TRAINING ON NEWLY DEVELOPED AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY & EQUIPMENTS

“Agricultural Machinery & Equipments (Past & Present) - An 'U' Turn Look.”

-Coomarasamy. C-Formerly EE, AED

Agricultural Engineering Training Centre, Tiruchirapalli 29.12.2015 : 11.00 a.m.- 01.00 p.m.

cc tn aed aetc am&e p&p 1 Minor Irrigation

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Agriculture-The science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products.

Engineering is the branch of science and technology concerned with the design, building, and use of engines, machines, and structures.

Agricultural Engineering- the branch of engineering involved with the design of farm machinery, with soil management, land development, and mechanization and automation of livestock farming, and with the efficient planting, harvesting, storage, and processing of farm commodities.

Engineers are directly or indirectly involved in influencing human resources in making decision to take agriculture to higher height.

The term “agricultural engineer” means a person trained in engineering who applies engineering knowledge to agriculture and food as defined broadly to include biological processes and environmental aspects.(defined by Stout)

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

Agricultural Engineers deal with the technique, systems and machines for production of goods and services.

To improve agricultural practices, the use of machinery and farm power must be combined with soil conservation and management to minimize erosion.

However, Agricultural engineering has application of physical knowledge with judgment, in the utilization of materials and forces of nature to improve production practices and management.

Agricultural engineers may engage in any of the following areas:- design of agricultural machinery, equipment, and

agricultural structures- internal combustion engines as applied to agricultural machinery- agricultural resource management (including land use and water use)- water management, conservation, and storage for

crop irrigation and livestock production

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

- surveying and land profiling- climatology and atmospheric science- soil management and conservation, including erosion and erosion

control- seeding, tillage, harvesting, and processing of crops- livestock production, including poultry, fish, and dairy animals- waste management, including animal waste, agricultural residues, and

fertilizer runoff- food engineering and the processing of agricultural products- basic principles of circuit analysis, as applied to electrical motors- physical and chemical properties of materials used in, or produced by,

agricultural production- bio-resource engineering, which uses machines on the molecular level

to help the environment.- Design of experiments related to crop and animal production

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- Mechanisation is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery.

- Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity.

- In modern times, powered machinery has replaced many jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen, horses and mules.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

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- Machines, in fact, are interposed between the power and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other.

- It involves the use of an intermediate device between the power source and the work.

- This intermediate device usually transforms motion, such as rotary to linear, or provides some sort of mechanical advantage, such as speed increase or decrease or leverage.

- Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors, trucks, combine harvesters, airplanes (crop dusters), helicopters, and other vehicles.

- Modern farms even sometimes use computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and GPS (Global Positioning System) guidance to increase yields.

- The development and implementation of precision agriculture or site-specific farming has been made possible by combining the Global Positioning System (GPS) and geographic information systems (GIS).

- These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data collection with accurate position information, leading to the efficient manipulation and analysis of large amounts of geospatial data.

- GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and yield mapping.

- GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.

1.0. INTRODUCTION - GPS

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1.1. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - CONCEPT Farm mechanization is the application of

engineering and technology in agricultural operations to do a job in a better way to improve productivity.

i.e., Mechanization entails the use of farm machinery and facilities to maximize all farm inputs for optimum production.This includes development, application and management of all

mechanical aids for field production, water control, material handling, storing and processing.

Mechanical aid include hand tools, animal drawn equipments, power tillers, tractors, oil engines, electric motors, processing and hauling equipments.

Farm mechanization does not mean the use of big machines and tractors for farming work only.

Mechanization is a need-based process, which provides sufficient time gap for self-adjustment of various inputs without causing sudden impact of changes.

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1.2. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - NEED

To mechanize there is need to take note of the following:o There must be a

suitable equipment developed for timely production of goods.o manufacturing and availability of machine spare parts must be adequate to meet needs of end users of such machinery. o Maintenance of such machinery is essential for productivity and enhanced profit making. o Effective utilization of the machinery

(operators and technical staff ) must be available.o Favorable condition of use such as government policy, political frame work, financial obligation and

seasoned professionals to handle

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1.3. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE

This is a good scope of farm mechanization in India due to the following factors: (a) Improved irrigation facility in the country. (b) Introduction of high yielding variety of seeds. (c) Introduction of high dose of fertilizers and pesticides for

different crops. (d) Introduction of new crops in different parts of the country. (e) Multiple cropping system and intensive cultivation followed in

different parts of the country.The above factors are responsible to encourage farm mechanization

which can be viewed with the following parts in mind: (i) Population of the country is increasing at the rate of about 2.5%

per year.

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1.3. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE

Steps have to be taken to arrange food and fibers for such large population by adopting intensive farming in the country.(ii) In multiple cropping programme, where high yielding variety of

seeds are used, all farm operations are required to be completed in limited time with economy and efficiency.

This is possible only with the help of mechanization.(iii) Farm mechanization removes drudgery of labour to a great

extent. A farmer has to walk about 66km on foot while ploughing one hectare land once by bullocks having 15 cm furrows width.

(iv) A large numbers of female workers and children work on farm unwillingly due to shortage of power.

From the human stand point, it is not desirable that such an arduous duty should be taken from children and females.

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1.3. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - SCOPE

A child must go to school and woman must devote time for managing home affairs to make life pleasant if machines are used: a) The farmer and his animals can be relieved of hard work. b) He will do his job with machines, better and quicker. c) He will get more leisure and devote more time for other works. d) He will earn better living and enjoy life in nice manner.(v) The proper utilization of basic inputs like water, seeds and fertilizers,

will be possible only when proper equipments are used.(vi) There are certain operations which are rather

difficult to be performed by animal power or human labour such as: a) Deep ploughing in case of deep rooted crops. b) Killing the pernicious weeds by deep tillage operations. c) Leveling of uneven land d) Land reclamation.

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1.4. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - AIMS

Aims of Mechanization: To increase productivity To remove farm drudgery To improve on product quality To reduce cost of labour To increase income Provision of employment opportunities Improve livelihood of farmers

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1.5.INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - BENEFITS

- (i) Timeliness of operation.- (ii) Precision of operation.- (iii) Improvement of work environment.- (iv) Enhancement of safety.- (v) Reduction of drudgery of labour.- (vi) Reduction of loss of crop and food products.- (vii) Increased productivity of land.- (viii) Increased economic return to farmers.- (ix) Improved dignity of farmer.- (x) Progress and prosperity in rural areas.

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1.6. INTRODUCTION : FARM MECHANIZATION - LIMITING FACTORS

The following are the limiting factors in farm mechanization in India.

- (a) Small land holdings.- (b) Less investing capacity of farmers.- (c) Agricultural labour is easily available.- (d) Adequate draught animals are available in the country.- (e) Lack of repair and servicing facilities for machines.- (f) Lack of trained man power.- (g) High cost of machines.- (h) Increases an individual’s workload (i) Can be hazardous to health (j) Reduces social interaction associated with farm work.

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1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Various types of agricultural operations on a farm can be broadly classified as

1.Tractive work such as- (I) seed bed preparation, (ii) cultivation, (iii) harvesting and (iv)transportation.

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1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

2.Stationary work like (i) silage cutting, (fermented, high-moisture stored fodder) (ii)feed grinding, (iii) threshing, (iv)winnowing and (v) lifting of irrigation water.

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1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

These operations are done by different sources of power, namely - (i) human, (ii)animal, (iii) mechanical –oil engine, (iv) mechanical -tractor, (v)electricity and other powers like (vi)Solar, (vii)wind etc., Human Power- Human power is the main source of power for operating small tools and implements. They are also employed for doing stationary work like threshing, winnowing, chaff cutting and lifting irrigation water. - On an average a man develops nearly 0.1 horse power (hp). c.coomarasamy

1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Animal PowerThe most important source of power

on the farm all over the world is animal. It is estimated that

nearly 80% of the total draft power used in agriculture throughout the world is still provided by animals.

Animals like bullocks and buffaloes happen to the principle sources of animal power.

Camels, horses, donkeys, mules ( m..d + f..h )and elephants are also used in farm work.

The average force a bullock can exert is nearly equal to one tenth of its body weight.

A medium size bullock can develop between 0.50 to 0.75 hp.c.coomarasamy

1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Mechanical PowerThe third important source of farm power is

mechanical power that is available through tractors and oil engines.

The oil engine is a highly efficient device for converting fuel into useful work.

The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 to 38 per cent.Diesel engines of

larger size are used on tractors.

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1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Electrical PowerElectrical power has become a very important source of power on farms. Largest use of electric power in the rural areas is for irrigation and domestic water supply. Use of electricity in post harvesting like threshing dairy industry, cold storage, fruit processing and

cattle feed grinding has tremendously increased.

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1.7. INTRODUCTION : SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Solar - From the sun (continuous, 3.41X106 Joules/m2

- Tractors- Crop dryersWind Power- Used with wind vanes

The availability of wind power for farm work isquite limited. Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr, wind mills can be used for lifting water.

A wind mill having 3.6 m diameter wheel mounted on 12.0 m tower is able to produce from 0.1 to 0.9 hp with the wind velocity varying from 6.4 to 37 kmph.Thus the average capacity of a wind mill would be above 0.5 hp.

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1.8. INTRODUCTION : LEVELS OF MECHANIZATION Human

- Power rating(0.1 HP), - most primitive - Highly inefficient- High energy consumption- Low cultivated area

Animal- Power rating(1-5 HP)- Better than manual/human- Larger capacity for animal drawn tools- Prone to Tsetse fly infestation- Competition for meat/milk by humans

Mechanical- Power rating(10-200HP)- More coverage of land- Highly efficient- High productivity- Expensive- Needs skilled labour

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2.0.1. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES- PAST

1. Minor Irrigation Schemes . Sinking of Filter point tube wells . Sinking of private tube wells . Sinking of boring in wells . Deepening of wells . Community wells

Resistivity metersHand Boring setsPercussion drillsRotary drillsHammer drillsWagon drills/ In-well drillsRock Blasting UnitsLong Hole EquipmentsDebris Removers/ Tiller’s crane Air compressorsElectrical loggersBulldozers (Crawler type tractors)Wheel type tractorsRice combine harvestersPumping and Boring tools GAEW Percussion drills Major overhauling of Agricultural Machines

2. Land Development Schemes . Levelling . Ploughing

3. Soil and Water Conservation Schemes4. Workshops . Government Agricultural Engineering Workshop . Tractor Workshops

Other special schemes/programmes are package programme, Integrated Area Development Programme, Exploratory Tube Organisation wells Scheme, River Pumping Scheme, Tractor Hire Purchase scheme, Oil engine Hiring Scheme, Drought Prone Area Programme, Wind sweft area deelopment programme.

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2.0.2. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES-PRESENT1. Soil and Water Conservation in the catchments of River Valley Project2. Agricultural Mechanisation Programme3. Command Area Development and Water Management Programme4. Demonstration of Agricultural Machinery and Implements5. Training Programme to Farmers in handling and maintenance

of Agricultural machinery6. Rain Water Harvesting and Runoff Management Programme7. NABARD assisted Rain Water Harvesting Programme8. Soil and Water Conservation under Hill Area Development Prog.9. Soil and Water Conservation under Western Ghats Development Prog.10. Soil Conservation in Tribal Areas under Integrated Tribal Development 11. Replacement of old Pump sets with new Pump sets.12. World Bank aided Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernization

& Water bodies Restoration & Management (TN IAMWARM) Project13. Minor Irrigation Scheme14. Land Development Scheme15. National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP)

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2.0.2. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING SCHEMES-PRESENT MACHINERY AVAILABLE

Sl.No

Land Development Machinery

Quantity (Nos)

1 Bulldozer 902 Tractor 1713 Paddy Combine

Harvester50

4 Hydraulic Excavator

2

5 Paddy Transplanter

7

Sl.No

Minor Irrigation

Machinery

Quantity (Nos)

1 Rotary Drills 302 Percussion Drills 73 Mini Drills 194 Hand Boring Sets 625 Long Hole

Equipments7

6 Rock Blasting Units 327 Resistivity meters 88 Electrical Loggers 2

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- Irrigation is the main input of Agricultural economy. - For a sustained development in the agricultural sector in modernization

of agricultural practices, availability of assured irrigation facility is undoubtedly the most important prerequisite.

- Thus, in the context of efforts towards economic development, the importance of irrigation development bears special significance.

- Irrigation Schemes are classified as Major, Medium and Minor, depending on their culturable command area.

- they are categorised as Surface Flow, Surface Lift (For Major / Medium and Minor) and Ground Water Lift (for Minor only).

2.1. IRRIGATION

Sl.No Irrigation Culturable Command Area (CCA)1 Major Irrigation more than 10,000 hectares

2 Medium Irrigation more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.

3 Minor Irrigation area up to 2,000 hectares

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Irrigation advantages:- (i) regular and reliable supply of water; - (ii) supply of silt if irrigation is from river waters; - (iii) year- round cultivation; - (iv) reduction of soil salinity in deserts (but if water is allowed to

evaporate from the fields, salinity will increase).Irrigation brings about an increase in the gross cropped area by

increasing the net sown area in rainfall scarcity areas and by facilitating multiple cropping.

Type of Irrigation Technique:1. Surface Irrigation2. Localized Irrigation3. Drip Irrigation4. Sprinkler Irrigation5. Sub-irrigation- seepage irrigation

2.1. IRRIGATION

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2.1. IRRIGATION

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- The development of Ground Water is mostly done through individual and cooperative efforts of the farmers, with the help of institutional finance and through own savings.

- Surface Minor Irrigation Schemes are generally funded from the Public Sector outlay.

- Minor irrigation mainly involves ground water development, e.g., tube-wells, boring works, etc.

- There are two broad classes of drilled-well types, based on the type of aquifer the well is in:

- Shallow or unconfined wells are completed in the uppermost saturated aquifer at that location (the upper unconfined aquifer).

- Deep or confined wells are sunk through an impermeable stratum into an aquifer that is sandwiched between two impermeable strata (aquitards or aquicludes).

- The majority of deep aquifers are classified as artesian because the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the level of the top of the aquifer.

- If the hydraulic head in a confined well is higher than the land surface it is a "flowing"artesian well (named after Artois in France).

2.1.1. MINOR IRRIGATION

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2.1.2. SELECTION OF A DRILLING METHOD 

 In selecting a drilling method for well construction, the most important consideration is to collect

representative groundwater or soil samples from specified depth intervals.

However, cost, time and other factors must also be considered. Below is a summary of relevant factors to consider in the selection of a drilling method in

hydro geological work. - Depth of Drilling: all drilling methods have certain limitations- Sample recovery: type of samples desired, i.e. soil, groundwater,

disturbed or undisturbed, frequency of sampling, yield estimation;- Target lithology: well installation completed in unconsolidated or

consolidated formation.

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2.1.2.1. SOIL - TAMILNADUBefore planning forconstruction of well, we must know the soils, and hydrogeology of the site.Geophysical survey should be conducted before execution.

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2.1.2.2. HYDROGEOLOGY - TAMILNADU

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- The resistivity survey method is more than 100 years old and is one of the most commonly used geophysical exploration methods (Reynolds, 1997).

- Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity- Electrical survey. Mapping subsurface resistivity by injecting an

electrical current into the ground.- Resistivity meter. An instrument used to carry out resistiv ity surveys

that usually has a current transmitter and volt age-measuring circuitry.- Electrode. A conductor planted into the ground through which current is

passed, or which is used to measure the voltage caused by the current.- Apparent resistivity. The apparent resistivity is the resistiv ity of an

equivalent homogeneous earth model that will give the same potential value as the true earth model for the same current and electrodes arrangement.

- Multi-core cable. A cable with a number of independent wires.

2.1.2.3. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

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2.1.2.3. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

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2.1.2.3. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY

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2.1.2.4.WELLS

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2.1.3. WELL DRILLING METHODS

- Various well drilling methods have been developed because geologic conditions range from hard rock to completely

unconsolidated material such as alluvial sand and gravel. - Particular drilling methods are employed more frequently in certain

areas because they are more effective in penetrating the local aquifers and thus offer cost advantages.

- Drilling procedures may depend on factors such as depth and diameter of well, lithology, sanitation requirement and use of the well (i.e. well dedication).

- The drilling method is site-specific and depends on the type of logging and testing to be performed.

- No single method is best for all conditions and applications. - Well drilling methods are numerous and only the basic principles

and applicability of selected and conventional methods are presented. 

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- Methods which do not use circulation (drilling) fluids- Displacement boring - a piston or plug-type sampler is forced into

the soil - Driven wells-. Well points in soft formations - driven by hand or a

hammer - Solid-stem auger continuous helix - Hollow-stem auger- Methods which use circulation (drilling) fluids to carry drill cuttings

to the surface- Rotary Drilling

- Rotary (direct) Drilling- Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling (RC)- Dual-wall Reverse Circulation Drilling

- Percussion Drilling - Cable-tool Percussion- Air Percussion Down-The-Hole Hammer- Air Percussion Casing Hammer- ODEX Percussion down-the-hole Hammer

Odex Drilling / Simultaneous Casing DrillingODEX is an excellent option when unconsolidated formations are too dense or cobbly for Auger Drilling. ODEX is a down-hole air hammer system that is designed to advance casing during drilling. Once a desired depth is reached they eccentric bit can be retrieved leaving the casing in place for sampling or installations.When the bore-hole is complete, the casing is retrieved to be used again.

2.1.3. WELL DRILLING METHODS

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2.1.4. DRILLING TECHNIQUES -MANUAL

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2.1.5. DRILLING METHOD SELECTION

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2.1.6. AUGERING

- The hand auger consists of extendable steel rods, rotated by a handle.

- A number of different steel augers (drill bits) can be attached at the end of the drill rods.

- The augers are rotated into the ground until they are filled, then lifted out of the borehole to be emptied.

- Above the water table, the borehole generally stays open without the need for support. Below the water table a temporary casing may be used to prevent borehole collapsing.

- Drilling continues inside the temporary casing using a bailer until the desired depth is reached.

- The permanent well casingis then installed and the temporary casing must be removed.

- Augers can be used up to a depth of about 15-25 meters, depending on the geology. Diameters range from 50 to 200mm.

Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995) 

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2.1.7. PERCUSSION

- Manual percussion uses a heavy cutting or hammering bit attached to a rope or cable and is lowered into the open bore hole or inside a temporary casing.

- Usually, a tripod is used to support the tools. - By moving the rope or cable up and down, the

cutting or hammering bit loosens the soil or consolidated rock in the borehole, which is then extracted by using a bailer.

- Just as with hand augering, a temporary casing of steel or plastic may be used to prevent the hole from collapsing. When the permanent well screen and casing are installed, this temporary casing has to be removed.

- Manual percussion drilling is generally used up to depths of 25 meters.

Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995) 

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2.1.8. SLUDGING

- Sludging uses water circulation to bring the drilled soil up to the surface.

- The drill pipes are moved up and down. - On the down stroke, the impact of the drill

bit loosens the soil and on the up stroke, the top of the pipe is closed by hand (or valve), drawing up the water through the pipe and transporting the cuttings to the surface.

- On the next down stroke, the hand (valve) opens the top of the pipe and the water squirts into a pit, in front of the well.

- In this pit, the cuttings separate from the water and settle out, while the water overflows from the pit back into the well.

- The borehole stays open by water pressure.

- Thickeners (additives) can be added to the water to prevent hole collapse and reduce loss of working water.

- Sludging can be used up to depths of about 35 meters.

Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995) 

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2.1.9. JETTING

- Jetting is based on water circulation and water pressure.

- As opposed to sludging, water is pumped down the drilling pipes.

- The large volume of water has an erosive effect at the bottom and the ‘slurry’ (water and cuttings) are transported up between the drill pipe and the borehole wall.

- A manual ormotorised pump is used to achieve an adequate water flow.

- The drill pipe may simply have an open end, or a drill bit can be added and partial or full rotation of the drill pipe can be used.

- Thickeners (additives) can be added to the water in order to prevent hole collapse and reduce loss of working water.

- Jetting (with rotation) is generally used up to depths of 35 meters.

Source: ELSON & SHAW (1995) 

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BAILERCHOPPING BIT

2.1.10. DRILLING

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DRIVEN WELL

2.1.11. FILTER POINTS

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Hand-boring tools-1) single chisel 2) cross chisel 3) rod 4) 6 foot sludger 5) screw-jointed tube 6) tube with outside collar 7) tube with flush joint, riveted 8) tube with screw socket 9) 6 foot grappler 10) reamers 11) single cross head 12) double cross head 13) fork 14) key 15 & 16) core cutters and extractor 17) spring pole 18) windlass 19) legs and pulley 20) hook to lift rods 21) temper screw 22) excavation and hole 23) rods 24) core cutter 25) rods jointed with loose socket (from Lupton, pg. 52)

2.1.12. HAND BORING SETS

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2.1.13. MINI DRILLS

Light percussion drilling rig / Mini drillOften called “Shell and auger” drilling, This method is more properly termed light percussion drilling since the barrel auger is now rarely used .This rig consists of :1. A collapsible “A” frame,

with a pulley at its top.2. A diesel engine: connected

via a hand operated friction clutch (based on a brake drum system) to

a winch drum which provides pulling power to the rig rope and can be held still with a friction brake which is foot-operated.

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2.2.0. DRILLING TECHNIQUES- MACHINE

- Boreholes are drilled by machine (rig).- The purpose of drilling is to obtain a hole sufficient in size and depth,

inside which well screen and casing pipes can be subsequently placed.

- The hole is made by cutting the formation material at the bottom and thereafter removing the disintegrated fragments to ground surface.

- Two main techniques are used to drill boreholes:  with percussion drilling the cutting action is obtained by alternately

raising and dropping the tools in the descending drill hole, while with rotary drilling this is accomplished by the rotation of suitable tools to chip and abrade the rock formation into small fragments.

- To remove the disintegrated material, two main methods are used:- the chippings are either periodically removed with the help of a

bailer or sand pump or they are continuously removed by means of a stream of water.

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2.2.0. DRILLING TECHNIQUES

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2.2.0. DRILLING TECHNIQUES

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2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS- The most widely used percussion rigs are of the type known as cable

tool rigs. - The tools are moved up and down in the well with strokes that may

vary between 0.15 and 1 m. - The weight of tools may also vary between 100 to more than 1000 kg. - The hole is worked up and down until 1 to 1.5 m of cuttings have

accumulated at the bottom; the loose material is then removed with the bailer.

- If the formation being drilled is loose, it is necessary to advance the casing as the hole progresses down, to prevent caving of the hole.

- In solid rock, casing may only be necessary in the first 3 or 4 m of the hole to prevent softer soil particles from falling into it.

- Drilling rates with cable tool rigs vary with the type of formation being penetrated, with the depth of the hole, the type and size of the equipment and with the experience of the drilling crew operating the machine.

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Cable tool water well drilling rig

2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS

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2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGSSoil Drilling rates Remarks

hard, dense, non-fractured rocks (granite, gneiss, lava, quartzite)

1 to 2 m per day

slow, drilling in hard dense rocks

soft rocks (sandstones, sandy clay).

15 to 30 m per day

Sticky shale and clays 5 to 15 m per day

difficult to loosen and commonly difficult to bail.

Loose, fine sand 3 to 5 m per day

hard to penetrate

when the rock is fractured holes tend to follow softer zones causing the borehole to crook or tools (bits, bailer) to get stuck.

Unconsolidated material containing boulders

very difficult to drilldriving down of this casing more difficult.

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- Boring tools, Figure 413, for well sinking, testing ground, etc, consisting of: 1) well rod, usual length 10 feet  2) worm auger 3) open auger, for clay  4) flat chisel, for stone of flint 5) spring dart, to draw faulty pipe from the bore hole 6) spring dart, to draw faulty pipe from the borehole (for small pipes) 7) bell screw, for withdrawing broken rods 8) bell box, for withdrawing broken rods from the borehole 9) auger nose shell, with valve for loose soil or sand 10) flat nose shell, for similar purposes 11) shoe nose shell, for harder ground 12) hand dog, for screwing and unscrewing the rods 13) pipe clamps, or rests  14) T-chisel for flint or stone 15) wad hook, for withdrawing stones, etc, which may fall into the bore hole 16) spiral angular worm for withdrawing broken rods 17) diamond, or drill-pointed chisel, for hard ground 18) lifting dog, for raising and lowering the rods 19) long pipe clamps, or rests 20) tillers or levers for turning the rods 21) wrought-iron screwed well-bore pipe 22) short rod, with swivel head 23) crow’s foot for extracting the broken rods from the bore hole 24) pair of well-rod joints ready to shut up for greater lengths 25) pipe tongs, or heaters, for making joints of pipe 26) T-piece, or pipe dog, for lowering the pipes 27) brazed and collared pipe, with water-tight soldered joints 28) common riveted pipe, strong make 29) spring hook to be attached to the well rope for raising tools, etc. 30) windlass complete, for boring or sinking 31) strong well sinking bucket (from Appleby’s Handbook of Machinery, pg. 110-111)

2.2.1. PERCUSSION RIGS

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- Rotary drilling is a popular method due to its greater drilling speed and the fact that casing is rarely needed during the drilling operation; an advantage if a low water yield in the new borehole does not justify its exploitation (the work involved in recovering casing from cable-tool drilled dry holes is difficult, expensive and frequently impossible).

- Rotating bits of various types cut the rock or sediments. - Power from the engine is delivered to the bit through a rotating hollow

steel. - As in percussion rigs, rotary drilling rates depend on the characteristics

of the rock formations being drilled, on the fracturing and degree of water saturation of these fractures and on the type and size of the equipment used.

2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING 

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2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING 

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2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING 

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2.2.2..ROTARY DRILLING 

Soil Drilling rates Remarkssoft unconsolidated sediments

100 and 150 m per day

consolidated rocks 10 and 20 m per day

Highly permeable rocks most difficult to drill, especially if their fractures are above the water table (dry)drilling bits and tools may be easily lost.

very hard pebbles or boulders bit will tend to spin on the hole without cutting through.losing the verticality and alignment of the well may be inevitable and the hole will have to be abandoned.

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- As a result of the fast development of pneumatic drilling techniques Down-the-Hole Hammer drilling, has been introduced.

- A pneumatic single piston hammer (similar to the well known "road hammer") is fitted at the bottom of a string of drill pipe; a diamond or tungsten carbide bit is attached to the hammer.

- As drilling proceeds, the bit is rotated to make it change position within the hole.

- While the tool is only hanging from the stem and is not touching the bottom, the piston is "idling" on its cylinder and nearly all the air is exhausted through the bit, thus providing extra cleaning possibilities, as air (if hole is dry) or a foamy air/water emulsion (under water table levels) are at all times running into the hole and expelling cuttings to the surface.

- When the tools land on the bottom of the hole, the bit assembly is pushed up to meet the oscillating pneumatic piston striking with frequencies varying between 200 and 1000 blows per minute.

2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING

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- While the bit cuts, the air cools the bit and cleans the hole. - Penetration rates in hard rock have been improved by this method.

Rates of 3 to 5 m per hour through basalt are commonly reported.- Down-the-Hole Hammer rigs will only operate with great difficulty in

unconsolidated ground or clays; in this drilling condition, the presence of water may defeat them, as it causes the cuttings to congeal and stick to the walls (injection of special detergents into the air supply would, however, help to overcome this constraint).

2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING

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- A Down-The-Hole Drill is called DTH in most drilling terms.

- The down-the-hole drill is basically a mini jack hammer that screws on the bottom of a drill string.

- The fast hammer action breaks hard rock into small flakes and dust and is blown clear by the air exhaust from the DTH hammer.

- The DTH hammer is one of the fastest ways to drill hard rock.

- It is rotary cum percussive type drilling.

2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING

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Working of DTH- In DTH drilling, the percussion

mechanism commonly called the hammer is located directly behind the drill bit.

- The drill pipes transmit the necessary feed force and rotation to hammer and bit plus compressed air or fluids for the hammer and flushing of cuttings.

- The drill pipes are added to the drill string successively behind the hammer as the hole gets deeper.

- The piston strikes the impact surface of the bit directly, while the hammer casing gives straight and stable guidance of the drill bit.

2.2.3. DTH HAMMER DRILLING

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2.2.4. WELL LOGGING

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2.2.4. TYPES OF WELL LOGS

As the technology of has improved over the decades, myriad types of well logs have emerged. From Gamma Ray (GR) Logs that measure radioactiviwell logging ty of the rocks to determine the amount of shale in a formation to Sonic (or Borehole Compensated) Logs that measure porosity by measuring how fast sound waves travel through rocks, different tools are used to determine different subsurface characteristics.

Resistivity Logs measure how electricity travels through rocks and sediments. This determines what types of fluids are present because oil and fresh water are poor conductors of electricity, while formation waters are salty and easily conduct electricity.

Induction Logs are used in wells that do not use mud or water, but oil-based drilling fluids or air, which are nonconductive and, therefore, cannot use electric logs. Induction uses the interaction of magnetism and electricity to determine Resistivity.

Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs show the permeability of the rocks in the well by calculating the electrical currents generated between the drilling fluids and formation water held in the pore spaces. SP is used many times to determine between shale and sandstone.

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Technical specifications- A borehole drilled through hard rocks may be left unlined or will only

require lining in the upper section (to avoid looser, weathered parts or soil particles falling into it),

- in softer rocks or unconsolidated formations the completed well must be lined over its entire depth; this lining is called casing pipe. In front of the aquifer, special casing is placed to act as the well's intake;

- it may be perforated pipe or special well screens.- Sometimes, an artificial gravel pack is placed in the annular space

between the hole wall and the outer walls of the screens (at the intakes), to provide extra protection to the intake and an increased filtration capacity to avoid solid particles being carried into the well by the incoming water during pumping.

- Casings must be water tight, especially at the upper section, to prevent undesirable water finding its way into the hole.

2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION

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- The well intake (and therefore the screen it is made from) is the "business end" of the well; its success depends on this straining device, on the care taken in collecting samples of the drilling cuttings to identify aquifer zones for screen placement, on the skills needed to design and produce the most efficient one and on the materials used, which, in principle, should guarantee efficiency for a long time.

2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION

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2.2.4. WELL DESIGN AND COMPLETION - The pump;- The head works (apron) protects the opening at

the surface from contaminants or particles entering the well;

- The sanitary seal is an impervious layer, preferably made out of concrete, preventing contamination of the well by holding back seepage through thegravel pack along the borehole;

- The well casing prevents the well from collapse and seepage of contaminants. Traditionally, steel pipes were used for lining but PVC pipe recently have replaced their use, as they are less expensive and easier to handle;

- The well screen holds back sediments while allowing water to infiltrate the well. Thescreen slots need to be smaller than the grain size of the surrounding soil. PVC pipes can easily be slit with special slitting saws to create thousands of fine cuts;

- The gravel pack, composed of graded gravel and sand, fills up the space between thescreen and the borehole. It is only required if the surrounding soil has a grain size smaller than the slot size of the screen (WATERAID 2008; BALL 2001; WAL 2010).

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- All drilling methods alter the hydraulic characteristics of formation materials in the vicinity of the borehole.

- Development procedures are designed to restore or improve these characteristics to maximise the performance (SMET & WIJK 2002).

- This is achieved by removing the fines and by consolidation of the gravel pack (WAL 2010).

- Over-pumping (that is, pumping at above the design-rate) can improve the efficiency of the packing by drawing further fine particles into it.

- Where the surrounding ground has many fine particles, the flow of water can be accelerated by back-flushing at a higher rate (WATERAID 2008).

- Once a well has been developed and is free of any fines, the well should be test-pumped.

- Test pumping gives useful information about the performance of the well and indicates whether the well yield will be sufficient for its intended purpose (WAL 2010).

- It also indicates the maximum yield that can be drawn without risking overexploitation of the well. After having tested the water quality (see also water quality testing, the well can be set into operation.

2.2.4. WELL DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING

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1. compressed air adapter 10. behind cylinder room 18. canal2. free room inside the cylinder

head11. cover 19. cylinder

3. valve chatter 12. cover room 20. piston shaft4,5.

canal 13. canal 21. twist nut

6. front cylinder room 14. exhaust arris 22. leader nut7. percussion piston 15. front piston arris 23. drill sleeve8. behind piston arris 16. arris at the piston shaft 24. shank9. exhaust arris 17. wearing box 25. drill sleeve

26. ratchet wheel

Cross-section of a jack-hammer. Source: Reuther.

2.3. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL DEEPENING – Rock Blasting Unit use

Deepening of open wells consists of blasting the bottom to rocky sub-stratum by dynamite, in stages, up to the desired depths. The jack hammer is used.

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Quality control of drilling bit sharpening, a) wearing control, b) control of wedge angle, c) control of open angle curve. Source: Roschlau.

INTEGRAL DRILL STEELS

2.3. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL DEEPENING – Rock Blasting Unit use –bits, rods

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- By using extension drill steel equipments and compressed air, 36-48mm diameter and 15-30 m long holes are drilled to tap water in rocks of the open well in this extension hole drilling method.

- As drilling proceeds the extension rods are connected by means of coupling sleeves.

- An auto-feed or pusher leg is used for horizontal bore drilling.

2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL – SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS

- By using extension drill steel equipments and compressed air, 36-48mm diameter and 15-30 m long holes are drilled to tap water in rocks of the open well in this extension hole drilling method.

- As drilling proceeds the extension rods are connected by means of coupling sleeves.

- An auto-feed or pusher leg is used for horizontal bore drilling. c.coomarasamy

Design of a jack-hammer with stand, a) for thrust, b) stop-hammer. Source: Armstrong.

2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL – SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS

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Composition of a complete drilling system for pneumatic drilling with stand. Source: Atlas Copco Company Information.

2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL – SIDE AND VERTICAL BORING- LONG HOLE EQUIPMENTS

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BITS FOR DOWN THE HOLE HAMMERS SHANK ADAPTERS

2.4. REVITALISATION OF OPEN WELL – VERTICAL BORING- IN WELL DRILL- BITS, ADAPTERS

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2.5. REFERENCES

- Agricultural Engineering Department, Tamil Nadu.- Description of Drilling Methods by: S. Fortin, and D. Duncan- Water Manual for Refugee Situations (UNHCR, 1992, 160 p.)  - Drilled Wells compiled by Marco Bruni (seecon international gmbh),

Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)- CHANG Ping, THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Overview Report- Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity (Solid Earth Geophysics

Encyclopedia) Submitted by landviser - Geo-technique SI book chapter 5, Subsurface exploration: boring,

drilling, probing and trial pitting- SATYANARAYANA I , Basics of drilling 1 ppt- Anil Kilania Down The Hole Drilling ppt- Official U.S. Government information about the Global Positioning System

(GPS)- Rodichev and G. Rodicheva, Tractor and Automobiles.- Course Lecturer: Engr. Dada P.O.O. Department of Agricultural Engineering- Google webs and images

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