Coefficient Formula

DisplacementCb = _____________________________

WL BWL Hd 64 Lb/cu.ft.

Where:

Displacement = Vessel displacement, in pounds

WL = Waterline length, in feet

BWL = Waterline beam, in feet

Hd = Hull draft, excluding keel, skeg or deadwood, in feet

Wake Factor vs Speed Formula

Wf = 0.83 Knts0.047

Where:

Wf = Wake Factor

Knts = Speed in knots

Power Factor Formula

(SHP)0.5 NBp = ____________

Va2.5

Where:

Bp = Power Factor


N = Number of shaft revolutions

Va = Speed of advance of the propeller through the wake

Advance Coefficient Formula

N Dft = _______Va

or

N D = _______

12 Va

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This may also be restated as:

= Va 12D = ___________N

Where:

= Advance coefficient

N = Shaft RPM

Dft = Propeller diameter in feet


Va = Speed of advance of the propeller through the wake

Displacement Speed with Efficiency Formula

10.665SL Ratio = ______

3

LB____SHP

Where:

SL Ratio = Speed-length ratioLB = Displacement in pounds

SHP = Shaft horsepower at the propeller

= Propeller efficiency

If the speed in knots is already known, we can multiply the speeddirectly by

3 ____0.55

Planing Speed With Efficiency Formula

CKnts = ______

LB____SHP

3

____0.55

3

____0.55

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Where:

Knts = Boat speed in knots

LB = Displacement in pounds

SHP = Shaft horsepower at the propeller

= Propeller efficiency

If the speed in knots is already known, we can multiply the speeddirectly by

3

____0.55

Shaft Diameter Formula Solid Tobin Bronze Propeller Shafts

3 321000 SHP SF

Ds =___________________

St RPM

Ds = Shaft Diameter, in inches


SF = Safety factor (3 for yachts and light commercial craft, 5 to 8 forheavy commercial craft and racing boats)

St = Yield strength in torsional shear, in PSI

RPM = Revolutions per minute of propeller shaft

Shaft Diameter Formula for Monel 400 Propeller Shafts

3 321000 SHP SF

Ds = ___________________ 0.80St RPM

Ds = Shaft Diameter, in inches


SF = Safety factor (3 for yachts and light commercial craft, 5 to 8 forheavy commercial craft and racing boats)

St = Yield strength in torsional shear, in PSI

RPM = Revolutions per minute of propeller shaft

Shafts made of Monel 400 should be reduced by 20% the size shaftrequired for a solid Tobin Bronze shaft.

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Shaft-Bearing Spacing Formula

3.21 Ds4 E

Ft =__________ _____

RPM Dens

Where:

Ft = Shaft-bearing spacing, in feet

Ds = Propeller shaft diameter, in inches

RPM = Propeller shaft speed, in revolutions per minute

E = Modulus of elasticity of shaft material, in PSI

Dens = Density of shaft material, in pounds per cubic inch

Propeller Weight Formulas (with 0.33 mean width ratio anda hub diameter of 20%)

Three-Bladed Propeller Weight

Wgt = 0.00241 D3.05

Four-Bladed Propeller Weight

Wgt = 0.00323 D3.05

Where:

Wgt = Weight of propeller in pounds

D = Diameter of propeller in inches

Brake Horsepower vs LOA Formula Tugs

LOA4.15BHP = 100 + _______(111000 )

Where:

BHP = Maximum brake horsepower of engine

LOA = Length overall of the tug at waterline, in feet

Towing Speed vs Brake Horsepower Formula

Knts = 1.43 BHP0.21

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Where:

Knts = Average speed in knots during average tow


D.W.T. of Barges Towed vs BHP Formulas

Low D.W.T. = (1.32 BHP) 255.25

Avg D.W.T. = (3.43 BHP) 599.18

High D.W.T. = (5.57 BHP) 943.10

Where:

DWT = Deadweight tons of barges towed


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Rules of Thumb for Propeller Selection

1. One inch in diameter absorbs the torque of two to three inchesof pitch. This is a good rough guide. Both pitch and diameter absorbthe torque generated by the engine. Diameter is, by far, the mostimportant factor. Thus, the ratio of 2 to 3 inches of pitch equals 1 inch

of diameter is a fair guide. It is no more than that, however. Youcould not select a suitable propeller based only on this rule.

2. The higher the pitch your engine can turn near top horsepowerand RPM, the faster your boat can go. This is accurate as far asit goes. The greater the pitch, the greater the distance your boat willadvance each revolution. Since top engine RPM is constant,increasing the pitch means more speed. Then, why arent all pro-pellers as small in diameter as possible, with gigantic pitches?

The answer is simply that when the pitch gets too large, the angleof attack of the propeller blades to the onrushing water becomes toosteep and they stall. This is exactly the same as an airplane wingsstalling in too steep a climb. If the pitches and pitch ratios selectedare optimum, then within these limits it is worthwhile, on high-speedcraft, to use the smallest diameter and greatest pitch possible.

3. Too little pitch can ruin an engine. This is quite true if the pitch anddiameter combined are so low that it allows the engine to run atspeeds far over its top rated RPM. Never should the engine beallowed to operate at more than 103% to 105% of rated RPM, whileunderway and in a normal operation. If your engine exceeds thatfigure, a propeller with increased pitch or diameter is indicated.

4. Every two-inch increase in pitch will decrease engine speed by450 RPM, and vice versa. This is a good rough guide for moderate-to high-speed pleasure craft, passenger vessels, and crew boats.Like all rule of thumbs, though, it is no more than a rough guide.

5. A square wheel (a propeller with exactly the same diameter

and pitch) is the most efficient. This is not true! There is nothingwrong with a square wheel; on the other hand, there is nothing spe-cial about it, either.

6. The same propeller cant deliver both high speed and maximumpower. This is true! A propeller sized for high speed has a smalldiameter and maximum pitch. A propeller sized for power or thrusthas a large diameter. For some boats you can compromise on anin-between propeller, but for either real speed or real thrust there is

little common ground.

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Buttock Angle vs SL Ratio

Buttock Angle Type Hull SL Ratio

Less than 2 Planing 2.5 or Higher

2 8 Semi-displacement 1.4 2.9

Greater than 8 Displacement 1.34 Maximum

Crouchs Formula Constants

C Type of Boat

150 Average runabouts, cruisers, passenger vessels

190 High-speed runabouts, very light high-speed cruisers

210 Race boat types

220 Three-point hydroplanes, stepped hydroplanes

230 Racing power catamarans and sea sleds

Typical Slip Values

Speed PercentType of Boat in Knots of Slip

Auxiliary sailboat, barges Under 9 45%

Heavy powerboats, workboats 9 - 15 26%

Lightweight powerboats, cruisers 15 - 30 24%

High-speed planing boats 30 - 45 20%

Planing race boats, vee-bottoms 45 - 90 10%

Stepped hydroplanes, catamarans over 90 7%

Typical Slip Values Twin Screw

Speed Percent

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