causes haiti new zealand - corby technical school
TRANSCRIPT
Key Information
Haiti New Zealand
Main Location Port-au-Prince Christchurch
Date, time 12/01/2010, 16:53pm 22/02/2011, 12:51 pm
Magnitude 7.0 6.3
Distance of epicentre from main location 13km South West 10km South East
Focus 13km 5km
Summary Statistics
316,000 people killed, 300,000
injured, 1.3 million displaced,
97,294 houses destroyed and
188,383 damaged.
181 people killed, 1,500
injured and about 100,000
buildings destroyed or
damaged
Causes
Haiti New Zealand
The boundary region separating the Caribbean plate and
the North America plate. This plate boundary is
dominated by left-lateral strike slip motion and
compression, and accommodates about 20 mm/y slip,
with the Caribbean plate moving eastward with respect
to the North America plate.
The earthquake occurred as part of the aftershock
sequence of the M 7.0 03/09/2010 Darfield, NZ
earthquake and like the mainshock itself is associated
with boundary deformation as the Pacific and Australia
plates meet in the central South Island, New Zealand.
Primary Effects
• Key buildings such as hospitals and roads collapsed • 19million cubic metres of rubble and debris left in
Port-au-Prince.
• No telephone system due to collapsed lines
• Main prison collapsed releasing 4000 inmates
• Buildings weakened in the previous earthquake (September 2010) were shaken and collapsed
• The tremor sent the spire of Christchurch Cathedral, a landmark in the centre of the city, toppling into the square below.
• Liquefaction caused cars and buildings to sink
Secondary Effects
Short Term Responses
• Communication systems, air, land, and sea transport facilities, hospitals, and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake, which hampered rescue and aid efforts.
• Confusion over who was in charge further complicated early relief work.
• Port-au-Prince's morgues were quickly overwhelmed with many tens of thousands of bodies had to be buried in mass graves.
• Flash Appeal raised £380m (target later raised to £1.5bn)
• Emergency camps were set up by many aid agencies.
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
Emergency management plan was deployed
One experienced international Urban Search and Rescue team member described the response as "the best-organised emergency" he had witnessed. 300 Australian Police were sworn in as NZ police to help support the relief.
The military were deployed to help the rescue effort. Many other countries sent supportive search and rescue teams
Electricity supplies were reconnected within 2days over 20 000 portaloos were put in place to combat the lack of sewerage systems
Telephone companies gave free phone calls to all
Long Term Responses
• 8 large aftershocks caused further devastation • Roads were not fixed or cleared so emergency
services (mainly NGOs) were not able to gain access to the victims
• Landslides occurred due to widespread deforestation across Haiti
• Thousands of refugees moved across the border into the Dominican Republic.
• Slow distribution of resources in the days after the earthquake resulted in sporadic violence, with looting reported.
• Emergency shelters made from tarpaulin are not substantial enough to withstand the hurricanes and many temporary camps are also prone to severe flooding.
• Conditions in the camps led to a Cholera outbreak in
October 2010 which affected more than 122,000
people, leaving at least 2,600 dead
•
• •
• •
Police said that the dead included people on two buses which were crushed by falling buildings.
Insurance cost equivalent to 10% of GDP
Shipping containers used to protect homes and roads from rock collapse
30 million tonnes of ice came off the Tasman Glacier Electricity and sewage networks
collapsed around the city Majority of deaths were through collapsed
buildings,
over 100 in
the
television
tower.
• Aid workers are distributing and building "transitional shelters" which have steel or timber frames.
• Social services were inadequate before the earthquake with many children not attending school and 38% of the adult population were illiterate. Reconstruction money will be spent on providing free primary education for all and reducing malnutrition.
• The Red Cross pays local people to improve the camps.
• Charity groups have helped people start small businesses (e.g. Tearfund)
• Poor governance has led to housing repair and rubble
removal to still be incomplete and in many cases
barely started over one year on from the event.
•
•
•
•
Six thousand people in Christchurch are living in the so-called red zone, where the land was so badly shaken the government has decided they must leave, the government is buying the homes from the victims Australia sent extra counsellors to help people deal with the effects of the earthquake.
Temporary Accommodation Assistance given to those whose houses are uninhabitable
Building regulations were
further enhanced to limit
the impact of another
event.
NZ - Causes and Background information
1. An earthquake struck New
Zealand’s South Island on
22nd February 2011 at
12.51pm
15. The earthquake was
magnitude 6.3 on the
Richter scale
29. The epicentre was 10km
away from Christchurch,
which is the second highest
populated city in New
Zealand
2. The Christchurch area of
New Zealand also suffered
an 7.1 magnitude earthquake
in September 2010
16. The earthquake was a
shallow-focus earthquake
with a depth of 5km
30. The earthquake caused
shaking that lasted for 12
seconds
3. New Zealand has very
strict building codes which
limit damage during
earthquakes
17. The earthquake was
felt across the South
Island and in some parts
of the North Island
31. The government
declared a national state of
emergency which remained
in place until 30th April 2011
4. The 2011 earthquake was
of smaller magnitude than
the 2010 earthquake, but
was more destructive for
many reasons:
Epicentre closer to Christchurch
Struck in the middle of the day
More liquefaction
causing greater damage to
infrastructure
18. New Zealand is located
on the plate boundary
between the Australian
and Pacific plates
32. The plate boundary
moves in two ways-
destructive and
conservative
NZ Impacts
5. Building damage was
widespread because the
2010 earthquake had
already weakened building
structures
19. Liquefaction- when the
ground is shakes it causes
water (and often mud/dirt)
to rise to the surface
33. Liquefaction produced
400,000 tonnes of silt
6. 181 people were killed in
total
20. Over half of deaths
occurred in the 6-storey
Canterbury Television (CTV)
building when it collapsed
and caught fire.
34. Approximately 2000
people were treated for
minor injuries
7. Road and bridges were
severely damaged in places
21. Cars and buses were
reported to be crushed by
falling debris
35. Christchurch cathedral
lost its spire
8. Although many buildings
did not collapse during the
earthquake, they were
demolished because they
were unsafe.
22. High-rise buildings
constructed within the last
30 years generally survived
the earthquake
36. 10,000 houses would
need to be re-built
9. Land that was damaged by
liquefaction cannot be built
on again
23. Landslides in some
suburbs caused serious
damage to buildings
37. Christchurch
International Airport was
unaffected by the
earthquake, but was closed
as a precaution
NZ - Response
10. The New Zealand Red
Cross launched an appeal to
raise funds to help victims
24. The Australian
Government donated NZ$6
.7 million to the Red
Crossed appeal
38. A full emergency
response plan was in place
within 2 hours of the
earthquake happening
11. Satellite imagery was
used to co-ordinate the
recovery of New Zealand
25. The Australian police
joined forces with New
Zealand police to enforce
cordons, organise
evacuations, help with
search and rescue, traffic
control and prevention of
looting
39. Search and rescue
teams came from New
Zealand, Australia, UK,
USA, Japan, Taiwan, China
and Singapore
12. The New Zealand
Defence Force provided
equipment, transport,
evacuation, food and water
aid to 1000 homeless people
as a result of the
earthquake
26. Hospitals survived the
earthquake and medical
teams organised treatment
for victims
40. Electricity companies
worked around the clock to
restore power to areas that
were cut off
13. Electricity was restored
to 80% of household within
5 days, and to 95% of
households within 2 weeks
27. Communication
companies worked to
restore telephone lines
41. Bottled water was
provided as water supplies
were cut off
14. Water supplies were
restored to 70% of
households within 1 week
28. 27,000 chemical toilets
were flown into the area as
sanitation and sewerage
works were damaged
42. Local people helped
with the cleaning up their
local areas
Information from BBC Bitesize Website
Case study: Boxing Day Tsunami, 2004
On 26 December 2004 a tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean. It was the result of the Indio-Australian Plate subducting below the Eurasian Plate. It was caused by an earthquake measuring more than magnitude 9. The earthquake caused the seafloor to uplift, displacing the seawater above.
In open ocean the tsunami measured less than 1 metre high. The tsunami travelled at speeds up to 800km per hour. When the Tsunami reached the shores, the height of the wave increased to 15 metres in
some areas.
Map of Indian Ocean tsunami 2004
Main impacts
A quarter of a million people died. Two million people were made homeless. People were swept away in the waters, which arrived rapidly and with little warning. Thirteen countries were affected, the worst being Indonesia. Indonesia was hit by the tsunami first. Fourty-five minutes later the tsunami reached
Thailand. Mangrove swamps helped to act as a barrier to reduce the energy of the water in some
areas. Short-term aid, such as water purification tablets, temporary housing and medical
supplies were given from international countries. Islands reliant on tourism and fishing, such as the Maldives, had to rebuild their industries. An early warning system between countries surrounding the Indian Ocean has been set
up.
Information from Charity Website – BCOM.org.uk
Scale of the devastation of the Boxing-day tsunami
1. 275,000 people were killed in fourteen countries across two continents, with the last
two fatalities being swept out to sea in South Africa, more than twelve hours after the
earthquake.
2. 40,000 to 45,000 more women than men were killed in the tsunami.
3. US $ 9.9 billion was originally estimated to be the value of economic, infrastructural
and human development losses.
4. 141,000 houses were destroyed, which accounts for 47.9 percent of the total damage
(BRR & World Bank, 2005)
5. Over 600,000 people in Aceh lost their livelihoods (in some cases only for a few
months) including all those in the fishery sector and 30 percent of those in
agriculture.
6. A 1,200km section of the earth’s crust shifted beneath the Indian ocean and the
earthquake released stored energy equivalent to over more than 23,000 Hiroshima
bombs.
7. Speeds of 500km/h were reached as the tsunamis radiated through the Indian Ocean.
In the worst cases, the waves reached over
8. Tsunamis reached 20m in height at landfall in parts of Aceh. In other locations they
spread 3 km inland carrying debris and salt water with them. The retreating waters
eroded whole shorelines.
9. Within ten minutes of the earthquake, tsunami waves started to strike the Nicobar
and Andaman Islands. Banda Aceh was struck within another ten minutes.
10. Within two hours of the earthquake, both Thailand and Sri Lanka had been hit. The
east cost of India was hit shortly afterwards.
11. Three hours after the earthquake tsunamis rolled over the Maldives and more than
seven hours after, hit the Somali coast.
12. Over 1,000 German and Swedish tourists were killed. Germany and Sweden were the
worst affected countries outside the region and lost more citizens than all but the
four most affected countries.
Information from Charity Website – BCOM.org.uk
The scale of the public response to the tsunami
1. About US $14 billion was raised internationally. The scale of the generous public
response was unprecedented, not only in the amount of money raised but also in the
proportion of funding from the general public, and the speed with which money was
pledged or donated.
2. US $ 2.5 billion at least, was added to the above amount by Governments of affected
countries.
3. US $190 million was donated by the population of the affected countries recorded
through formal channels. There is no reliable estimate of the economic value of the
contribution of the affected population to their own survival. Other forms of help from
neighbours, such as providing accommodation or food, is rarely quantified in
monetary terms and so it impossible to value what communities have done for
themselves.
4. This funding is less than the cost of a single large defence contract, such as
refuelling a tanker or fighter plane. The report is calling on developed countries to
increase their official development assistance (ODA) to reach the minimum net
amount of 0.7 per cent of their gross national product as promised at the 1970 UN
General Assembly.
5. US $250 million worth of support was provided across the region by the United States
military.
6. An average of US $ 7,000 was raised for every affected person which contrasts
starkly, for example, to funding of only US $4 per head actually spent on someone
affected by floods in Mozambique.
7. 91 percent of those interviewed in Indonesia reported that they had been rescued by
private individuals.
Cause
Caused by the Indo-Australian plate being subducted under the Eurasian
plate – a destructive margin. Pressure built up in the plates and was
released as a massive megathrust earthquake when a section of the seabed
was pushed up by 30m.
The focus was only 10km below the seabed. High magnitude, shallow focus
earthquakes are very dangerous because strong seismic waves reach the
surface.
Epicentre was 160km of the coast of Sumatra so the wave only took 10
minutes to hit land at Banda Aceh.
The tsunami waves travelled 4,000kms hitting the coasts of 14 countries.
The wave was nearly 30m high when it hit Banda Aceh. In some places it
pushed 2kms inland.
The effects on coastal areas
14 countries were affected by the tidal waves. The most badly affected were
the densely populated coastal communities of Indonesia, Thailand. India and
Sri Lanka. These people were dependent on fishing or tourism. The province
of Banda Aceh on the Indonesian island of Sumatra was the worst hit.
220,000 people died.
650,000 were seriously injured
Women and children were the main victims because they are not as strong
as men and were swept away. Also in fishing communities men were out at
sea and were safe.
Many tourists from Europe, Australasia and North America were affected
and this made the tsunami a global catastrophe. Especially as the tourist
areas of Thailand including Phuket were badly hit.
50,000 people are estimated to be missing, mostly from the Banda Aceh
province. They were swept out to sea or buried under debris.
Relatives were desperately searching for their families. This was especially
difficult because of the scale of the disaster.
Medical care was difficult because hospitals were wiped out. Wounds
became infected without proper treatment. Bodies lay in the streets,
amongst the rubble so eventually people were buried in mass graves to
avoid disease.
2 million people were made homeless
Coastal villages and towns were destroyed. The only building left standing in
the town of Aceh was the mosque.
Fishing boats were destroyed. In India 450 boats were destroyed in one
coastal area. This meant that people lost their livelihoods.
Places like Phuket in Thailand, that had a significant tourist industry lost
their incomes.
The response
Short term response - Emergency Relief Aid
Rescue teams from all over the world arrived very quickly to rescue people.
Aid poured in from the international community. Flights brought in tents,
water and water purification tablets, food and medical supplies. Medical
teams like the Red Cross arrived. The United Nations Disaster Emergency
Committee co-ordinated the relief effort working with NGOs like Oxfam who
sent in teams.
Tented camps were set up by the relief organisations.
Heavy equipment was brought in to clear roads etc .
Countries provided funds - eg the UK government promised £75 and
donations following the appeals quickly raised another £100m.– more than
was eventually spent by the UN Disasters Emergency Committee.
Many foreigners flew in to try and find out what happened to their relatives.
Lists and photographs of people were put up so that people could track
down the dead and
injured people.
The scale of the disaster
was so great that
eventually it was decided
that people should be
buried in mass graves to
reduce the threat of
disease and
contamination.
Longer term development aid
Indian ocean tsunami warning system set up 2006 with education
programmes to ensure that people know what to do – set off in 2012.
The rebuilding operation has provided new homes, new schools and medical
centres, water and sanitation systems for coastal villages and towns.
51,395 new houses have been built; 289 hospitals and clinics built or
rehabilitated. Pledged international aid from all sources for the recovery has
topped $13.5bn, almost half of it given by private individuals and
organisations. After a year £372m was donated by the British public alone
Coastal resorts have been rebuilt e.g. Phuket in Thailand
An example of the redevelopment work done by Oxfam and its partners in Banda
Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia – the place nearest the epicentre.
The rebuilding operation has provided new homes, new schools and medical
centres, water and sanitation systems for coastal villages and towns like
Banda Aceh. The type of housing was done in consultation with the
communities.
You can find out more about this on -
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2009/dec/24/aceh-five-years-on
Livelihoods: The fishermen of Banda Aceh have received new boats and
fridges. Rickshaws were provided so that people can earn a living and also
get produce like fish to market. Farms were restocked and co-operatives
established. Micro-credit schemes have been supported to enable people to
set up small businesses.
Water and sanitation: Water and sanitation systems were improved with a
new water system reaching 10,000 people in Banda Aceh. Wells were dug.
Latrines were constructed and people have been trained in hygiene and
sanitation.
Other evidence for retreat of the Rhone Glacier comes in the form of photographs taken
over time.
1865 – The glacier fully extends to the valley floor,
widening out as it hits the floor. It is a short
distance away from the singular house on the flat
valley floor; with the amount of melted ice
creating a small glacial river.
1870 – The glacier continues to extend to the
valley floor, and widens out but there is
significantly less than five years previously where
there was a visible mound of ice at the snout of
the glacier.
It is further away from the house on the valley
floor (which has been joined by other buildings)
and the river is greater in size.
1900 – The glacier just about extends to the valley
floor but no longer widens out at the snout. There
is significantly more building on the valley floor,
with a wider river producing plenty of water; likely
for a popular tourism trade.
2005 – The glacier no longer extends to the valley
floor, the snout is about a quarter of the way up
the valley, the flat valley floor is very green, and
almost all of the buildings have gone. This could
be because of increased chances of flooding, or a
decrease in tourism to the area. The river is long,
but not particularly wide.
2008 – The glacier has retreated higher now, it is
about halfway up the valley itself, and the flat
valley floor is now totally green, with farming
buildings having been built, showing that the
valley is no longer in danger of ice, instead it is a
fertile area for crops. Rock, previously eroded by
abrasion (see later) has been uncovered as the
glacier has retreated backwards.
Tourism in Mountain Areas: Chamonix
Chamonix is a massive tourist resort located in the north-
west of the Alps, close to the Swiss (15kms) and Italian
(15kms) borders making it popular with a large number of
tourists from all across Europe.
Chamonix and its valley are famous for the views of Mont
Blanc, Europe’s highest mountain (4,808m)
Chamonix has been a popular tourist destination for over
250 years. It has a population of 10,000, and over
100,000 tourists a day in summer and 60,000 tourists a
day in winter. Many people who live in the area work in
the tourism industry and the town his now well served by
fast motorway roads, and a nearby airport will only
increase the number of tourists who visit.
Tomorrow’s Valley
is a management scheme used in Chamonix
to be able to continue to encourage the
continued growth of tourism while protecting
the natural and cultural environment, in
other words – through sustainable
development.
For example it has developed more service networks, like electricity lines, and are
burying these underground to protect the look of the area. Historic
buildings/monuments are being preserved or renovated to protect the history of
the area, and to encourage tourists to learn about it.
Natural wetlands and peak bogs have been preserved and the planting of trees
and the use of local building materials minimises the visual impacts of skiing on the
landscape.
In popular tourist areas the scheme has spent money on maintaining and way-
marking footpaths and cleaning rivers to help preserve the environment and
provide seasonal employment for locals while also supporting traditional local
employment sectors like farming so that not everyone who lives in the town relies
on tourism.
This is particularly important should the impacts of climate change effect places
like Chamonix – as they have done in other mountainous areas.
Options for skiers
and snowboarders
of all abilities
Roads into
Chamonix are
small and easily
congested at
peak times.
In summer, the
Montenvers
railway takes
visitors to the
Mer de Glace.
350km marked hiking
trails, 40km of
mountain bike tracks
and Snowshoe trails
for hikers
In summer the town
comes to life with
live music,
colourful flowers
and cafes.
Mass tourism
can be noisy and
damaging to the
environment,
conflicting with
tourists
interested in
more peaceful
activities.
Escape Mont-
Blanc – A
cooperation
addressing
issues on
transport, nature
conservation,
forests and
water resources.
Job opportunities are
available in hotels,
restaurants, sports
facilities and as
guides/instructors.
The money from
tourism supports
local services, e.g.
shops.
The local
transport and
health care
systems are
maintained.
Hiking and
mountain biking
has eroded
mountain paths.
At peak tourist time
the town is noisy and
crowded.
Museums, shops
and historical
buildings provide
attractions away
from the slopes.
Easy access to
peaks from cable
cars and cog
railways
Shops,
restaurants, etc.
are tourist
orientated
making prices
higher for locals.
The money from
tourism allows
Chamonix to be
maintained as an
attractive town.
Activities include;
rock climbing,
mountaineering,
paragliding, rafting,
canyoning and
pony trekking.
Tourists can
conflict with
locals, e.g. Farm
animals can be
affected by
tourists who
leave gates open
or leave litter.
Tomorrow’s
Valley initiative
works with locals
and tourists to
plan sustainable
management.
The local authority
provides
environmentally
friendly transport
system with clean
energy buses and
free transport.
A range of hotels,
restaurants, heated
swimming pools
and spas.
Chamonix are
promoting
responsible
tourism, and
working to
protect the
environment.
At the Mer de
Glace visitors
can get up close
to the glacier and
even go in an ice
cave.
Two new cross
country ski courses
The Alps has a variety of different zones of land use. For example it gets colder the
higher up you go. There is more rain and snow and it is windier. Trees cannot grow
on the highest slopes. Whereas the deep valleys are sheltered and so
temperatures are warmer and it is less windy at the valley floor.
The valleys have been widened and deepened by glaciers so there is quite a lot of
room on the flat valley floor for villages, fields for crops and communication
systems like roads and railways which have brought extra tourists in.
The Alps are used for four main things – farming, hydro-electric power, mining and
tourism. The following sections will take each of these in turn. There’s activities to
complete dotted around in there too.
Farming
The valley floor is the ideal location for farming because the land is flatter, the soils
are deeper and more fertile and it is sheltered from the wind. Most farms extend up
on to the sunnier south facing slopes.
Also there is better access; roads and railways follow the valleys.
Traditional farming
The traditional farming in the area is dairy
farming using a system called
transhumance which means the movement
of animals according to the season.
In summer the cattle are taken to higher
areas to graze. This allows hay and fodder
crops to be grown in the valley. In some
parts of the Alps where slopes are south
facing (and therefore sunny!) vines of fruit
are also grown in small fields.
Recent changes in farming
Cable cars which have been built for skiers and tourists, are now used to bring
milk to the dairies down on the valley floor. Some of the milk comes down the
mountain slopes through plastic pipes.
In the past the farmer would stay with his cattle on the high alpine summer
pastures and churn the milk into butter and cheese up there but new roads and
quad bikes allow farmers easy access to pastures higher up the slopes and so they
do not have to stay there, they can just leave their cattle there
Farmers can also buy additional feed now the area is richer so the cattle can stay
on the valley floor all year meaning that transhumance is rapidly dying out.
Forestry
Another type of farming that happens lots in
the Alps is the growing of conifer trees.
Coniferous forests cover the slopes, especially
the north facing ones up to about 1,800m high.
Wood is the main building material of the Alps
and is a source of fuel. Saw mills are located in
the valley floor and some timber is now pulped
to make paper, chipboard etc.
Tourism
Tourism is all year round in the Alps in part because it close to the rich areas of
western Europe and therefore within easy reach. Also the area has benefited from
good communications using existing alpine passes (areas of flat land between
mountains) eg St Bernard pass, for road links. Local airports eg Geneva for air
travel, especially now the budget airlines like EasyJet are flying there.
Winter tourism
In winter Skiing is big business in resorts
most famously in Chamonix and St Moritz.
The Alps usually get fairly heavy snow fall
making it perfect for skiing and other
winter sports giving a long season from
October to Easter.
The days are clear, crisp and sunny,
especially on the ski runs and resorts of
the south facing slopes, while the flatter land of the high Alp is useful for building
resorts, restaurants, cable cars and ski lifts. This higher area also offers great
scenery and spectacular mountain views to enjoy as you ski/board/walk, while
steeper slopes even higher up provide expert ski runs.
Concerns
There are concerns though - climate change may have a massive impact as
winters seem to be getting warmer which could mean less snow and a shorter
season. In fact some resorts in the Alps have even taken to creating their own
snow to guarantee enough to snow on.
Some places are so popular with tourists that people are now skiing on worn
slopes, damaging the vegetation and the ground below. This is causing bare
slopes and soil erosion and an increased risk of avalanche and rock fall.
Summer tourism
Summer tourism is now big business in the Alps with lots of people attracted to the
spectacular scenery and landscape with glacial lakes like Lake Como and Lake
Garda in Italy adding to the beauty, providing lakeside resorts and provide
opportunities for water sports.
The facilities for winter tourism like hotels, restaurants and cable cars can be
used for both winter and summer tourism meaning more money for the local area.
Walking can be as easy or difficult as people want it to be – trails and routes are
well laid out with plenty of facilities on the way. With local guides available for
walking, mountaineering and wildlife watching providing jobs for local people.
Hydro Electric Power (HEP)
High rainfall in the Alps ensures that there is a
constant supply of water in the area, steep slopes,
and summer melting of the glaciers and snowfields
produce fast flowing rivers that are ideal for
generating HEP.
Storage of the water has been possible as dams
built across the narrow valleys so that reservoirs
build up behind them and form lakes as shown in
the picture above.
The HEP is cheap, clean and sustainable and it supplies the local area but is also
sent to other regions along the national grid power lines and it supplies local
industries like sawmills which uses a lot of electricity.
Quarrying
In the Italian Alps quarrying for marble has been important for many years used by
artists like Michelangelo. Today it is an expensive and high quality and exported all
over the world to be used in buildings as tiles and blocks.
The marble quarries have become a tourist attraction with small workshops
making souvenirs for the tourist trade.
How people adapt to using the Alps
The Alps are in Western Europe which is one of the wealthiest and technology
advanced areas of the world.
Also countries like France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany work with each other to
overcome the problems of living in a difficult high mountain environment.
Communications and steep relief
Communications within a fold mountain region are difficult because of the steep
relief (slopes).
The main roads and railways follow the valleys and make use of the passes over
the mountains like the St Bernard pass connecting Switzerland and Italy. Modern
road and rail tunnels have been cut through the mountains. The most recent is the
Gotthard tunnel which is the longest rail tunnel in the world and was completed in
mid-2016.
Overall, accessibility is being improved with winding hairpin roads enable steep
slopes to be used by cars and cable cars and chair lifts being used to cross valleys
and climb slopes.