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CEE Technical Communication Guide

CCE Technical Communication Guide

Department of Civil & Construction EngineeringIowa State University

2001- 2002

Version 1.0Reviewed 8-01Printed 8-01


Table of Contents

1.0 COMMUNICATING IN ENGINEERING 5

2.0 PROCESSES AND GUIDELINES IN TECHNICAL WRITING:A RHETORICAL APPROACH 72.1 Before You Write– Getting Started 7

2.1.1 Context 72.1.2 Content 82.1.3 Purpose 92.1.4 Audience 112.1.5 Generating Ideas 132.1.6 Gathering Information 142.1.7 Narrowing Information 142.1.8 Outlining 15

2.2 While You Write 16

2.3 After You Write: Power Revision Techniques 162.3.1 Overview of structure-level revisions 16

2.3.1.1 Contents 162.3.1.2 Structure 172.3.1.3 Organization 182.3.1.4 Transitions 19

2.3.2 Overview of sentence-level revisions 212.3.2.1 Redundant phrasing 222.3.2.2 Weak use of expletives (there is, it is) 222.3.2.3 Weak use of the passive voice 222.3.2.4 Sentence length 23

2.3.3 Common grammar, punctuation, usage and spelling problems 23References for More Information about Grammar, Punctuation,Usage, and Spelling 24

2.3.4 Guidelines for nonsexist usage 242.3.5 Checklist for a final edit 26

References for More Information about Writing Technical Documents 27

3.0 PROCESSES AND GUIDELINES FOR ORAL PRESENTATIONS 283.1 Preparing for the Oral Presentation 28

3.1.1 Understand your Task 283.1.2 Understand your Audience 283.1.3 Understand your Context 283.1.4 Frame your Presentation 293.1.5 Select Visuals 293.1.6 Practice and Deliver your Speech 30


3.2 Planning and Preparing Visuals for the Oral Presentation 303.2.1 Legibility 313.2.2 Simplicity 313.2.3 Clarity 313.2.4 Consistency 31

3.3 Delivering the Oral Presentation 31References for More Information about Oral Presentations 32

4.0 ASSESSMENT TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS AND PRESENTATIONS 33Sample Rubric for Assessing Written Document 35Sample Rubric for Assessing Written Document 36Sample Rubric for Assessing Oral Presentations 37References for More Information about Assessment and Evaluation 38

5.0 APPLICATIONS OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS 395.1 Business Correspondence and Resumes 39

5.1.1 Business Letters 39Figure 5.1. Sample Memo 41Figure 5.2. Sample Letter 42Checklist for Correspondence 43

5.1.2 Cover Letters 43Checklist for Cover Letters 45

5.1.3 Resumes 45Checklist for Resumes 47

References for More Information about Letters and Resumes 48

5.2 Technical Reports 495.2.1 Technical Background Reports 49

Checklist for Technical Background Reports 51References for More Information about Technical Reports 52

5.2.2 Lab (testing/technical investigations) Reports 52Checklist for Lab Reports 53References for More Information about Lab Reports 54

5.2.3 Design (feasibility/recommendations/evaluation) Reports 54Checklist for Design Reports 56References for More Information about Design Reports 57

5.2.4 Proposals 57Checklist for Proposals 59References for More Information about Proposals 60

5.2.5 Progress Reports (project monitoring) 60Checklist for Progress Reports 61References for More Information about Progress Reports 62

5.2.6 Instructions 62Checklist for Instructions 63References for More Information about Instructions 64


5.2.7 Technical Specifications 64Checklist for Technical Specifications 65References for More Information about Technical Specifications 66

5.2.8 Other Technical Reports 66Figure 5.3 Sample Report 68Figure 5.4 Sample Report 72Checklist for Technical Reports 75References for More Information about Technical Reports 75

6.0 DOCUMENT DESIGN 766.1 Report Document Design Overview 75

6.1.1 Title/cover 766.1.2 Abstract 766.1.3 Introduction 776.1.4 Background 776.1.5 Discussion 776.1.6 Conclusion and Recommendation 776.1.7 References 77

6.1.7.1 What needs to be cited 786.1.7.2 Guidelines 786.1.7.3 Source references 786.1.7.4 Examples 796.1.7.5 Bibliography 79

6.1.8 Appendices 79References for More Information about Document Design 80

6.2 Page Design Overview 806.2.1 Headings 806.2.2 Tables 81

Figure 6.1 Sample Table 826.2.3 Figures 82

Figure 6.2 Sample Figure 836.2.4 Margins, Indentation, and Alignment 846.2.5 Fonts 846.2.6 Highlights and Emphasis 846.2.7 Lists 846.7.8 Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols 85References for More Information about Page Design 85

7.0 TEAMWORK AND TEAM WRITING 867.1 Good Teams 867.2 Disastrous Teams 877.3 Teams Discussions and Decisions 87

7.3.1 Basic Groundrules 887.3.2 Team Meetings 887.3.3 Team Member Roles 89

7.4 Strategies for Team Writing 897.5 Team Assessment 90


1 COMMUNICATION IN ENGINEERING

Being an effective technical communicator is critical if you are going to excel as a studentand advance as a professional civil or construction engineer. Although some peoplemistakenly believe that engineers have to do minimal communicating, that belief is far fromtrue. Since the projects that civil and construction engineers do, regardless of their specialty,impact public welfare, engineers interact regularly with the public as well as other businessprofessionals—listening to them, speaking with them, designing visuals for them, writing tothem.

Civil and construction engineers who achieve great career success and job satisfaction areeffective communicators. And as they climb the ladder of success, they have found more andmore writing and public speaking are required.

In the workplace, few engineers have the luxury of running tests, conducting experiments,and designing infrastructure without managing resource constraints, such as money and time.Most of you will find that your professional work is, in fact, guided by constraints—clientand corporate interests, specifically in terms of budgets, specifications, and other demands.All of these constraints play a pivotal role in the way you approach the analysis, design, andconstruction of a product or project, and you should not be surprised that communicationabout the products or projects you are involved in is situated within these same constraints.

While most students initially assume that communication tasks are separate from engineeringtasks, you will soon discover—and much to your professional and personal benefit—that thesame processes of inquiry that allow you to do your best engineering work are the sameprocesses that will help you produce your most effective communication.

Throughout this guide you will come across rhetorical considerations such as context,purpose, and audience as they pertain specifically to communication. Yet when youcarefully consider these terms, you will realize that they play a significant role in determiningthe nature and focus of your engineering work as well.

Imagine that you work for one of many engineering firms responding to a request forproposal (called an RFP) for the design of a new bridge. To ensure your proposal has achance of being accepted, you need to consider the context, purpose, and audience:

Context – Why does a new bridge need to be designed? What techniques will yourcompetition use to be awarded this project?

Purpose – Your purpose is to be awarded the contract to design the bridge. Howhave you demonstrated that you are the best company to design the bridge?

Audience – Have you addressed the client’s concerns (cost, constructability, etc.)?How will this client evaluate the proposals that are submitted?


This process of addressing context, purpose, and audience similarly apply when youconstruct a technical document. If you seriously consider the needs of your client (instructor,supervisor, coworker, etc.) and fully recognize the context and purpose of the assignment,you will save valuable time and create an effective document. To make this document highlyeffective, organize the information appropriately for your audience; present the informationin an understandable, accessible manner, and eliminate all mechanical errors; then you willbe on your way to a document that is exceptional.

As you read this guide, pay close attention to the way communication processes areembedded in engineering processes. Simply put, you can’t be a good engineer unless you cancommunicate engineering concepts to a range of audiences, for a range of purposes. Whetheryou are analyzing, explaining, designing, or describing, keep in mind your audience and yourpurpose. What’s important? Audience and purpose are equally part of engineering as well ascommunication.


2 PROCESSES AND GUIDELINES IN TECHNICALCOMMUNICATION: A RHETORICAL APPROACH

To write effectively, you should always consider rhetorical elements—context, content,purpose, audience, organization, visuals, document design, and language conventions. Inaddition, the more you know about the basic processes and guidelines for technicalcommunication, the better job you're likely to do, and that will be good for the projects youwork on, for the organizations you work in, and—most of all—for you and your career.

The processes you need to think about and develop are defined in three areas:

♦ Before you write

♦ While you write

♦ After you write

2.1 BEFORE YOU WRITE—GETTING STARTED

You’ve been given a writing assignment. Although this is the time many of us choose toprocrastinate, using excuses like “writer’s block,” “not in the mood,” “I’ll do it tomorrow,”etc., there is no time like the present to get going. So, get ready (set your excuses aside), getset (prepare), and go (write)!

To get started, you need to consider these critical rhetorical factors:

♦ Context

♦ Content

♦ Purpose

♦ Audience

2.1.1 ContextThe context in which your communication takes place influences the choices you will make.For example, readers in a workshop may need quick and easy access to information;therefore, you will need to consider how an accurate table of contents along with clear anddescriptive headings may make your communication more efficient. Your readers may alsoprefer visuals rather than textual descriptions or may prefer easily definable lists or stepsrather than information embedded in paragraphs.

You also need to acknowledge the political situation in which your communication takesplace. Corporations often have particular preferences when it comes to format and otherlanguage conventions, so learning what your client deems as politically acceptable is part ofyour writing process. And don't forget that your communication is often a response to aparticular situation and is often related to a history of events and perhaps ethicalconsiderations that you need to identify.


The following questions can help guide you to recognize the context in which you willcommunicate:

♦ How familiar are you with the client? Are you communicating to a new client, oris the client someone with whom you've had a long-standing relationship?

♦ Do you know your client's standards with respect to the purpose and subjectmatter of your communication? What are the client’s expectations for thisdocument?

♦ Do you and your employer have a healthy relationship with the client, or has therelationship undergone some recent tension and conflict? How will you maintaina good relationship ? How will you repair a damaged one?

♦ How do your readers prefer the information be conveyed—through visuals, tables,or do your readers rely mainly on textual descriptions? What will be your balanceof verbal and visual information?

♦ Will your document be circulated through a series of primary and secondaryreaders? Who are they? Does each reader have a different purpose?

♦ Is the subject matter controversial? If so, how will you handle the controversy?

♦ What events created the need for this document?

♦ What events will result from the document?

2.1.2 ContentSelecting accurate and appropriate content is critical. If your content is inaccurate, you loseall credibility. If your content is inappropriate, your readers are likely to dismiss yourpresentation or document.

How can you determine if your content is accurate?

♦ Be careful in recording data.

♦ Calibrate and read instruments carefully.♦ Be careful not to transpose figures.♦ Record appropriate significant figures.

♦ Double check your calculations.

♦ Use only authoritative sources.

♦ Double check information when you move it from one place to another (e.g., fromhandwritten notes to a draft on your computer)

How can you determine if your content is appropriate?

♦ Assess whether the information you select fulfills the purpose and expectations.

♦ Determine the kind of information and level of detail readers need.

♦ Decide where details should be included—in the text or in an appendix.

Basically, determining the appropriateness of content is an issue involves considering theneeds and expectations of your audience, which you’ll read more about in a later section.


2.1.3 PurposeThe main objectives of technical communication are to inform and influence the audience.This includes attracting their attention, convincing them to take action, or persuading themthat you deserve a high grade. In instructions or procedures, your purpose is to provide clearinformation so that your readers can perform the action and be aware of any potential hazardswith respect to a certain action. In a progress report, your purpose will be to provideinformation so that your readers can determine the status of the project you are involved inand determine whether any modifications to the project or schedule should be made.

In general terms, your purpose(s) fall into one or more of the following categories:

♦ To instruct: Documents such as operating manuals, procedures, and instructionsprovide information that enables readers to perform a specific task.

♦ To record and inform: Documents such as minutes and laboratory reports enablereaders to understand events and actions that may lead to an eventual decision.

♦ To inform: Documents such as literature reviews, process explanations, andproduct descriptions provide information to readers who may not be tied to anyimmediate decision (but they may influence long-range thinking or decisions).

♦ To recommend: Documents such as feasibility studies and recommendationreports urge readers to take a particular action.

♦ To persuade: Documents such as construction bids and reports dealing withsensitive or ethical issues convince readers of the relevance of a certain issue andurges readers to take the appropriate action.

To help you determine the purpose, consider the following questions when planning yourcommunication:

♦ What information do the readers want, and why do they want this information?

♦ Do they want information to help them perform a process?

♦ Do they want a description of a specific technique or piece of equipment?

♦ Are readers’ uses of this document tied to making a decision, performing a task,or understanding information?

♦ Does the document have multiple readers, \ and do their purposes vary?

Your communication can be further defined so that you are not only instruct, record, inform,recommend, or persuade but also analyze, explain, describe, and define. And since writingtasks often have specific requirements, you should understand exactly what the assignment isasking you to do by examining the instructions carefully—whether you are in a classroom ora workplace. Be aware of definitions and differences between words commonly used tospecify your task in assignments:

Analyze Examine carefully all the various components of the subject, anddescribe the interrelationships between them.


Compare Examine the characteristics of the subjects in the assignment andidentify their similarities. Some instructors may use “compare” to meanidentify both similarities and differences. Ask!

Contrast Examine the characteristics of the subjects in the assignment andidentify their differences.

Criticize Express and justify your judgment on the merit of the factors beingconsidered. Discuss both advantages and disadvantages and give theresults of your own analysis.

Critique Examine critically or deliberately and provide your evaluation. Considerthe merits and demerits of and judge accordingly.

Define Provide a concise and clear meaning. Identify what the subject belongsto and what differentiates it from all others in that class. Identify theboundaries or limitations of the definition.

Describe Recall facts, processes or events. You are not asked to explain orinterpret. Try to provide a thorough description, emphasizing the mostimportant points. Consider dimensions, material, composition, function,etc.

Diagram Present a drawing, chart, visual plan or graphic representation in youranswer. Be sure to label the diagram and provide a brief explanation ordescription. Make sure to refer explicitly to the visual in the text.

Discuss Present your point of view. This should include a description and yourinterpretation. Your opinion should be supported with verifiableevidence or reference material.

Evaluate Determine the significance, worth, or condition of a subject/issue byanalyzing, appraising and studying.

Explain Present the facts of a particular topic in order to make it understandable.Depending on the assignment, this would answer questions like “what,”“how,” and/or “why” to explain what might not be immediately obvious.Be careful to elaborate on clarifying reasons, causes and effects.

Illustrate Provide an explanation; clarify your point by presenting a figure,picture, diagram or example.

Interpret Explain the meaning of something and give your own judgment aboutthe situation.

List Give an itemized series or tabulation. These items should be brief andconcise. Have a logical order to the list (e.g., chronological, spatial,importance, etc.). Use numbers if the items are chronological orsequential; use bullets if the items are not.

Outline Provide an organized description. Give the superordinate andsubordinate points and essential supplementary information, but omitminor details. Present the information in a systematic arrangement orclassification (numeric or alphanumeric).


Prove Confirm or verify an issue or point. You should provide certainty byevaluating and citing verifiable evidence and references or by logicalreasoning.

Relate Show relationships between two or more items. Your answer shouldemphasize connections and associations with support from specific facts,processes, or events.

Review Re-examine, analyze, and comment (in an organized sequence) about themajor points of an issue.

State Express the points about an issue/subject in a brief and clear declarativesentence. Typically, details may be omitted.

Summarize Provide a brief statement of an account covering the main points. Omitdetails.

2.1.4 AudienceWhatever your context, content, and purpose, audience analysis is the most importantconsideration in planning, writing, and reviewing a document. You must adapt your writingto meet the needs, interests and background of your readers.

This principle may seem simple and obvious. However, a lack of audience analysis andadaptation causes most of the problems you find in professional, technical documents. Likeyou, your readers want to get through their reading as efficiently as possible. You have tohelp them by analyzing and interpreting what you have to say and explaining what isimportant and why, without forcing them to wade through swamps of undigested data or seasof technical jargon.

To conduct an audience analysis consider the following:

♦ What does the reader need to know?

♦ What does the reader want to know?

♦ What does the reader already know?

♦ What technology does the reader understand?

♦ How will the reader use this information?

♦ What questions will the reader most likely have after reading?

Shaping communication to meet audience needs largely depends on understanding theaudience (audience analysis and type of audience) and the purpose of the communication.However, you can use other techniques to assure your writing is meeting the needs of thereader. These techniques allow you to present your information in a manner that is efficientand understandable:

♦ Add information readers need to understand your document.Check to see if key information is missing. For example, make sure you havecritical steps for a set of instructions, important background information tounderstand the main discussion, definition of key terms, etc.


♦ Omit information your readers do not need.Many readers feel obligated to read all the information in a document.Unnecessary information confuses and frustrates them.

♦ Add examples to help readers understand.Examples are one of the most powerful ways to communicate with readers,particularly in instructions. For example, when you are trying to explain acomplex technical concept, examples and analogies are a major help toillustrate your points.

♦ Change the organization of your information.Sometimes, you can have all the right information but have arranged orpresented it in the wrong way. For example, you may include too much (or toolittle) background information so some readers get lost.

♦ Strengthen transitions.Some readers may have difficulty seeing the connections between the mainsections of your report, between individual paragraphs, and sometimes evenbetween individual sentences. You can make these connections much clearerby adding transition words. Words like "therefore," "for example," "however"are transitions that indicate your logic connecting your previous thought to theupcoming thought.

♦ Use more or different visuals.The phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words” often applies to technicalcommunication. Be sure to use visuals to help convey important information.

♦ Add cross-references to important information.When presenting technical information, you can help readers by pointing themto background sources. If you can't fully explain a topic in your document,point them to another source where the topic is further discussed.

♦ Use headings and lists.Readers can be intimidated by dense paragraphs, separated by nothing otherthan a blank line now and then. Incorporate headings when you change topicsor subtopics. Headings and subheadings forecast the topic of the section.They also aid skimming and reviewing since the headings indicate the maintopics and subtopics.

Once you have thoroughly considered the content, purpose, and audience, you then need tocollect, analyze and sort through information. You may need to complete each of thesesteps:

♦ Generating ideas

♦ Information gathering

♦ Information Narrowing

♦ Outlining


2.1.5 Generating IdeasIn most of your classroom and laboratory writing assignments, the subject(s) will beidentified for you. However, sometimes you will be able to choose the subject to writeabout. In this case, you need to use techniques to generate ideas about potential topics or toget started on a specific subject. Sometimes this process of generating ideas is calledinvention. Brainstorming is one of the most common invention strategies.

Sometimes finding a good report topic requires letting your mind wander. Brainstorminginvolves writing all the ideas that come to you and later selecting the one(s) that proves to bethe most interesting and manageable. If you struggle, consider questions like these:

♦ What really interests me in my area of specialization?

♦ What type of project might I be working on in 2-3 years?

♦ What technology impacts people in my chosen profession?

♦ What book or journal/magazine article has been of significant interest to merecently?

♦ What problems exist in my profession or community that need resolution?

Once you’ve selected a subject for your report, you need to brainstorm topics:Subject - wind-powered electrical system

Possible topics – Historical backgroundFundamental principlesCommon modelsUsageSavings

As you generate ideas using brainstorming, you may benefit by considering answers to thefollowing questions:

Content Issues

♦ Why should you emphasize the importance of your subject? Why should peoplebe concerned about or interested in it?

♦ What important historical background information needs to be discussed in yourreport?

♦ Should your report discuss potential solutions or answers or be informational?

♦ Does your report require any definitions, descriptions, or explanations?

♦ Does your report subject involve processes, procedures, or routines to discuss?

♦ Should items in your report be or compared to each other?

♦ Should you discuss the advantages and/or disadvantages related to your subject?

♦ What limitations, drawbacks or problems associated with your subject need to beidentified?


♦ Should you speculate about future developments or possibilities related to thereport subject?

Audience Issues

♦ How should you try to convince readers to take certain actions or think in acertain way relative to your report subject?

♦ Could you compare complex items in your report to things that are familiar orcommon to your audience?

♦ In what ways does your audience expect you to address financial impacts, such aspurchase expenses, maintenance and operation costs, production or output costs,or savings?

Organizational Issues

♦ Would examples be beneficial to make your points clearer?

♦ Should your report draw certain conclusions or make certain recommendations?

Considering these questions can be helpful to assure you do not overlook important topics orinformation about your subject. The things overlooked are typically not “information” but arerhetorical problems—for example, not adapting to the audience’s needs or expectations ornot organizing information for the audience.

2.1.6 Gathering InformationIf you have no background about the topic, you may need to read and gather information:

♦ Consider the information you will need to support, prove, illustrate or developeach main point or topic.

♦ Read to locate this information. One way is to use each main point as a topicusing a search engine such as Google or Ask Jeeeves.

♦ Use these same topics as headings (on cards or paper in electronic files) andrecord notes under these headings. Remember to record the source of the material.

♦ Review your notes frequently to determine what you have, whether it is sufficient,and whether it is relevant.

2.1.7 Narrowing InformationNo matter how fascinating your subject, you still must spend time narrowing it. Narrowing areport subject means reducing it to a manageable size: something you can accomplish withina certain amount of time and within a certain number of pages. Narrowing is like zooming inon a subject and selecting only a few topics to discuss, depending on your specific audienceand specific purpose. When you are narrowing, asking questions like these:

♦ Is this section necessary to address my audience's needs?

♦ Will my audience be lost and confused without this?

♦ Could I delete this section without damaging the overall purpose of my report?


♦ Is the level of discussion in this section too general for my audience? Tootechnical? Not technical enough?

The audience and purpose of your report are like filters, screening out the unnecessary topics.

2.1.8 OutliningWhen communicating technical information, you not only must you think of the rightinformation to include (or exclude) but also find a good way to arrange it. Outlining helpsarrange this information by writing a series of topics or major points to be covered. Whendone in preparation for the writing, an outline forms the skeleton of your document. Thispreparatory outline can serve both as a guide for the writing and a checklist to assure all themajor points have been covered

If you went through brainstorming, you have a list of topics that you can arrange into a roughoutline. It will be a rough outline since it will need further reorganization perhaps theaddition of other topics or subtopics. Let’s assume the purpose of your paper is to choose apavement management system to meet the needs of your organization for the next five years.Suppose you have developed a topic list about this subject and then narrowed the list to thesefour topics:

InvestigationPresent pavement management techniquesPresent and future pavement management requirementsSystems available

The next step in outlining is to arrange the topics in an appropriate order:1. Introduction2. Background

2.1 Terms of reference2.2 Why specific timeframe was chosen2.3 Present pavement management techniques

3. Present and future pavement management requirements3.1 Organizational needs

4. Systems available5. Discussion

5.1 Matching requirements with available systems5.2 Cost/operational considerations

6. Conclusions and recommendations

Once the outline is well developed, the next step is to begin some serious reading,researching, investigating, and notetaking. During this phase, however, the outline willcontinue to evolve as new and different information turns up.

You need not be concerned about the final version of your outline until after you've writtenand revised the rough draft. Writing the rough draft is the true test of an outline. During thatstage you are likely to discover parts of the outline that don't work, are out of place, or do not


belong at all. When you finalize an outline after writing the rough draft, however, you areactually transforming it into a table of contents that you can use in the finished report.

2.2 WHILE YOU WRITE

Everything is ready, so go ahead and write. Write the paper around the outline, following thisfamiliar formula:

♦ Tell the reader what you are going to say (statement of purpose).

♦ Say it.

♦ Tell the reader what you said.

For most people, the key is to write your first draft rapidly, not worrying about all thedetails.

2.3 AFTER YOU WRITE: POWER REVISION TECHNIQUES

When you look at all the ways you can review (look for potential problems) and then revise(fix those problems), you're likely to be put off by how tedious and time-consuming theprocess looks. This process can become second nature rather quickly though. If you spendtime analyzing writing in the ways suggested in this guide, the way you write and the wayyou review what you write will improve. And remember, effective communication is the keyto your professional success.

2.3.1 Overview of Structure-Level RevisionsIn this guide, structure-level revision refers to the techniques you can use to improve thecontent of a document, make it better organized, and facilitate readers' ability to follow andunderstand it. At this level, we're not concerned with commas or spelling—we're tossingaround whole paragraphs, adding whole new sentences, deleting chunks of useless text,reorganizing sections, and adding various kinds of signals to make things easier to follow.

Specifically, this section on structure-level revision suggests techniques about the followingtopics:

♦ Content

♦ Structure

♦ Organization

♦ Transitions

2.3.1.1 ContentOne of the most important things you can do to review a rough draft is to check the content.Even if your report has great transitions, organization, and clear sentence structure, it won’tmake the grade or influence the audience if it doesn't have the right information.

The following questions may be used to review your rough draft for the types of content youmight need to add or change:


♦ Historical background or contextWhat history or context related to your topic would help readers? Would thisdiscussion help readers better understand your discussion or help you betterachieve your purpose?

♦ DefinitionsWhat terms in your report need to be defined?

♦ DescriptionWhat objects or places need to be described? Can you divide the subject intoparts, components, or characteristics and describe each separately?

♦ Process discussionWhat processes in your report should be discussed?

♦ ComparisonsWhat comparisons to similar or familiar things would be helpful? Whatanalogies would help?

♦ Reader expectationsWhat expectations do your readers have that have not been addressed?

2.3.1.2 StructureOne of the most important things you can do to review a draft at the structural level is tocheck for two things: (1) How paragraphs are separated? (2) How much detail is included?In technical communication, paragraph breaks are critical for textual clarity and readercomprehension. New paragraphs should occur when a topic or subtopic shifts or changes.

On a double-spaced page of writing, the rule of thumb would indicate at least one to twoparagraph breaks. Take a second look at long paragraphs, and check for the possibility ofparagraph breaks. And while you're reviewing the paragraphing of your rough draft, takeanother look at the content of those paragraphs: Have you included unnecessary content?

To evaluate the level of detail of your information, look at each sentence in your draft andsee if you are inconsistent about the level of detail you provide. Some sentences may act likethe framework upon which those deeper-level sentences depend. By looking at structure, younot only check the document’s organization but also get ideas about how to improve thecontent.

In writing, sentences either go to a deeper level of detail or add detail at the same level. Forexample:

The bridge spans over the Skunk River.Lower level - It is a beam bridge.

The second comment (lower level) goes to a "deeper" level of discussion than the firstcomment. Others stay at the same level of detail. For example:

The bridge crosses the Skunk River.Same level – The highway is asphaltic concrete.

These two comments are at the same level of detail. They both describe transportationsystems but do not make any deeper discussion on either transportation system. You can


analyze your writing in these structural terms at any level. Instead of sentences, you cananalyze paragraphs, groups of paragraphs, or even large sections of writing.

This analysis allows you to sense what else you might say about your topic. Once you'veevaluated the structure of the sentences, paragraphs, or sections, you can start asking yourself"should I add more same-level detail here?" or "should I add deeper-level detail here?"You're likely to find spots where you could have said more, making your discussion morecomplete or convincing in order to meet your reader’s needs.

2.3.1.3 OrganizationWith all the right information in your document, your readers have everything they need.However, the document may still not be adequately organized, causing readers a lot offrustration.

To analyze the organization of your draft, identify topics at various levels and chose the bestsequence for the topics. First, identify the topic of chunks of information at various levels.Starting at the document or major section level, assess the organization of a series ofparagraphs. Think of a word or phrase that identifies the topic of each paragraph. In otherwords, get a handle on what each paragraph covers. Then evaluate those topics or phrases,considering whether they are in the right sequence. You can also use this approach within anindividual paragraph for its organization. With this approach, you identify the topic of eachsentence and consider the sequencing of those sentences.

Second, determine the best sequence for chunks of information. Once you know the topic ofeach chunk of information (at whatever level you are evaluating), then you can determinewhether the chunks are in the right sequence. Sequencing in technical communication is donein many ways, including these common sequencing patterns:

General to specific. Arrange chunks of information from general to specific. Forexample, discussion of environmental engineering applications is a moregeneral discussion than discussing the different types of water treatmentfacilities.

Simple/ basic to complex. Begin with the simple, basic, fundamental concepts andthen move to the more complex and technical.

Thing-at-rest to thing-in-motion. First describe something (as if in a photograph) andthen discuss its operation or process (as if in a video).

Spatial movement. Move in a definable direction, such as top to bottom, left to right,or outside to inside.

Temporal movement. Move through time, arranging the discussion of events inrelationship to when they happened.


Concept to application of the concept. Discuss a concept in general terms and thendiscuss an application of it. For example, conceptually discuss projectscheduling and then discuss applications and examples of project scheduling.

Data to conclusions. Present data (observations, experimental data, survey results)and then move on to the conclusions that can be drawn from that data. (Thispattern can be reversed: present the conclusion first, then the data thatsupports it.)

Problem/question to solution/answer. Discuss a problem or raise a question and thenmove on to the solution or answer.

Simplified version to detailed version. Begin by discussing a simplified version of theitem, establishing a solid understanding of it, then go back and explain it allagain using detailed technical information.

Most important to least important. Begin with the most important, dramaticinformation and then move on to information that is progressively less so.(This pattern can be reversed, allowing you to build up to a climax rather thanstart with it.)

Most convincing to least convincing. Start with the most convincing argument foryour position, getting everybody's attention, and then move on to lessconvincing ones. (This pattern can also be reversed, allowing you to build upto your most convincing arguments.)

Obviously, when the purpose of your writing is informative, you should arrange informationso that your readers understand the basics before moving onto the complicated, technicalconcepts. When your aim is persuasive, you should arrange things to maximize thepersuasive effect on the neutral or positive readers, for example, by putting the strongestarguments first.

2.3.1.4 TransitionsEven if you have the right information and have it organized properly, something importantcan still go wrong. Readers may miss the flow of the ideas or have a hard time sensing howthe chunks of information are related or connected. Readers need continuous guidance. Youcan provide that guidance through transitions—that is, various devices that help readersunderstand the document. An underlying logic needs to connect every sentence in thedocument and to dictate a certain sequence to the sentences.

Your sense of that logic allows you to put the various chunks of information in anappropriate order. However, at times, readers may have trouble seeing that logic. Transitionsemphasize the logic. Not every chunk of information requires a transition to connect with thenext chunk—just the ones that readers are likely to have trouble understanding. Generallyyou will supply the transitions that guide readers. But sometimes you may forget, or


sometimes a connection that seems obvious to you is hard for your readers to understand.Then you need to work particularly hard to make the connection apparent.

Examine your rough draft to identify problem areas where clearer or stronger transitions areneeded. The next step is then to analyze each problem area and find the transition that willimprove the connection. To do this, you may need to understand how transitions operate andwhat choices you have.

A transition is a signal that shows how a preceding chunk of information is logically relatedto the next chunk of information. It should look backward and forward at the same time.

For example: The bridge has a rating that indicates structural deficiency, but it is stillsafe.

In this example, the transitional word "but" sets up a contrast between the topic of the firstchunk of information (the bridge rating) and the second chunk (the safety). The logic iscontrastive in this case, but other kinds of logic are also important to consider.

For example: The bridge has a structural rating of 26. Additionally, it will be acandidate for improvement.

In this example, the transitional word is "additionally." Here, the logic is additive, one relatedthought has simply been added onto another.

These examples are simple, but when you write about complex technical subjects and thelink is between whole paragraphs of information, transitions really matter.

Some ways that basic logic ties ideas together include:

Additive. One idea is added to another. Information can be added to other informationwithin a paragraph. Additive transitional words and phrases include and,moreover, as well as, too, in addition to, furthermore, also, and additionally.

Narrative, chronological, temporal. An idea can follow, precede, or occursimultaneously with another idea. Chronological transitional words andphrases include then, next, after, before, since, subsequently, following, later,as soon as, as, when, while, during, until, and once.

Contrastive, comparative. Two ideas can be compared to each other to illustratedifferences or similarities. Contrastive transitional words and phrases includebut, on the other hand, unlike, as opposed to, than, although, though, instead,and similarly.

Alternative. Two ideas can act as substitutes or alternatives for each other. Alternativetransitional words and phrases include either, or, nor, on the other hand,however, neither, and otherwise.

Causal. An idea can be the cause or the result (effect, consequence, etc.) of another.Causal transitional words and phrases include thus, then, unless, subsequently,therefore, because, consequently, as a result, if, in order to/that, for, and so.


Illustrative. An idea can be an example or an illustration of another. Illustrativetransitional words and phrases include for example, for instance, to illustrate,and as an example.

Repetitive, reiterative. To assure clarity, an idea can be restated or repeated usingother (perhaps more familiar) words. Repetitive transitional words and phrasesinclude in other words, in short, that is, stated simply, and to put it anotherway.

Spatial, physical. The items referred to in one statement can have a spatial relation-ship to items referred in another statement. Generally, prepositions indicatesuch logic: for example, under, beside, on top of, next to, behind, and so on.

Selecting effective transitions takes careful analysis. You need to choose the transitionaldevice that provide the most help for readers. Consider these common transitional devices:

Transitional words. The most utilized transitions include words like but, however, onthe other hand, therefore, for example, in other words, in addition, and so on.

Repeated key words. Simply repeating key words (words that are the focus of thetopic being discussed) is also a transitional device although not a very strongone. You can improve the flow of the writing by working on the way yourepeat the key words. Many writers feel compelled to vary word choice.However, this can lead to problems when it includes the main topic orsubtopics. In technical communication, using the same words, even at the riskof sounding a bit repetitive, is often a good practice.

Pronouns. Pronouns work similarly to repeated key words, only more efficiently. Ofcourse, the risk with pronouns is that readers won't be able to figure out whatthe pronoun refers to. Pronouns like it, this, which, that, they, them, and thelike are susceptible to this problem. When this problems happens, thesummary transition can help strengthen the transition.

Summary transitions. In key areas of writing (particularly at the beginning or end ofparagraphs or sections), phrases can summarize the preceding discussion. Asummary phrase is typically used to kick off the upcoming discussion soreaders see the connection between what came before and what is comingnext.

Parallel phrasing. Another transitional device is to use the same phrasing in a seriesof sentences, each one of which adds another level of detail to some topic.Parallel phrasing is limited to situations where additive logic is involved.

2.3.2 Overview of Sentence-Level RevisionsSentences have ways of becoming redundant, wordy, unclear, indirect, passive, and just plaindifficult to understand. Many sentences are grammatically correct (that is, for example, alltheir subjects and verbs agree, the commas are in the right places, the words are spelledcorrectly, etc), but they are very difficult to read. How do these sentences go bad? These aresome of the common problems that you should avoid:

♦ Redundant phrasing


♦ Weak use of expletives (there is, it is)

♦ Weak use of the passive voice

♦ Sentence length

2.3.2.1 Redundant phrasingRedundancy generally comes from these three sources (but more probably exist):

♦ Wordy sets of phrasesThis occurs when a 4- to 5-word phrase can be chopped to a 1- to 2-wordphrase with no loss of meaning; for example, "in view of the fact that" can bereduced to "since" or because."

♦ Obvious (and unnecessary) qualifiersThis occurs when a word is implicit in the word it modifies; for example,phrases like "anticipate in advance," "completely finish," or "importantessentials" are examples of obvious qualifiers.

♦ Scattershot phrasingThis occurs when two or more synonyms are compounded; for example,compounds like "thoughts and ideas" (what's the difference?) or "actions andbehavior."

2.3.2.2 Weak use of expletives (there is, it is)The term expletive refers to variations of “there is” and “it is.” Using these phrases is notalways wrong, but they can easily be misused or overused. Typically these phrases addunnecessary words that convey no information; such unnecessary words fog the meaning of asentence. Here are some examples and proposed revisions:

Examples

Problem: When there is a lot of longitudinal and transverse cracking on the roadwaysurface, it is what is known as D-cracking.

Revision 1: When longitudinal and transverse cracking is predominant on theroadway surface, D-cracking has occurred. (This version focuses on “longitudinal andtransverse cracking.”)

Revision 2: D-cracking on the roadway surface occurs when longitudinal andtransverse cracking is predominant. (This version focuses on “D-cracking.”)

Problem: It is the results of studies of the infrastructure in the United States thathave shown that there are deficient rebuilding and maintenance activities occurring.

Revision 1: Recent studies of the infrastructure in the United States have showndeficient rebuilding and maintenance activities. (This version focuses on “studies.”)

Revision 2: Deficient rebuilding and maintenance activities are highlighted in recentstudies of the infrastructure in the United States. (This version focuses on “activities.”)

2.3.2.3 Weak use of the passive voiceWriting in the passive voice tends to create wordy sentence construction. Active voiceemphasizes who or what is doing the action in the sentence because the doer of the action is


the subject of the sentence. Passive voice emphasizes who or what is being acted on becausethe receiver of the action is the subject of the sentence.

Converting a sentence from active voice to passive voice (and even back again) is easy:

Active voice The student conducted the experiment.Passive voice The experiment was conducted by the student.

However, converting from the passive voice to the active voice can be more difficult sincethe passive voice can cover up its agent (who is doing the acting), as this example shows:

Passive voice The proposals would be evaluated at the meeting. (Evaluated bywhom?)

Active voice The engineers will evaluate the reports at the meeting. (Oh! Thosefolks.)

As illustrated, sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passivevoice because active voice sentences indicate the doer of the action. In addition, changingfrom passive voice to active voice often results in a more concise sentence. So use activevoice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is usefulwhen you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, orunknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.

2.3.2.4 Sentence lengthWhen you are writing about a technical subject matter, constructing long sentences thatbecome hard to read is, unfortunately, easy. Many standards suggest 17-25 words persentence for relatively easy reading. Although those guidelines are general, be sure to reviewlonger sentences to see if they might confuse reders. Be careful not to error on the other side;occasional short sentences (say, 5 to 10 words) can be very effective, but too many of themcause writing to be choppy and hard to follow.

Here are before and after sentences, which illustrates that the after version may be easier formost readers to understand quickly:

Before In order to understand the variability in the time frame in which a bridgedeck deteriorates, one must understand some basic theory behind materialmechanics.

After The time frame in which a bridge deck deteriorates varies significantly.Understanding this deterioration process requires some knowledge aboutmaterial mechanics.

2.3.3 Common Grammar, Punctuation, Usage, and Spelling ProblemsOne very important aspect of writing is conventional grammar, punctuation, usage, andspelling. Errors in these areas can cause readers (graders, reviewers, supervisors, etc.) tofocus so much on these problems that they lose track of the content and the argument. If youhave not had the opportunity to learn these conventions, now is great time to learn, practice,and apply them. Because of the wealth of material available on this topic, this guide does not


review this basic information; rather, some Web sites that provide valuable information arelisted below.

References for More Information about Grammar, Punctuation, Usage,and SpellingPurdue University, Purdue Online Writing Labhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_edit.html

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Writers’ Workshophttp://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/grammarmenu.htm

Iowa State University, The Writing Centerhttp://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/links.html#grammar

Lynch, Jack; Guide to Grammar and Stylehttp://freelancewrite.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fandromeda.rutgers.edu%2F%7Ejlynch%2FWriting%2F

Darling, Charles; Guide to Grammar and Writinghttp://freelancewrite.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwebster.commnet.edu%2FHP%2Fpages%2Fdarling%2Foriginal.htm

Emory University, Writing Centerhttp://www.emory.edu/ENGLISH/WC/grammar.html

Word Place, Inc.; Daily Grammarhttp://www.dailygrammar.com/

University of Richmond, Writing Centerhttp://www.urich.edu/~writing/wweb.html

St. Cloud State University and LEO: Literacy Education Onlinehttp://leo.stcloudstate.edu/#paperparts

2.3.4 Guidelines for Nonsexist UsageLanguage shapes and reflects social reality. Discriminatory language is both a symptom ofand a contributor to the unequal social status of women, people with disabilities and peoplefrom various ethnic and racial backgrounds. Avoid language that discriminates, stereotypes,or denigrates people on the basis of their sex, sexual orientation, age, physical ability, maritalstatus, race, ethnicity, linguistic or religious background.

This section focuses on guidelines for nonsexist language, but all forms of discriminationneed to be eliminated from technical communication.

Non-sexist language is not intended to de-sex language but to ensure a balanced and fairrepresentation of men and women. Non-sexist language increases clarity in language use by

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/gl_edit.html

http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/grammarmenu.htm

http://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/links.html#grammar

http://freelancewrite.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fandromeda.ru

http://freelancewrite.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwebster.com

http://www.emory.edu/ENGLISH/WC/grammar.html

http://www.dailygrammar.com/

http://www.urich.edu/~writing/wweb.html

http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/#paperparts


removing ambiguities and increases accuracy by avoiding false assumptions about the natureand roles of women and men in society.

To reduce the likelihood of using discriminatory language, use the following guidelines:♦ Use parallel titles and other modes of address.

The inappropriate use of names, titles, salutations, and endearments createsthe impression that women merit less respect or less serious considerationthan men. Titles and modes of address should be used consistently and in aparallel fashion for women and men.

Avoid UseAlbert Einstein and Mrs. Mead Dr. Einstein and Dr. Mead

orAlbert Einstein and Margaret Mead

The titles Miss and Mrs. not only identify the person addressed as a womanbut also reveal her marital status, whereas the use of Mr. only identifies thatperson as a man. The title Ms. is parallel Mr. and should be used in allprofessional situations except when a woman has another title (e.g., Dr.,Professor, General) or when a woman has explicitly expressed a preferencefor Miss or Mrs.

♦ Avoid “he” as a generic personal pronoun.English does not possess a singular, gender-neutral pronoun. Therefore, thepronouns “he,” “his” and “him’ are frequently—though mistakenly—used torefer to all people. “He,” “his” and “him’ exclude women. Alternatives shouldbe used.

Avoid UseThe student may exercise Students may exercise their right tohis right to appeal. appealHe must do so before the They should do so before the duedue date. date. …or

The student may exercise the right toappeal before the due date.

You may exercise your right to appealbefore the due date.

The right to appeal may be exercised bystudents. This must be done before thedue date.


The student may exercise his/her rightto appeal. She/he must do so before thedue date (written use only).

Use “he,” “his,” “him,” and “himself” only when referring specifically to amale person. Presenting material with the disclaimer that all masculinepronouns are to be taken as referring to both females and males isunacceptable—unprofessional and socially unacceptable.

♦ Avoid gendered descriptions.When referring to a position, a quality or an action that might apply to eithersex, use a gender-neutral term. Avoid the use of man or of composite wordsinvolving the syllable -man which imply the term is exclusively male.

Avoid Useman (unless referring

specifically to a male)humans/human beings/humankind/man

and woman/women and menman hours hours/working hours/ employee hoursmankind humanity/human beings/humankind/

civilizationmanpower workforce/personnel/staff/ employeesman made artificial/fabricated/syntheticone-man (operation) run by one personthe best man for the job the best person/candidate for the jobsportsmanship fair/sportingworkmanship quality of work/work skill

The greater presence of women in a range of occupations makes it desirable toseek alternative forms and titles to avoid the impression that these positionsare male exclusive. For example:

Avoid Usebusinessman executive/business executivechairman chairperson/chaircraftsman artisan/craftsperson/skilled workerdraftsman drafterforeman supervisorsalesman sales agentspokesman speaker/spokespersontradesman tradesperson/carpenter/plumber

2.3.5 Checklist for a Final Edit♦ Read the paper aloud

♦ Remember that you are writing for others

♦ Cut out wordiness wherever possible


♦ Proofread! Look for ABC’s (accuracy, brevity, and clarity)

References for More Information about Writing Technical Documents

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Writers’ Workshophttp://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/techniquesmenu.html

Colorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/index.html

Iowa State University, The Writing Centerhttp://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, The Writing Centerhttp://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/writecenter/web/handouts.html

VirginiaTech Filebox, Writing Guidelines for Engineering and Science Studentshttp://filebox.vt.edu/eng/mech/writing/

Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/

University of Toronto – Engineering Writing Centrehttp://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/tips.htm

University of Richmond, Writing Centerhttp://www.urich.edu/~writing/wweb.html


Purdue University, Purdue Online Writing Labhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/index.html

Temple University, Writing Centerhttp://www.temple.edu/writingctr/cweb500.htm

http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/techniquesmenu.html

http://writing.colostate.edu/index.html

http://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/

http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/writecenter/web/handouts.html

http://filebox.vt.edu/eng/mech/writing/

http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/

http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/tips.htm

http://www.urich.edu/~writing/wweb.html


http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/general/index.html

http://www.temple.edu/writingctr/cweb500.htm


3 PROCESSES AND GUIDELINESFOR ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Just like your writing assignments, oral presentations require consideration of the rhetoricalelements: audience, purpose, context, organization, and visuals. Specifically, you need toconsider these responsibilities:

♦ Understand your task (purpose)

♦ Understand your audience

♦ Understand the context

♦ Frame your presentation

♦ Select visuals

♦ Practice and deliver your speech

3.1 PREPARING AN ORAL PRESENTATION

Preparing an oral presentation has a number of steps. Ignoring or skimping on any of thesesteps reduces the chances that you’ll end up with a high-quality presentation.

3.1.1 Understand your taskThis is the goal you hope to achieve with your presentation. Generally you can expect toprepare and present three types of speeches:

♦ Informative – teaching the audience about a new subject or about new informationon a familiar subject.

♦ Persuasive - intending to change the audience's attitudes or behaviors.

♦ Entertaining - trying to gain and keep the audience's attention

Regardless of the type you choose, keep in mind what you are attempting to accomplish.

3.1.2 Understand your audienceThe audience is comprised of the people to whom the speech is directed. You should be ableto answer several questions regarding your audience and the context in which they will hearyou speak:

♦ What expectations does the audience have?

♦ Does the presentation appeal to the audience’s common interests?

♦ What background information and knowledge does the audience have about thetopic?

♦ What particular aspects of the topic will be most relevant to the audience?

♦ What is the appropriate audio-visual support for audience (e.g., PowerPoint,posters, flip chart)?


♦ How can I best gain and hold the audience’s interest and attention?

♦ Why is the audience listening to the presentation?

♦ Where will the audience be listening to the presentation?

-Are the room arrangements adequate?-Will you have all of the equipment that you need at your disposal?

♦ How long does the audience expect the presentation to be? Time constraints are agreat consideration.

3.1.3 Understand the contextConsider the time and place of where you are giving the speech.

♦ What is the occasion of the speech?

♦ Where is the speech taking place?

♦ Are the room arrangements adequate?

♦ Will you have the necessary audio/visual equipment available?

3.1.4 Frame your presentationWhen organizing your presentation, make sure the main and supporting points reinforce thepurpose. To do this, provide illustrative examples, use different kinds of support (such asfacts, statistics, comparisons, and testimonies), and repeat key points by expressing one ideain several different ways.

Make sure the presentation is organized in a manner that keeps the audience focused.Consider using some of these common organizational approaches:

♦ Topical. Present several ideas , but one idea seems to naturally precede the others.This is one of the most common types of patterns and is especially useful forinformative and entertaining speeches.

♦ Chronological. Use a time sequence for a framework. This pattern is useful forinformative and persuasive speeches, when background information is required.

♦ Spatial. Organize material according to physical space.

♦ Classification. Put things into categories.

♦ Problem/Solution. Initially outline a problem and then present a solution.

♦ Cause/Effect. Initially describe the cause of a problem and then describe its effect.

3.1.5 Select visualsBecause most people rely heavily on visual cues, you can assist your audience byincorporating visual aids into your presentation. The planning and preparation of visuals isdiscussed further later in this Guide.


3.1.6 Practice and deliver your speechPick the method of practicing that best suits your comfort level with public speaking andwith your topic. However, make absolutely sure to do some rehearsal. Here are somepossibilities for preparing and rehearsing:

♦ Write a script, practice it, and keep it around for quick reference during the talk.

♦ Set up an outline of your talk, practice with it, and bring it for reference.

♦ Set up cue cards, practice with them, and use them during your talk.

The specific technique you use for preparation doesn’t matter—only that you are wellprepared. Lack of preparation generally leads to one of two unfortunate results: impromptupresentation or reading your notes. The impromptu presenter ad-libs the talk; the listenertypically regards this as rambling. On the other hand, when the presenter uses the head-downstyle of reading, the delivery tends toward a dull monotone that either puts listeners off or ishard to understand.

The delivery of oral presentations is discussed further in Section 3.3.

3.2 PLANNING AND PREPARING VISUALS FOR YOUR ORALPRESENTATION

Presentation software, such as Power Point, can enhance a technical presentation, but it doesnot guarantee the success of your presentation. To aid your success, you need to make sureyour visuals (whether software, overheads, slides, maps, tables, charts, etc.) are effective.While no visuals are “best” for any presentations, you need to decide what type is mostappropriate for your subject matter and your audience.

Before selection your visuals, identify the purpose of each visual aid:

♦ Clarify a key point

♦ Provide an illustrative example

♦ Model

♦ Summarize

♦ EntertainDoes the selected visual accomplish the purpose?

Once a visual is selected, there are four concepts you must keep in mind as you put the visualtogether:

♦ Make it LEGIBLE

♦ Keep it SIMPLE

♦ Make it CLEAR

♦ Be CONSISTENT


3.2.1 LegibilityIf your visuals are not legible to everyone in your audience, you should not even bother touse them. Here are some simple ways to ensure legibility:

♦ Use 24-point type for lettering done in all capitals. Use ALL-CAPS only for shortheadings. Write no phrases or extended text in ALL-CAPS.

♦ Use 32-point for lettering in capitals and lowercase.

♦ Hold a slide up to the light at arm’s length. Any words or illustrations that youcannot read won’t be legible when projected.

♦ Enlarge the visual until it takes up the full screen on your computer. Go back untilyou are about 6 feet away from the screen. Anything you can see or read easilyshould be about the right size to project for a typical classroom or meeting room.

3.2.2 SimplicityThe visuals you use should introduce only the essential elements of concepts you'll discuss.To do this limit the text contained on each visual and restrict the contents of tables or graphsto include only the information most pertinent to your topic. Err on the side of more slideswith less on each slide.

3.2.3 ClarityIf the information in the visual isn't easy to see or read, the audience will be trying to figure itout instead of listening to what you have to say.

3.2.4 ConsistencyYour goal in all presentations should be to educate and inform your audience. You won'tsatisfy this goal if you confuse the audience. Make sure the stages of your presentation, andthe visual aids you use, follow a logical sequence.

3.3 DELIVERING THE ORAL PRESENTATIONFor some reason, people tend to get nervous in this situation. As long as you have done theproper preparation, try to remember that your classmates, instructors, and most other listenersare a very forgiving, supportive group. You don't have to be a great entertainer; just be clear,organized, understandable, and informative. The nerves will wear off eventually as you domore and more oral presentations.

When you are delivering the oral report, pay attention to common problem areas such asthese:

♦ Timing – Make sure you keep within the specified time limit. Rehearse, write ascript, or find some other way to get the timing just right.

♦ Volume – Obviously, you must be sure to speak loud enough so that all of youraudience can hear you, without overdoing it.


♦ Pace/Speed – Make sure you do not talk either too fast or too slow. Either waymakes it hard for the audience to follow. In general, listeners understand you bestwhen you speak a bit more slowly and deliberately than you do in normalconversation.

♦ Gestures/Posture – Watch out for nervous movements or rigidness. Plan to keepyour hands low or holding onto the podium lightly and making occasionalgestures. As for posture, for a more professional appearance, avoid slouching andleaning.

♦ Verbal crutches – Beware of too much "uh," "you know," "okay" and other kindsof nervous verbal habits. The best way to prevent this is to practice (as manytimes as necessary) speaking without these verbal crutches. Then, during thepresentation do not get nervous over any silent moments; occasional silences givelisteners time to process what you are saying.

References for More Information about Oral Presentations

The Writing Center at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institutehttp://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/presentation.html

Transportation Research Board, Author and Speaker Guideshttp://www4.nas.edu/trb/annual.nsf/web/author_guides?OpenDocument

Effective Presentations – KU Med Online Tutorial Serieshttp://www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.html

Virtual Presentation Assistant – University of Kansashttp://www.ukans.edu/cwis/units/coms2/vpa/vpa.htm


Colorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-com/index.htm

http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/presentation.html

http://www4.nas.edu/trb/annual.nsf/web/author_guides?OpenDocument

http://www.kumc.edu/SAH/OTEd/jradel/effective.html

http://www.ukans.edu/cwis/units/coms2/vpa/vpa.htm


http://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-com/index.htm


4 ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENTSAND PRESENTATIONS

Technical documents and presentations can be assessed using a rubric or a set of scoringguidelines that describes the characteristics of the different levels of performance used inscoring or judging performance.

In creating a rubric for assessing a document or presentation, the assessor or evaluator mustdefine expectations: what is not acceptable, meets minimum requirements, is well done, andexcellent. Every instructor and nearly every assignment will require a separate rubric. Thecontent of each rubric depends on the evaluator’s criteria and on the nature of the materialbeing presented.

Using rubrics has a number of advantages and disadvantages:Advantages Disadvantages♦ Identify evaluation criteria♦ Establish performance standards♦ Provide benchmarks to measure

and document performance andprogress

♦ Increase accountability♦ Maintain focus on content and

performance standards

♦ Limits evaluation to specifiedcriteria

♦ Oversimplifies what constituteshigh performance

♦ Tends to downplay criticalcontextual factors that influenceaudience reactions

♦ Neglects actual readability andusability as determined byreader/user response

Typically, a rubric consists of two components: (1) a scale and (2) categories forperformance. Scales such as these are fairly typical:

♦ 1-4 (1=unacceptable, 2=fair, 3=adequate, 4=excellent)♦ 1-5 (1=unacceptable; 2 =below average with problems that significantly interfere

with success of document or presentation; 3 =needs minimal expectations thoughproblems somewhat impede accessability and readability; 4 =above average withfew problems, which don’t interfere much with accessability and readability;5=excellent/professional, with few or no problems

The expectation is that instructors will take an existing rubric and modify it to meet the needsof a particular assignment. A rubric might have only two or three or as many as a half-dozencategories such as these:

♦ Content♦ Context♦ Purpose/Key points♦ Audience♦ Argument♦ Organization/Development

♦ Support/Evidence♦ Document design♦ Visuals♦ Language conventions♦ Body language♦ Oral delivery


Clearly defined assessment criteria in each category are essential. And the criteria should belike those that would be applied in a workplace situation, indicating the most importantcriteria for defining what makes performance excellent. Including remarks or comments sothe people being evaluated can understand their weaknesses and strengths is also important

Sample rubrics follow—two for written documents and one for oral presentations. They areintended as models for you to modify for your own classes and assignments. You areencouraged to add and refine categories and criteria that are suitable for the outcomes youwant your students to achieve.


Name __________________________________ Paper Title_____________________________________

Cat

egor

y

Per

cent

age

ofto

talg

rade

Una

ccep

tabl

e=

1

Fai

r=2

Acc

epta

ble=

3

Exc

elle

nt=

4

Ove

rall

Ass

essm

ent

Content All requiredandappropriatesupportinginformationis presented

All requiredinformationis presented

Somerequiredinformationis included

Requiredinformationis notincluded

Rating: 1 2 3 4Remarks:

AudienceConsideration

Audienceunderstandsand relatesto this

Audienceunderstandsmost of this

Toocomplex orsimple foraudience

Notunderstandable by theaudience


Organization Informationis wellorganized—very usableand easilyread

Most ideaspresentedlogically

Argumentsandpresentationout of order

No sense oflogic


Grammar,punctuation,spelling, etc.)

No errors <5 errors 5-15 errors 15+ or moreerrors


Your categoryor categorieshere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere


Source: Modified from rubric provided by Lowell Greimann, Department of Civil & ConstructionEngineering, Iowa State University


Name __________________________________ Document Title________________________________

DIRECTIONS: Make brief comments in theappropriate cell to indicate the degree ofadherence to the criteria specified in the leftcolumn.

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Content• presents accurate information• matches information to purpose and audience• appropriately presents content in text or visualsContext• identifies and defines context• demonstrates an awareness of the context of a

document, visual, or presentation in anorganization

• uses an appropriate document design anddevelopment process

Purpose/Key Points• identifies and defines purpose (presented

explicitly or implicitly)• articulates key points• makes purpose & key points visually identifable

and accessibleAudience• identifies and defines audience by demographic

charactersitics, organizational role, receptivity toinformation, writer’s relationship to readers, etc.

• makes verbal choices appropriate to audience(e.g. organizational hierarchies, ambiguious ordiverse audiences, cultural/gender/age issues)

• makes visual choices appropriate to audience(familiar document design conventions, etc.)

• presents information that is accessible/comprehensible to the intended audience

Organization/Development/Support• develops a clear line of argument• collects and uses appropriate support for

arguments• uses an identifiable, appropriate pattern of

organization• demonstrates global and local coherenceDocument Design• demonstrates an awareness of information

design• uses document design conventions in ways

appropriate for the purpose, audience, and typeof document

• integrates visual and verbal elements in waysappropriate for the purpose, audience, and typeof document

Your category or categories here• your specifics here• your specifics here• your specifics hereSource: Rebecca E. Burnett, Iowa State University and Andrea Breemer Frantz, Wilkes-Barre University


Name __________________________________ Oral Presentation Title___________________________

Content Accurate andusefulinformationwas presentedat the mostappropriatelevel of detail.

Accurateand usefulinformationwasprovided.

Informationwas notuseful,accurate orat the rightlevel ofdetail.

Requiredinformationwas notincluded


AudienceConsideration

Audience wasmoved by thepresentation.

Audiencewasinformed onkey issues

Presentationwas toocomplex orsimple foraudience

Presentationwas notunderstand-able by theaudience


Organization Informationwas wellorganized—sequencedamong thetopics andfocusedpresentation.

Most ideaswerepresentedlogically anddeliveredeffectively

Inadequateconnectionsamong thetopics orineffectivedelivery.

No sense oflogic orpreparation.


PresentationDelivery

Very engaging:considered andutilized theaspects ofvocal delivery,pace/length,language andvisuals.

Audiencewasreceptive;attempted toutilize varieddelivery,pace/length,languageand visuals.

Presentationlackedsmoothnessorconfidence.

Presentationwas notacceptable tothe audience.


Yourcategory orcategorieshere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere

Your criteriahere


Source: Marlee Walton, Department of Civil & Construction Engineering, Iowa State University

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Reference for More Information about Assessment and Evaluation

Wong, Teresa; Using Rubrics In Evaluation for Science Classeshttp://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/1993/rubrics/teresa/rubrics.htm

SchoolWork Initiativehttp://www.schoolworkinitiative.org/assessment/index.htm

Colorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/teaching/wassign/page2.htm

http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/1993/rubrics/teresa/rubrics.htm

http://www.schoolworkinitiative.org/assessment/index.htm

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/teaching/wassign/page2.htm


5 APPLICATIONS OF TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS

5.1 BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE AND RESUMESIn the business environment, communication is frequently written. Some common forms ofbusiness correspondence include:

♦ Business letters♦ Cover letters♦ Resumes

5.1.1 Business LettersA common form of inter- or intradepartmental communication in business and academia isthe letter or memorandum. Letters are written by everyone—from entry-level engineers tocompany officers. Hence, mastering this basic communication form is essential.

Writing business letters and memos differs in many ways from writing reports. Keep thefollowing guidelines in mind when you write, and especially when you revise, your businessletters or memos.

♦ State the main purpose of the correspondence right away. When business peopleopen a letter, their first concern is to know what the letter is about, what itspurpose is, and why they should spend their time reading it. Therefore, avoidnebulous beginnings.

♦ Keep the paragraphs in business letters short. Business letters are not read thesame way as articles, journals, or books. Usually, they are read quickly. Long,dense paragraphs that require concentration may not be read carefully —or read atall.

♦ Compartmentalize (that is, chunk) the contents of your letter, which will enablethe recipient to read your letters more rapidly and to comprehend and rememberthe important facts or ideas. When you compartmentalize the contents of a letter,you place each different segment of the discussion (i.e. each different topic of theletter) in its own paragraph.

♦ Analyze each paragraph of your letter for its purpose, content, or function. Whenyou find a paragraph that does more than one thing, consider splitting it into twoparagraphs. If you find two short separate paragraphs that do the same thing,consider combining them.

♦ List or itemize items in a business letter. Listing simplifies readers’ task ofidentifying the important points rapidly.

Business letters include the following common components:

Heading. Includes the writer's address and the date of the letter; only a date is neededon letterhead stationery.

Inside address. Contains the name and address of the recipient of the letter. If theletter is directed to several people, list their names in descending order of their


position in the institutional hierarchy or in alphabetical order. If numerous names arerequired, identify the group by classification, such as “Design Engineers” or“Engineering Faculty and Staff.”

Salutation. Addresses the recipient of the letter and is followed by a colon (exceptwhen a friendly, familiar, sociable tone is intended, in which case a comma is used).

Subject or reference line. Announces the main business or intent of the letter. Thestatement of the subject should be concise, yet accurate, since it often determines howsoon the letter will be read and how it will be filed.

Body of the letter. Contains the actual message.

Complimentary closing. The "Sincerely yours" portion of the business letter is calledthe complimentary closing. Other common phrases include "Cordially,""Respectfully," or "Respectfully yours." You can use your own phrase, but be carefulnot to create florid or wordy ones. Notice that only the first letter in the phrase iscapitalized and followed by a comma.

Signature block. Includes your printed name (below the complimentary close) withyour signature in between. Whenever possible, include your title or position justbelow your name.

End notations. Just below the signature block are often several abbreviations orphrases that have important functions:

Initials. The initials in capital letters are those of the writer of the letter, and the onesin lower case letters (just after the colon) are those of the typist.

Enclosures. To assure the recipient knows that items accompany the letter in the sameenvelope, use such indications as "Enclosure," "Encl.," "Enclosures (2)."

Copy. If you send copies of a copy of the letter to others, indicate this using notationsuch as “cc:” or “bc:”


Bridges and Structures Division

Memo

TO: All Personnel

FROM: Mary SmithBridges and Structures Division Director

DATE: April 9, 2001

REFERENCE: Bridge and Culvert System Changes

The Bridges and Structures Division has merged two systems—BridgeManagement System and the Culvert Management System—into oneservice called the Bridges and Structures Management System. All bridgeand culvert records (inventory, inspections, programmed projects, etc.) willnow be listed in the Bridges and Structures Management System.

Information about the new system is available on the Division’s Website.In addition, request forms (electronic and printable) and guidelines areavailable on this Web site.

As in the past, it will still require four (4) working days to process fieldreview and other specialized records/listings from the management system.Please submit requests early to allow sufficient time for processing.

For questions and concerns, call or e-mail John Lock at 515-555-0001 [email protected].

Figure 5.1. Sample Memo

Revise the statement so that theinformation is logically chunked:“call John Lock at 515-232-0001 oror e-mail him at [email protected].”

Use a conventionalmemo heading,including the subjector reference line thatidentifies the specifictopic of the memo.Most companieshave their ownmemo formats, butthey all include thesefour basic items.

Memos organizeinformation in descendingorder of importance, withthe most important pointfirst. Details are expectedin the second andsucceeding paragraphs.

Do not use an end-of-memo signatures; instead,initial the memo after yourname to indicate that youhave read and approvedthe content.

Avoid using “it” unless the pronoun hasa clear antecedent. One possible revisionis “As in the past, four (4) workingdays are still required to process fieldreview….”


Kathryn McNeil, P.E.The One - Civil Engineering Corp.123 Main StreetChicago, IL 61206

August 1, 2001

Jay Smitt, P.E.Civil E’s, Inc.920 Eisenhower RoadCedar Rapids, IA 50602

Dear Mr. Smitt:

In November 2000, The One Corp. was given the task to assist you indeveloping an Intelligent Transportation System Long-Range Plan for theIowa Division of the Federal Highway Administration (FHA), commonlyreferred to as the ITS Plan. At the inception of the project, it was noted thatprogress reports would be delivered on a monthly basis. Now, nine monthsinto the project, we have only seen two progress reports. And, as we reviewthose reports, it seems that the project may be behind schedule.

The One Corp. is quite concerned about meeting the obligations under theFHA contract. We have worked diligently to establish a leading professionalreputation, and are concerned about diminishing this. We would like to workwith Civil E’s, Inc. focusing on the circumstances that may cause delay andreach a viable solution.

Please contact me at your earliest convenience to discuss the project status andhow we can work collaboratively to finish this project successfully.

Sincerely,

Kathryn McNeil, P.E.Project Manager

Figure 5.2. Sample Letter

Use a formal salutation, followed by acolon. Save comma in salutations forinformal correspondence.

Include both a return address(where you can be reached)and an insideaddress (wherethe letter is being mailed) aswell as a date. Use US PostalService abbreviations (capitalletters with no periods) forstates.

Remember to sign your letter. Inthe complimentary closing,indicate your legal name and anyprofessional designations as wellas your job title.

Findinstances ofinappropriatepronoun usein this letter.Revise thesentences sothey are fasterand easier toread.

Establishcredibility, inpart, byeliminatingerrors ingrammar andpunctuation.How can youcorrect thecomma errorin paragraph#2 and theparallelstructureerror inparagraph#3?


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every memo and letter you write.

Process Checklist for Correspondence

ContextHow do you expect the reader to respondto the memo or letter?

ContentWhat are the key points you want to makein the memo or letter?

PurposeWhat is the purpose of this memo orletter?

AudienceIs the content adapted to the audience’slevel of technical expertise?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is easily accessible?

Document DesignHow does your memo or letter convey aprofessional appearance?

Language conventionsDoes the document have minimal local-level errors (grammar, spelling, etc.)?

5.1.2 Cover LettersProfessional letter writing is essential for most of us to obtain new positions. The cover letteris used to connect the position you are seeking and your qualifications listed in the resume.Put another way, the cover letter matches the job requirements with your qualifications,emphasizing how you are ideal for that job.

A cover letter includes these common sections:♦ Introductory paragraph

The first paragraph of the cover letter is the most important; it sets everythingup: the tone, focus, as well as your most important qualification. A typicalproblem in the introductory paragraph involves diving directly into work andeducational experience. A better idea is to follow these suggestions:


State the purpose of the letter—to inquire about an employment opportunity.Indicate the source of your information about the job—newspaperadvertisement, a personal contact, or other means to how you learned about thecompany or positionInclude particulars about the company’s activities and vision—prove that youhave done your homework and know something about the company’s productsand mission.State one eye-catching, attention-getting thing about yourself in relation to thejob or to the employer that will cause the reader to want to continue.

♦ Main body paragraphsIn the main part of the cover letter, present your work experience, education,training, or whatever makes the connection between you and the job you areseeking. Remember that this is the most important job you have to do in thisletter—to enable the reader see the match between your qualifications and therequirements for the job. This is the time to sell your skills by providingdetails about your academic and workplace experience.

One paragraph may suffice here, but use more if necessary, especially if youhave several different skills or experiences to sell. Stick to one topic perparagraph.

One paragraph worth considering for the main body of the cover letter is onein which you discuss your goals, objectives (the focus of your career)—that is,you are doing or want to do professionally. A paragraph like this isparticularly good for people just starting their careers, when they don’t havemuch to put in the letter.

Be sure to introduce your resume (“as the enclosed resume shows….”) andinterpret it for your audience rather than repeating its details. You mayelaborate on work you have completed, proving that you are a highly capablecandidate.

♦ Closing paragraphIn the last paragraph of the cover letter, indicate how the prospectiveemployer can get in touch with you and when are the best times for aninterview. This is the place to urge the prospective employer to contact you.

In the cover letter, work in selective detail that makes your letter stand out, makes itmemorable, and substantiates the claims you make about your skills and experience.

An annotated example will be placed here.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every cover letter you write.

Process Checklist for Cover Letters

ContextUnder what conditions might your coverletter be read?

ContentHow does the cover letter address thespecific job for which you are applying?What aspects of your background do youwant potential employers knows?

PurposeWhat is the purpose of the cover letter?

AudienceWhat techniques are used to arousereaders’ interest? Will readers see thetone of the cover letter self-confident?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is quick and easy to read and alsohighlights your strengths?

Document DesignHow does your cover letter convey aprofessional appearance?

Language conventionsDoes the letter have zero local-level errors(grammar, spelling, etc.)?

5.1.3 ResumesA resume is a document in which you are trying to persuade your reader to give you aninterview. Your goal is not simply to summarize information, but to organize and present itso that the reader will come to a certain conclusion -- that you are qualified for the job. Youcan guide the reader to this conclusion using your "thesis," or job objective, and your "topicsentence," or "headings."

There is not a standard resume design. Every person's background, employment needs, andcareer objectives are different, thus necessitating unique resume designs. However, all


resumes should contain information about who you are, what your background is, and whatyour employment goals are.

Resumes typically include the following sections:

Name. Your full name, centered and boldfaced.

Address. Present and permanent (if different); include phone numbers.

Job objective. May be different for each job for which you apply. The job objectivesummarizes the reason for submitting the resume (i.e., what position you want) andyour qualifications. The rest of the resume should relate to and support yourobjective. The objective should be specific enough to communicate your goals butgeneral enough to encompass the broad functional designations used byorganizations.

Educational Record. Beginning with the most recent, list all schools attended anddegrees earned. Specify graduation dates. If you are about to complete a degree,include an "expected date of graduation." Indicate major and areas of specializations.If you have a "B" average or better, you may list your grade point average or justinclude your major GPA. You may list distinctions such as the Dean's List orfellowships under this heading or save them for a separate "Awards and Honors"section.

Employment History. List dates of employment, job title, and organization for eachposition you have held. This section should be organized in reverse chronologicalorder, beginning with the most recent and working backwards. You may include“unofficial" types of jobs in this section if they are relevant (e.g., volunteer work,working with a professor on a special project, long-term research, or leadershippositions in organizations). Alternatively, these experiences could be placed under"Educational Record" if they are academic or "Special Skills" or "Activities"depending upon the type of organization you choose for your resume. You may wantto list all your work experiences together (chronological order), or you might want tocategorize your experiences according to the skills and abilities they illustrate(skills/functional style), or a combination of both. No matter which style you choose,make sure you include a brief description of your work activities in each position;tasks performed, skills gained, special responsibilities or projects, and promotions orachievements. If you've had many jobs, you may want to list only professionalemployment (i.e., those related to your career) and list the rest under "Other" or omitthem all together.

Special Skills. List skills relevant to your desired career that are not mentionedelsewhere on the resume. Examples include expertise with specific software packageor fluency in a foreign language.


Professional Affiliations/Professional Activities. List your membership inprofessional organizations (explain what the organization is if it is local or if its titleis not self-explanatory). If you have taken an active role in these organizations,describe your involvement.

Honors and Awards. List any honors you have earned since high school. Include briefdescriptions if necessary. If you have two or fewer honors, this section might becombined with the "Professional Affiliations" or under an "Honors and Activities"heading.

References. Do not include references on your resume unless they are specificallyrequested. State "References Available Upon Request" and take a typed, complete listof 2-4 references with you to any interview (name, title, organization, relationship,address and telephone number).


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every resume you write.

Process Checklist for Resumes

ContextUnder what conditions might your resumebe read?

ContentHow does the resume address the specificjob for which you are applying? Whatabout your background do you want thepotential employers knows?

PurposeWhat is the purpose of this resume?

AudienceWhat techniques are used to arousereaders’ interest? Will readers see thetone of the resume self-confident?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it highlights your strengths?


Document DesignHow does your resume convey aprofessional appearance?

Document DesignHow is the information displayed to makeit quick and easy to read? How does yourresume create a professional image?

Language conventionsDoes the document have zero local-levelerrors (grammar, spelling, etc.)?

References for More Information about Letters and Resumes

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Writers’ Workshophttp://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/techniquesmenu.html


Iowa State University, The Writing Centerhttp://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/links.html#resume

Colorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents.htm

Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#eve


Purdue University, Purdue Online Writing Labhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html

http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/techniquesmenu.html


http://www.engl.iastate.edu/OWL/links.html#resume

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents.htm

http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#eve


http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html


5.2 TECHNICAL REPORTSFor many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. Itnormally involves some research; often the information not only comes from publishedsources in the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished thingssuch as interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also resemble other professionaldocuments – containing elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.

You may encounter numerous types of technical reports. The more common reports used incivil engineering applications include:

♦ Technical background reports

♦ Lab (testing/technical investigations) report

♦ Design (feasibility/recommendations/evaluation) reports

♦ Proposals

♦ Project monitoring (progress reports)

♦ Instructions

♦ Technical specifications

♦ Other Technical Reports (briefing papers, field trip reports, presentation/speakersummary, research summaries, and literature reviews)

5.2.1 Technical Background ReportsThe technical background report provides background on a topic—for example, solar energy,global warming, or U.S. recycling activity. However, the information on the topic is not justfor someone with general interest in the topic but for an individual or group that has specificneeds for it. For example, imagine an engineering firm bidding on a project to monitor waterquality of a lake, potentially polluted by agricultural chemical company. The engineers needto have general understanding about agricultural chemicals and the processing involved, butthey don't want to spend a lot of time researching the subject. What they need is a technicalbackground report on the subject.

The technical background report provides information on a topic but in a way that is adaptedfor a particular audience with specific needs for that information. Using the scenario above,the engineers may need to know what chemicals are used and how they are processed andcontrolled but only to the extent that it has to do with their areas of expertise. Such abackground report might also include some background on agricultural chemicals but nomore than what the engineers need to do their work.

Unlike most of the other reports discussed in this guide, the technical background report doesnot have a common set of contents. Because it focuses on a technical topic for specificaudiences with specific needs or uses for the information, the information should be arrangedin a manner that accomplishes that.


Consider these items when writing a technical background report:

♦ Definitions. Define the potentially unfamiliar terms associated with the topic.

♦ Causes. Explain what causes are related to the topic.

♦ Effects. Explain the consequences, results, or effects associated with the topic. Forexample, what is the consequence of improper handling of agricultural chemicals.

♦ Types. Discuss the different types or categories associated with the topic. Forexample, what types of chemicals are used in agriculture?

♦ Historical background. Discuss relevant history related to the topic.

♦ Processes. Discuss mechanical, natural, human-controlled processes related to thetopic. For example, what are the steps involved in processing agriculturalchemicals?

♦ Descriptions. Provide information on the physical details of things related to thetopic.

♦ Comparisons. Compare the topic, or some aspect of it, to something similar orsomething familiar.

♦ Applications. Explore how some aspect of your topic can be used or applied. If it'sa new technology, what are its applications?

♦ Advantages and disadvantages. Discuss the advantages or disadvantages of one ormore aspects of your topic.

♦ Economic considerations. Discuss the costs of one or more aspects associatedwith your topic. What is the economic impact of stricter control in disposal ofchemicals?

♦ Social, political, legal, ethical implications. Explore the implications or impact ofyour topic or an aspect of it in relation to social, political, legal, or ethicalconcerns.

♦ Problems, questions. What problems or questions are there associated with yourreport topic or an aspect of it?

♦ Solutions, answers. What solutions or answers can you offer on those problems orquestions raised by your topic or an aspect of it?



NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every technical backgroundreport you write.

Process Checklist for Technical Background Reports

ContextWhat might affect your selection ofinformation for this technical backgroundreport?

ContentWhat are the key points you want toinclude?

PurposeWhat is the purpose of this report?

AudienceHow have you adapted the report to theaudience, considering their technicalexpertise. What information will youraudience think is relevant?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is easy to read?

Document DesignHow does your report convey aprofessional appearance? How have youmade information accessible?

VisualsHow have you used tables, graphs,drawings, or photographs to presentcritical information?

Document DesignHow is the information displayed to makethe reading faster and easier?



References for More Information about Technical Background Reports

Colorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-trpt/index.htm

5.2.2 Lab (testing/technical investigations) ReportsThe lab report is a report that presents data (whether that data was generated in a laboratoryor out in the field) and demonstrates the writer’s comprehension of the concepts behind thedata. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should alsoidentify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, andshow your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to examine.

The contents and organization of the lab report have a basic logic: you present your data,analysis, and conclusions, enabling the reader to repeat your experiment, or at least visualizequite specifically how you went about it.

To enable readers to repeat your experiment or survey, you need to provide information inthe following format:

♦ Title Page. Provides the name of the lab experiment (title of the report), the namesof the lab partners, and the date.

♦ Abstract. Summarizes the essential aspects of the report: the purpose of theexperiment, key findings, significance, and major conclusions. The abstract oftenincludes a brief reference to theory or methodology. It should be one paragraphof approximately 100-200 words. An abstract is not always included in labreports. Check with your instructor before including this.

♦ Introduction. States the objective of the experiment and provide the reader withbackground (problem background, how the laboratory testing relates to theproblem at hand, project objectives, background theory, previous research, orformulas) to the experiment. (If the amount of background material is significant,a separate background section may be warranted.) Identify any potentiallimitations in your laboratory testing/analysis program, including ways in whichthe project was simplified from a real problem (e.g. were enough samplescollected tested to be representative of the field condition?). State in specificterms the purpose of the report.

♦ Procedures, theory, methods. List the procedure used if the procedure is standard(e.g. ASTM D4318-93 and ASTM D2487-93) or describe the procedure,equipment, materials, etc. used if nonstandard procedures are used. (This willvary with instructors – be sure to check). Describe processes in chronologicalorder. Using clear paragraph structure, explain all steps in the order they actuallyhappened, not as they were supposed to happen. You should also explain why youused the procedures that you used.

♦ Test Results. Present the data that you collected in a manner that your readerunderstands the scope of the work and has confidence in what you’ve done. You

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-trpt/index.htm


may summarize and present the data in various tables, charts, and graphs;however, you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form.Use the necessary data to explain the test results and include all supplementaldata, calculations, etc. in the appendix.

♦ Analysis, findings. Clearly present the findings of your analysis. Include examplesof calculations. Little background theoretical derivation is required, but clearreferences must be given to the original work. Again, supplemental detail shouldbe in the appendix.

♦ Discussion. Discuss the interpretation and application of the test results andanalysis in meeting the project objectives. This section should address thequestion “What is the significance or meaning of the results?” Remember that thetest(s) have been performed for a specific objective(s). Do the test results meetthese objectives? Also, make sure your results are in agreement with existingtheories or results of similar studies. Discuss any contradictions, mistakes orerrors which occurred in the tests/lab and their potential impact on the results.

♦ Conclusions, recommendations. States what you know as a result of the labexercise. Make sure that all of the objectives stated in the Introduction have beenproperly addressed. The conclusion should not introduce new information, but isa good place to make recommendations or state ideas for further research.

♦ References/Bibliography. Lists the sources of information you used or consultedin your project.

♦ Appendices. Typically includes such elements as tables of raw data, calculations,or graphs that have not been included in the report itself. Each item should becontained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each appendix at leastonce in your report.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every lab report you write.

Process Checklist for Lab Reports

ContextWhat might affect your interpretation ofthe data in this lab report?

ContentWhat are the key factors influencing youranalysis and interpretation?


PurposeWhat is the purpose of this lab report?

AudienceHow have you adapted the report to theaudience, especially considering theirtechnical expertise.


Document DesignHow does your lab report convey aprofessional appearance? How have youused headings to make it usable?

VisualsHow have you used tables, graphs,drawings, or photographs to presentprocedures and/or findings?

Document DesignHow is the information displayed to makethe analysis easier?


References for More Information about Lab ReportsColorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents.htm


University of Toronto – Engineering Writing Centrehttp://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/lab.htm

5.2.3 Design (feasibility/recommendations/evaluation) ReportsDesign reports are a loosely defined category that is very important in engineering. Thesereports are variously called feasibility reports, recommendation reports, and



http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/lab.htm


evaluation/assessment reports. They all do roughly the same thing—provide carefully studiedopinions and, sometimes, recommendations. Subtle differences exist among these types:

♦ A feasibility report tells whether a project is "feasible"—that is, whether it ispractical and technologically possible. For example, with a highway relocationproject is may be necessary to determine the feasibility of bypassing a town.

♦ A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives and recommendsone (or, if necessary, none). For example, a company might be looking atcomputer-aided drafting software and want a recommendation on which productis the best.

♦ An evaluation or assessment report studies something in terms of its worth orvalue. For example, the City of Des Moines was considering a high-speed railsystem to reduce traffic congestion. Would it work? Would it be worthwhile?

These are questions an evaluation report would attempt to answer. As you can see, thesedistinctions are rather fine and can overlap. To simplify the issue, these reports (feasibility,recommendation, or evaluation) are referred to as design reports in this guide.

The fundamental principle of the design report is this: You provide not only yourrecommendation, choice, or judgment, but also the data and the conclusions leading up to it.That way, readers can check your findings, logic, and conclusions and come up with acompletely different view. But, more likely, they will be convinced by all your carefulresearch and documentation.

Typical sections in a design report:

♦ Introduction. Indicates the report’s purpose and the contents of the report.

♦ Background. Discusses the problem, need, or opportunity that has brought aboutthis report. If only a little needs to be covered, this information can go in theintroduction.

♦ Requirements and Criteria. Discusses the requirements you'll use to reach thefinal decision or recommendation. If you're trying to recommend a laptopcomputer for use by employees, you need to consider requirements concerningsize, cost, hard-disk storage, quality, durability, and battery function. If you wereevaluating the use of a high-speed rail system in Des Moines, you'd need to knowwhat was expected of the program and then compare those to its requirements.

♦ Discussion. Explains how you narrowed the field of choices down to the one(s)your report focuses on.

♦ Recommendation/Conclusions. Summarizes or restates the conclusions you havealready reached in the discussion section—which is the best choice/finaljudgment.

Some design reports also include an executive summary. This summary moves theconclusions and recommendations to the front of the report and pitches the full discussion ofbackground, criteria, and the comparisons into appendixes. That way, the busy executive can


see the most important information right away and turn to the detailed discussion only ifquestions remain.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every design report you write.

Process Checklist for Design Reports (feasibility/recommendations/evaluation)

ContextWhat might affect the reception of thisreport? What are the potential impacts ofthis report?

ContentHave all the alternatives been examinedcarefully, thoroughly and objectively?What are the key factors influencing yourrecommendation?


AudienceHow have you adapted the report to theaudience, especially considering theirtechnical expertise.


Document DesignHow does your report convey aprofessional appearance? How have youused headings to make the report usable?

VisualsHave you used drawings, illustrations orphotographs to explain difficult orunfamiliar concepts or procedures?


Document DesignHow is the information displayed to makethe analysis easier?


References for More Information about Design Reports


Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#fea

5.2.4 ProposalsWhen you write a proposal, you are usually offering to do some work or produce a product ata specified price for a specific customer. Your proposal has the best chance of succeeding ifyour product closely matches your customer’s need, the price is affordable, and the product isdelivered on time.

Proposals are documents that get you or your organization approved or hired to do a project.Proposals are also submitted to obtain research funding. Obviously, when proposals aresubmitted, the objective is to convince readers that your proposed action (what you’reproposing) will produce their desired result.

If you plan to be a consultant or run your own business, written proposals may be one of yourmost important tools for bringing in business. If you work for a government agency,nonprofit organization, or a large corporation, proposals are a valuable tool for initiatingprojects that benefit the organization.

A proposal should contain information that enables the audience to decide whether toapprove the project. To write a successful proposal, put yourself in the place of youraudience—the recipient of the proposal—and think about what information that person needsto feel confident about having you do the project.

Consider the situations in which proposals occur. A company may send out a publicannouncement requesting proposals for a specific project. This public announcement—calleda request for proposal (RFP)—could be issued through newspapers, trade journals, orindividual letters. Firms or individuals interested in the project would then write proposals inwhich they summarize their qualifications, project schedules and costs, and discuss their


http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#fea


approach to the project. The recipient of all these proposals would then evaluate them, selectthe best candidate, and then work up a contract.

But some proposals come about much less formally. Imagine that you are interested in doinga project at work (for example, investigating the merits of bringing in a new technology toincrease productivity). Imagine that you visited with your supervisor and tried to convinceher of this. She might respond by saying, "Write me a proposal and I'll present it to uppermanagement." This type of proposal is called an unsolicited proposal. With unsolicitedproposals, you may have to include a background sections (since nobody is aware of aproblem or needed modification).

The following is a review of the sections you'll commonly find in proposals. Don't assumethat each one of them has to be in the actual proposal you write, nor that they have to be inthe order they are presented here; proposals have to be tailored for the project they arepursuing.

♦ Introduction. Indicates that the document to follow is a proposal and provides anoverview of the contents of the proposal.

♦ Background on the problem, opportunity, or situation. Discusses what hasbrought about the need for the project—what problem, what opportunity there isfor improving things, what the basic situation is. The audience of the proposalmight know the problem very well, in which case this section might not beneeded. However, your particular view of the problem may be useful todemonstrate.

♦ Benefits and feasibility of the proposed project. Discusses the advantages orbenefits of doing the proposed project. This section is trying to "sell" the audienceon the project.

♦ Description of the proposed work (results of the project). Describes the finishedproduct of the proposed project.

♦ Method, procedure, theory. Explains how you would go about doing the proposedwork. This acts as an additional persuasive element, showing the audience youhave a sound, well-thought-out approach to the project.

♦ Schedule. Shows not only the projected completion date but also key milestonesfor the project.

♦ Qualifications. Summarizes your qualifications to do the proposed work.

♦ Costs, resources required. Details the costs of the project, which may includehourly rates, projected hours, costs of equipment and supplies, and so forth,summarized to calculate the total cost of the complete project.

♦ Conclusions. Focuses readers back to the positive aspects of the project and putsin one last plug for you or your organization as the right choice for the project.



NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every proposal you write.

Process Checklist for Proposals

ContextHave you considered factors that mightinfluence reactions to your proposal?

ContentWhat specific need or problem does yourproduct or service address? How willyour product or service make yourclient’s life easier? Are the costs of theproduct or service clearly spelled out?

PurposeHave you clearly identified what you areproposing to do?

AudienceIs the content adapted to the audience’slevel of technical expertise? Whattechniques have you used to persuade theaudience?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is persuasive?

Document DesignHow does your proposal convey aprofessional appearance?

VisualsHave you used visuals to help persuade theaudience that your proposal should beaccepted?



References for More Information about ProposalsColorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents.htm

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Writers’ Workshophttp://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/tips/writtech.proposals.htm


Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#pro

University of Toronto – Engineering Writing Centrehttp://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/proposals.htm

5.2.5 Progress Reports (Project Monitoring)Progress reports are a part of all scientific, industrial, and business activities. The mainobjective of progress reports is to keep managers or sponsors informed about progress on aproject or toward a goal (the design, construction, or maintenance of infrastructure; the studyor research of a problem or product; or the gathering of information on a technical subject).Progress reports are generally provided if several months are needed to complete a project orif the project timeframe is critical. A progress report should contain the followinginformation:

♦ How much of the work is completed♦ What part of the work is currently in progress♦ What work remains to be finished♦ What problems, issues, or unexpected items, if any, have arisen♦ What recommendations should be evaluated for consideration♦ How the project is going in light of all the expectations

Progress reports have several important functions:♦ To keep those concerned informed of the current state of affairs on a project.♦ To give those concerned a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to

request changes.♦ To give you a chance to identify problems or issues and present

recommendations.♦ To force you to abide by the work schedule so you'll complete the project on time.


http://www.english.uiuc.edu/cws/wworkshop/tips/writtech.proposals.htm


http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#pro

http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/proposals.htm



NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every progress report you write.

Process Checklist for Progress Reports

ContextHave you considered the various factorswhat might be affected by information inthe progress report?

ContentWhat is the most important informationabout the project? What is the effect onobjectives, milestones, budget, andtimetable of new developments orunforeseen events? What is the mostsignificant thing since the last report?

PurposeWhat are the purposes of the progressreport?

AudienceIs the content adapted to the audience’slevel of technical expertise? Whatinformation is relevant for this audience?

OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is easily accessible?

Document DesignHave you used a conventional memoformat? Have you use headings to identifythe major sections?

VisualsHave you included a table in which yousummarize all the key information? Haveyou properly labeled all tables andgraphs?



References for More Information about Progress Reports


Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#prog

University of Toronto – Engineering Writing Centrehttp://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/progress.htm

5.2.6 InstructionsOne of the most common and important uses of technical writing is instructions—those step-by-step explanations of how to do things: assemble something, operate something, repairsomething, or do routine maintenance on something. But for something seemingly so easyand intuitive, instructions are some of the worst-written documents you can find.

You can increase the quality of instruction by following these guidelines:♦ Begin with a thorough understanding of the procedure♦ Visualize the procedure in great detail and to capture that on paper♦ Use clear and simple writing♦ Put yourself in the place of a reader who is trying to use your instructions♦ Test your instructions on representatives of the intended users

The following is a review of the sections you'll commonly find in instructions:♦ Introduction

- Indicates the specific tasks or procedure to be explained as well as the scope ofcoverage (and what won't be covered)

- Indicates prior knowledge the audience needs to understand the instructions- Gives an overview of the procedure and its purpose- Indicates the conditions when instructions should (or should not) be used- Gives an overview of the contents of the instructions

♦ General warning, caution, danger notices: Alerts readers to the possibility ofruining the equipment and/or hurting people.

♦ Technical background or theory: discusses the background of the procedure


http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#prog

http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/progress.htm


♦ Equipment and supplies: includes a list of the things needed to start the procedure;includes the equipment (e.g., hammers, drills, computer, software, etc.) andsupplies (e.g., wood, paint, paper, etc.) used in the procedure

♦ Discussion of the steps: discusses the step-by step procedure or process

♦ Supplementary discussion: adds information about object’s appearance before andafter the step and why users should care about following the instructions

Probably more than in any other form of writing, illustrations are crucial to instructions.Sometimes, words simply cannot explain the step. Illustrations are often critical to readers'ability to visualize what they are supposed to do.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every set of instructions youwrite.

Process Checklist for Instructions

ContextHave you taken into account the differentenvironments where the instructionsmight be used? Have you explaineddangerous aspects of using the process orproduct?

ContentWhat are the significant steps in thisprocess? What is the chronology? Whatequipment and supplies will be needed?

PurposeWhat is the purpose of the instructions?

AudienceAre the instructions adapted to theaudience’s level of expertise? Have youanticipated difficulties and told userswhere to find help?


OrganizationHow has the information been organizedso that it is easy to read and keyinformation is accessible?

Document DesignHave you clearly labeled each step? Haveyou visually indicated warnings andcautions?

VisualsHave you used drawings, illustrations orphotographs to explain difficult orunfamiliar steps?


References for More Information about Instructions



Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#ins

5.2.7 Technical SpecificationsSpecifications are descriptions of products or project requirements. More broadly,specifications provide details for the design, manufacture, testing, installation, and use ofproducts. You typically see specifications in the documentation that comes in the packagewith certain kinds of products, for example, CD players or computers. Specificationsdescribe the key technical characteristics of the item. But specifications are also written as away of "specifying" the construction and operational characteristics of items. When you writespecifications, accuracy, precision of detail, and clarity are critical. Poorly writtenspecifications can cause a range of problems and lead to lawsuits.

For these reasons, these guidelines need to be followed when developing technicalspecifications:

♦ Cross-reference existing specifications whenever possible. Various governmentagencies as well as trade and professional associations publish specifications



http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/les8.htm#ins


standards. You can refer to these standards rather than include the actualspecifications details.

♦ Use specific, concrete language that identifies as precisely as possible what theproduct or component should be or do. Avoid words that are ambiguous—wordsthat can be interpreted in more than one way. Use technical jargon the way it isused in the trade or profession.

♦ Test your specifications by putting yourself in the role of an unethical contractor.What are the ways a careless or incompetent individual could misread or misuseyour specifications? Could someone willfully misread your specifications in orderto cut cost, time, and quality?

♦ Use the term "shall" to indicate requirements.♦ Provide numerical specifications in both words and symbols: for example, "the

distance between the two components shall be three centimeters (3 cm)."♦ Exercise great caution with pronouns and relational or qualifying phrases. Leave

no doubt about the antecedents for words such as "it," "they," "which," and "that."Avoid sentences containing a list of two or more items followed by somedescriptive phrase—does the descriptive phrase refer to all the list items or justone? In cases like these, you may have to take a wordier approach for the sake ofclarity.

♦ Use words and phrasing that have become standard in similar specifications overthe years. Past usage has proven them reliable.

♦ Avoid words and phrases that are known not to hold up in lawsuits.♦ Make sure your specifications are complete. Put yourself in the place of those

who need your specifications; make sure you cover everything they need.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every set of specifications youwrite.

Process Checklist for Specifications

ContextHave you considered environments inwhich the product described in the set ofspecifications might be used ?

ContentWhat are the significant characteristics inthis set of specifications? How might thecharacteristics be misconstrued?


PurposeWhat is the purpose of the specifications?

AudienceIs the content adapted to the audience’slevel of technical expertise? Have youanticipated user difficulties/problems andtold them where to find additional help?


Document DesignHow does your set of specificationsconvey a professional appearance?

VisualsHave you used drawings, illustrations orphotographs to explain difficult orunfamiliar concepts or procedures?


References for More Information about Specifications


5.2.8 Other Technical ReportsThe university, as well as business and industry, often demand short technical reports. Theymay be briefing papers, field trip reports, presentation/speaker summary, researchsummaries, or literature reviews. These reports may be diverse in focus and aim, and differin structure. However some general guidelines are:

♦ Information needs to be clearly written and easy to find. Use headings to guidethe reader.

♦ Information should follow some kind of logical pattern.♦ Decide on a purpose for your report and use information gathered in the lecture,

field trip, etc. to support the purpose of your report.



♦ Organize your report is by using the format – Title/Introduction/Body/Conclusion.

The contents of the short report generally include:♦ Title. Presents information on the topic (made appealing to the audience), your

name, class name/section, and the date.♦ Introduction. Includes the statement of purpose for your report♦ Body. Elaborates the points you have mentioned in your statement of purpose in

the introduction.♦ Conclusion. Summarizes points and contains an assessment of what you learned.


The cover pageincludes thesecomponents:1 Title2 Author, Affiliation3 Occasion or event4 Date

Report Title

AuthorDepartment of Civil & Construction Engineering

Iowa State University

Neal HawkinsHoward R. GreenDes Moines, IowaSpeaker Meeting

Date

Figure 5.3. Sample Report

The report title should be listedfirst. It should include key wordsthat inform readers about thetopic.

Identify the occasion or event.In this case, Neal Hawkins—from a company called HowardR. Green in Des Moines—is thefeatured speaker.

Identify the author of thereport, including theperson’s department andaffiliation.

Indicate the date thereport is submitted.


Add a topic sentenceto indicate that theparagraph discussesthree issues.Because the openingsentence in thecurrent paragraphfocuses on “the mainissue,” readerswouldunderstandably thinkthat the entireparagraph deals withthis “main issue.”

The addition of anew topic sentencehelps readersunderstand what toexpect. This is oneversion of a newtopic sentence thatwould work: “Threemajor issuesnecessitate theredesign of theramps atInterstate80/35 andHighway 141.”

The sentences aboutpercentages wouldbe easier to read andrecall if convertedinto an embeddedtable.

Mr. Neil Hawkins attended and graduated from Iowa

State University. Mr. Hawkins is currently employed

at Howard R. Green, a civil engineering firm in out of

Des Moines. and presentIn his presentation, Mr.

Hawkins proposed a the solution for the

Interstate80/35 at Highway 141 ramps. The rapid

expanding expansion around the Des Moines area has

caused excessive resulted in over traffic on these

roadways. Cars were being backed up onto the main

traffic stream creating create a major problem.

IssuesThe main issue in this situation was traffic was being

backed up on to Interstate 80. and aA majority of the

time; , traffic would be completely stopped on the

interstate. This issue congestion took place on in both

the north- and south- bound lanes of traffic. Another

A second issue concerned trucks, a high percentage of

trucks were traveling in this area. On Highway 141,

10% of the vehicles are trucks. On Interstate 80, 22%

of the traffic is trucks before the ramp and 24% of the

traffic is trucks after the ramp. Another majorA third

problem was the stop sign from the ramp to Highway

141. This was causing major problems for the traffic

with the trucks. Trucks need more time to stop, and

take much longer to fully accelerate. These were the

major issues concerning the project.

Edit to eliminate unnecessarywords. Obviously if Mr. Hawkinsgraduated from ISU, he alsoattended.

Did the writerreread orproofread?Probably not!The evidence?The sentencesin this openingparagraph don’tmake sense.The suggestedrevision worksbetter. Is thisthe only way torevise thisparagraph? No.You couldsuggest otherpossibilities.

The writerreducescredibility byincluding arun-onsentence, anerror that isunacceptableeven injunior-highschool.


Differentiate level-1section headings. Inthis case, theheadings arecentered, on aseparate line, andboldfaced.

AnalysisIn order to find the data needed, a limited review

needs to be done on the existing road to see how the

traffic flows. Taking data during the peak hour is

important because you can then see where the major

problems occur. Data is then taken on the capacity,

and performance evaluation to see what different

alternatives need to be done to solve the problem

Once different ideas are brought up a

committee will review all of the different alternatives.

Once the main alternatives are selected a written

report will be brought to the Department of

Transportation. The Department of Transportation

then looks over the report and decides whether the

project is really needed.

Traffic Engineering ToolsIn order to analyze the data clearly, it is important to

visualize the flow of traffic. Howard R. Green

currently uses a computer animated system This Sim

Traffic software allows Howard R. Green to make

certain modifications and then the engineers are able

to see the flow of the traffic after their modifications.

The software simulates everything that would affect

the flow of the traffic, from stoplights, to fourway

stops. Its really neat how the system works and is

very helpful for the company.

Page 2September 15, 2001

Avoid usingpronouns such as“it” and “there”when they haveno specificantecedent.Locate otherplaces in thisreport that use“it” or :there”without clearantecedents.

Learn about dangling modifiers; this is an example ofone. Why? “A limited review” cannot logically finddata. Consider this revision: “In order to find the dataneeded, engineers need to conduct a limitedreview….”

Remember theword “data” isplural: “dataare…” not “datais….” Is “data”used correctly inthis report?


Learn to useconventionalpunctuation.Ignoring such detailssuggests that you area sloppy worker whodoesn’t take time toget the little thingscorrect. Find thepunctuation errorson previous pageand on this page.You should finderrors in the use (orlack) of hyphens,apostrophes, colons,commas. You canalso find punctuationerrors in the otherexamples.

HINT: Learn to useTrack Changes, atool in MSWord thathelps you identifychanges you’d liketo make in adocument. It’s aparticularlypowerful tool to usewhen you arecollaborating on adocument.

Alternations

The final changes were: add capacity and modify

the signal phasing for the south ramp and install

stoplights and a duel right turn for the north ramp. These

According to Ms. Hawkins, these simple solutions will

greatly improve the traffic control. These changes will

and improve the safety for the public, and that which is

the number one goal.

Conclusion

This meeting was very interesting and helpful. I

thought that the Sim Traffic software was pretty neat. I

liked how you were able to engineers could make

modifications and could set the stoplights, and then you

they could see how the traffic would react. It was almost

like a game, you could change the road and little cars

would drive around simulating real lifeactual traffic

patterns. Neal Hawkins was an excellent speaker and

explained the problem and the solution very clearly

Page 3September 15, 2001

Whose opinion is this? If it’s Mr.Hawkins, he needs to be givencredit.

Substitute a more astute professionalassessment than “pretty neat,” whichdoesn’t show an ability to identifythe strengths or weaknesses of thesoftware.


Remember thatcover pages usuallyinclude thesecomponents:5 Title6 Author, Affiliation7 Occasion or event8 Date

Most of theconventional parts ofthis title page areeither missing or inan unusual order.Revise this titlepage, making up thenecessary butmissing information.

Speaker ReportNovember 8, 2000

Ms. McDanielsB.S. + M.S. CE ISUFunctional Design

CH2MILL

Figure 5.4: Sample Report

Will readers know whatthis means? The + sign isnot used conventionally,and listing undergraduateand MS degrees isunusual.


Learn to useconventionalcapitalization. Is thiswriter careless, ordoes the writerreally not know that“Civil Engineering”is not capitalizedand that “unitedstates” iscapitalized?

Make sure allpronouns have clear,unambiguousantecedents. In thisparagraph, who does“they” refer to?

Ms. McDaniels is an employee of CH2MILL a consulting

firm dealing heavily in transportation and most other fields of

Civil Engineering. Their primary employer is the DOT.

Although they have been trying to expand to county

engineers and cities etc. The corporate headquarters is in

Denver Colorado, and they just recently put an office in Des

Moines in 1998. Before then, they had offices all over the

continental united states.

Functional Design

The primary purpose of the speaker was to discuss the

process and benefits of the functional design development.

First, the process before a design can be made design criteria

needs to thought up. From there, they gather data in the form

of aerial photos and traffic info. Next, they figure out the

constraints on the project and information about the project

area as a whole. Then, they make a single line sketch of the

design. Which needs to be to scale and accurate.

Page 1November 8, 2000

The first time you use an acronym, use thefull name with the acronym in parentheses.Thereafter, you can use the acronym. Sohere you would write, “…Department ofTransportation (DOT)…”


Check this entirereport forconventional use ofpunctuation.

Check pronoun use.What does “it” referto here? What does“this” refer to here?

After the design development, they move on to the process of

making the drawings, etc. They then narrow the alternatives.

Those alternatives deemed feasible are then made into tape

drawings, which will be brought to a public hearing. From

the public hearing they select the preferred alternative. Then

a report is prepared and the preliminary design starts.

Advantages of the Functional Design Process

First, it allows for many alternatives to be made. Second,

this limits changes that need to made later on during

construction.

Conclusion

Well, tThe presentation was good once it was started, but it

seemed without the technology that aided her presentation

she was lost. Beyond that she was well composed after the

projector begun to work.

Page 2November 8, 2000

Add a topicsentence so thatreaders canunderstandwhat theparagraph isabout.

How could thissmall sectionbe made part ofthe precedingsection?Use more formal

language in technicalreports. Saying“Well,… is simplytoo casual, so deleteit.

Do not deal with topics in the conclusion that you haven’tmentioned earlier in the document. The conclusion can do a numberof things: summarize the key points in the document, urge readersto some kind of action, or provide an overall assessment.

Consider whether this report provides much substantive analysis of thepresentation. The writer could have provided more information and moreassessment.


NOTE: Copy this Checklist so that you can complete it for every technical report you write.

Process Checklist for Technical Reports

ContextWhat might affect your selection ofinformation for this technical report?

ContentWhat are the key points you want toinclude in the report?


AudienceHow have you adapted the report to theaudience, considering their technicalexpertise. What information will youraudience need? Expect?


Document DesignHow does your report convey aprofessional appearance? How have youmade information accessible?

VisualsHow have you used tables, graphs,drawings, or photographs to presentcritical information?

Document DesignHow is the information displayed to makethe reading faster and easier?


References for More Information about Technical ReportsUniversity of Toronto – Engineering Writing Centrehttp://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/shrtrept.htm

http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~writing/shrtrept.htm


6 DOCUMENT DESIGN ELEMENTS

The document design elements addressed in this section refer to the report design elements(i.e., the contents of the formal report) and the page design elements (formats, styles andcontents for each page).

6.1 REPORT DOCUMENT DESIGN OVERVIEWThe main object of a formal report is to convey to a reader one’s ideas in a clear and concisemanner. Some conventional report elements help readers to easily navigate through thereport:

♦ Title/cover♦ Abstract♦ Introduction♦ Background♦ Discussion♦ Conclusion and Recommendations♦ References

6.1.1 Title/coverThe title must accurately reflect the document contents and well as meet these additionalcriteria:

♦ Arouse the interest of the reader♦ Contain important key words describing the document contents (critical especially

if the report is stored on a database and accessed by keywords)♦ Be informative, but reasonably short♦ Be unambiguous

Ornamental or misleading titles may annoy readers.

If a cover is used, it is typically followed by the title page. The cover and title page shouldcontain the following information:

♦ Title of the report♦ Your name, which may include a title or position♦ Class name or organizational affiliation♦ Date

6.1.2 AbstractAn abstract is a summary of the complete report. Sometimes, abstracts are called summaries,executive summaries or executive abstracts. Two kinds of abstracts are typically used fortechnical reports: descriptive and informative. Regardless of type, abstracts seldom exceedone page.

A descriptive abstract describes a report's main topic and presesnts an overview of itscontents. These abstracts tell the readers what the document is about, without giving them


concrete information. Typically, these abstracts can be identified by the use of “…. isdiscussed,” “…. is reviewed,” or “…. is presented.”

An informative abstract, as its name implies, provides information from the body of thereport (i.e., the key facts and conclusions). To put it another way, this type of abstractsummarizes the key information from every major section in the body of the report.

6.1.3 IntroductionThe introduction lets the reader know what you are doing and why. It should contain aconcise statement of your subject, present the problem, and clearly establish the argumentyou intend to develop. Whereas the abstract summarizes the whole report, the introductionintroduces the subject, identifies the problem you are addressing, states the purpose, andexplains the development of the report.

6.1.4 BackgroundNot all technical reports contain a background section. However, if the subject requires alarge amount of supporting information, such as a review of literature or a description of aprocess, then this background material should form its own section.

6.1.5 DiscussionThe discussion section should contain the details of your methods, findings/results, andevaluation/analysis. It should answer all of the basic questions: what, why, who, where, whenand how?

6.1.6 Conclusion and recommendationsThe conclusion should show that you have proved what you set out to prove and yourargument justifies this. It should provide a thoughtful end to your report, not summarizewhat has been said. There should be NO new information here.

Several techniques can be used to make conclusions more interesting:♦ Provide an itemized list of the conclusions♦ Use a quotation♦ Ask a provocative question♦ Evoke a vivid image♦ Suggest results or consequences♦ Call for some sort of action♦ Universalize (compare to other situations)♦ End with a warning

6.1.7 ReferencesWhen you write a technical report, you can borrow information as long as you document it—that is, cite the source for the information. A documented report (one with sources cited)shows you've done careful preparation.


6.1.7.1 What needs to be citedYou need to cite sources for the following kinds of information:

♦ All directly quoted information♦ All paraphrased information♦ All facts and statistics that are not considered common knowledge (e.g., You can

read that Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492, but such information iscommon knowledge and doesn’t need to be cited.)

♦ All tables and figures taken from other sources♦ All information taken from another sources to create tables or figures

6.1.7.2 GuidelinesFollow these guidelines for citing references:

♦ A reference should be cited at the appropriate place in the report with an italicizednumeral in parentheses, e.g., (3).

♦ Do not cite as a reference unpublished material, personal communications,telephone conversations, or similar material that would not be available to readerselectronically or in printed form. Instead cite the unpublished work in the text andenclose the author’s name along with the term “unpublished data” in parentheses.

6.1.7.3 Source referencesBe sure cited reference sources are complete and conventional:

♦ Include the names or corporate or personal authors or editors; title of the article,chapter, book, or report; publisher or issuing agency; location of publisher andyear of publication; volume and issue or report number; and page numbers.

♦ References to books include the name of the author (last name first), title of thebook (in italics), publisher's name, city of the publisher, and year of publication.In this style, you don't indicate pages.

♦ References to magazine and journal articles include the author's name (last namefirst), title of the article, name of the magazine or journal (in italics), date of issueof the magazine the article occurs in, and the beginning and ending page.

♦ References to CD-ROMs should include the same information and have “(CD-ROM)” after the title of the publication.

♦ References to Websites should include corporate or personal authors, title ofdocument, date of document (if available), Web address (complete URL), anddate accessed

♦ The reference list should contain all references that are cited in the report,numbered in the order in which they are cited.

♦ Do not repeat a reference in the list, and do not use ibid., idem, op., cit., or loc. cit.If a reference is cited more than once in the report, repeat the number firstassigned to the reference.


6.1.7.4 ExamplesThe following examples should help you prepare correct source references:

PublicationZahavi, V., and J. M. Ryan. Stability of Travel over Time. In TransportationResearch Record 750, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp.70-75.

BookShinar, D. Psychology on the Road: The Human Factor in Traffic Safety. John Wileyand Sons, Inc., New York, 1978.

PeriodicalJolliffe, J. K., and T. P. Hutchinson. A Behavioral Explanation of the AssociationBetween Bus and Passenger Arrivals at a Bus Stop (in Japanese). TransportationScience, Vol. 9, No. 3, May 1975, pp. 248-282.

Government ReportDempsey, B. Climatic Effects of Airport Pavement Systems: State of the Art. ReportDOT2DRD-75-196. FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, 1976.

Web PageStevens, R. C. Testimony Before United States Senate Special Committee on theYear 2000 Technology Problem. Sept. 10, 1998.http://www.senate.gov/~y2k/statements/091098stevens.html. Accessed Oct. 5, 1998.

CD-ROMMartinelli, D. R. A Systematic Review of Busways. Journal of TransportationEngineering (CD-ROM), Vol. 122, No. 3, May-June 1996.

Note: All of the preceeding examples from TRB – Information for Authorshttp://www4.trb.org/trb/annual.nsf/web/information_for_authors. Accessed May 23,2001.

6.1.7.5 BibliographyThis section contains citations to source material that you have used as general background inwriting your report, but did not make specific reference.

6.1.8 AppendicesThe appendix is a place to put information that interrupt the main argument or just will not fitin the main body of the report but still needs to be in the report. For example, you can placetables of data, maps, forms, or background discussion in an appendix. Each group ofdocuments in a appendix should be assigned a letter (A, B, C, and so on).

http://www.senate.gov/~y2k/statements/091098stevens.html

http://www4.trb.org/trb/annual.nsf/web/information_for_authors


References for More Information about Document DesignColorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-trpt/index.htm


6.2 PAGE DESIGN OVERVIEWThe page design refers to the use of typographical and formatting elements such as thefollowing:

♦ Headings♦ Tables♦ Figures♦ Margins, indentation and alignment♦ Fonts♦ Highlights and emphasis♦ Lists♦ Abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols

6.2.1 HeadingsHeadings are the titles and subtitles you see in many technical documents. They signal theorganization as well as the topics and subtopics. Standard guidelines can help you useheadings effectively.

♦ Headings should clearly indicate their level with type style and alignment. The followinglist suggests one standard sequence for headings and subheadings:

FIRST-LEVEL HEAD: 18-point, all capitals, boldface, on separate line from12-point text

Second-Level Head: 14-point, initial capitals, boldface, on separate line fromtext

Third Level Head: 12-point, boldface, initial capitals, followed by period, onsame line as text, one character space between heading and text

Fourth-Level Head: 12-point, initial capitals, boldface italics, followed byperiod, on same line as text, one character space between heading and text

♦ Make headings descriptive of the sections they introduce. Headings like "TechnicalInformation" do not tell the reader anything.

♦ Don't use headings as lead-ins to lists or figures.♦ Avoid "stacked" headings—that is, any two consecutive headings without intervening

text.

http://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-trpt/index.htm



6.2.2 TablesTables (rows and columns of numbers and words) permit rapid access to and relatively easycomparison of information. The following guidelines are standard for tables:

♦ Tables must be given a descriptive title placed at the top of the table, flush left toalign with the left margin of the table and highlighted with boldface.

♦ Number tables consecutively in the order first presented in the text.

♦ Use column or row headings (or both) to define the contents of the columns androws.

♦ Column headings should be aligned flush left.

♦ Left justify text columns headings

♦ Left justify columns of verbal data

♦ Right justify or decimal align columns of numerical data, and center the numbersunder the heading.

♦ Place abbreviated measurement terms in parentheses in the column or rowheading, rather than with each item in the column or row.

♦ Use lowercase italic superscript letters for footnotes.

♦ Do not use shading or screens.

♦ Make sure you reference the table in the report, pointing out its relevance andhelping the reader interpret key information.

The following annotated table identifies some of the conventions you should follow andsome of the problems you can avoid when you incorporate a table into a technical document.The writer effectively condenses a great deal of information into a tabular format but alsoviolates a number of conventions so the table is unnecessarily difficult to use.


Table 1. Field oxide process parameters

Process Step: Grow Field OxideStep Time/Rate Temp (deg. C) Ambient Type Ambient FlowPush 1in/15sec 800 Nitrogen 300 sccm

Ramp-up 30 min 1075 Nitrogen 300 sccmBubbler on NA 98 Nitrogen 200 sccm

Oxidation 29.6 min 1075 Bubbler NABubbler off NA Off NA NARamp-down 42 min 800 Nitrogen 300 sccm

The discussion inthe text should referto the table bynumber and/or title.

The text should helpreaders interpretwhat is important inthe table. Pull 1in/125 sec 800 Nitrogen 300 sccm

Figure 6.1. Sample Table

6.2.3 FiguresFigures (e.g., graphs, diagrams, drawings, blueprints, charts, photographs, maps,photographs, and so on) are used in technical documents to convey information and aidunderstanding. When you use a figure in a technical document, you need to keep severalrequirements in mind:

♦ Figures must have a descriptive title placed at the bottom of the figure, flush leftto align with the left margin of the figure and highlighted with boldface.

♦ Number figures consecutively in the order first presented in the text.♦ Avoid the use of shading or screens, especially in areas that include type.♦ If the illustration has certain shadings, colors, line styles, or other such details that

have a special meaning in the illustration, provide a clear, well-labeled key thatlists their meaning.

♦ In bar charts and line graphs, label the axes to identify the x and y axes.♦ When you borrow information to create a graphic, be sure to indicate the source.

Whether you photocopy the graphic and tape it into your report, retype thegraphic, trace or draw the graphic freehand, or take some subset of the data, allborrowed information for which someone deserves the credit must be cited.

♦ Figures must be clear and legible. The font must not be too small but easilyreadable. In addition, letters and symbols should be the same size throughout thefigure.

The table title is correctlyformatted and placed.

This column headings and thecolumns of verbal data shouldbe left justified, not centered.

Indicating the unit of measurement inthe heading is correct. What changeswould you make to implement thisguideline in the rest of the table?

The column is correctly centered,but the numbers need to be rightjustified or aligned where thedecimal would be.

The data need to be inthe same units ofmeasurement


♦ Make sure you reference the figure in the report, pointing out its relevance andhelping the reader interpret key information.

The following annotated figure identifies some of the problems you can avoid when youincorporate a figure into a technical document. The writer who incorporated this graph in atransportation report decided that USA Today strategies such as color and depth (of graphsegments) could substitute for following conventions for effective graphs. The graph doesgrab readers’ attention, but it doesn’t do its job of conveying critical technical information.Color and depth are not inherently problematic, but they need to be used appropriately andconventionally.

Figure 1 - Percentage of PC Pavements in Regions 1-5

12345

Figure 6.2 . Sample Figure

Provide a larger and betterlabeled key so readers canmore easily determine whatthe numbers and colors mean.

Follow theconventions for piegraphs— that is,start at “noon” andmove clockwisefrom largest tosmallest segmentsand from thelightest to darkestcolors.

Question whetherthe data need to bedisplayed byadding depth to atwo-dimensionalfigure, which candistort theintepretation.

Provide a reference or source citation thatidentifies the source of the graph or the sourceof the information used to construct the graph.

Individual segmentsneed to be labeled withthe region and the


6.2.4 Margins, Indentation, and AlignmentSome general formatting guidelines apply to virtually all technical documents:

♦ Use ragged right (also called left justification) rather that full justification.♦ Use 1-inch margins for all four margins of the report. Use a 1-1/2-inch left margin

if binding your document.♦ Use doublespaced typing for the main portion of the document.♦ Use only one side of the paper.

6.2.5 FontsAvoid fancy fonts and exceedingly large or small type. Some common recommended fontsinclude Times, Times Roman, and Palatino. Common heading fonts include Arial andHelvetica. The text size in most technical reports is usually 10-12 points; headings areusually 12-18 points. This text in this guide is done in 12-point Times Roman.

6.2.6 Highlights and EmphasisHighlighting here refers to bold, italics, ALL CAPS, and other such typographical devicesused to call attention to text. Consider these things when highlighting parts of a document:

♦ Use highlighting for specific, functional reasons.♦ Use highlighting consistently.♦ Avoid too much highlighting.♦ Avoid complicated highlighting schemes.

6.2.7 ListsLists emphasize important points and enable rapid scanning of text. When you see a list ofitems placed vertically on the page, rather than within the paragraph, you tend to notice itmore and pay more attention to it.

The following guidelines are useful:♦ Introduce all lists with a lead-in sentence—a complete sentence, not a phrase.

Don't use headings as lead-ins to lists.♦ Be consistent in use of either an initial cap or lowercase on the first word of list

items.♦ Use numbered lists for items that are in a required order (e.g. step-by-step

instructions) or that must be referred to by item number. Use bulleted lists foritems in no required order.

♦ Avoid excessive use of lists. On a standard page, include no more than two orthree lists. At least three or four lines of regular text should come between lists.

♦ Avoid lists with too many items. The maximum is generally considered to beseven to ten items for lists. For long lists, look for ways to subdivide orconsolidate.

♦ Avoid single-item lists.


6.2.8 Abbreviations, Acronyms, and SymbolsDon't assume readers know what abbreviations, acronyms, or symbols mean (e.g., ASCE,PE, GPA, etc.). To introduce these to your reader, write the full name or description first,followed by the abbreviation, acronym or symbol in parentheses [for example, AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers (ASCE)]. The exception to this is the standard symbols andabbreviations (e.g., “in.” for inches, “ft.” for feet, etc.) for measurements.

References for More Information about Page DesignColorado State University, The Writing Centerhttp://writing.colostate.edu/references/documents/ce-com/index.htm

Georges, T. M.; A Course in Analytical Writing for Science and Technologyhttp://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/


http://members-http-3.rwc1.sfba.home.net/tgeorges/write/


7 TEAMWORK AND TEAM WRITINGTeam writing is one of the common ways people in the world of business, government,science, and technology handle large writing projects.

A team is a group of two or more people working together in an interdependent manner toachieve shared goals. In any setting, a group of people might like each other and work welltogether, but they are not a team if they don't work interdependently to accomplish goals thatthey all share and believe are important.

In most of your courses and in the workplace, you’ll work on a team. Teams have becomeintegral to the life of organizations, largely because of the accelerating complexity ofproblems. Solving complex problems requires the integration of divergent points of viewfrom many individuals.

You may have already been on a team (in sports, debate, school show, charity drive, etc.). Ifso, you know that effective teams don’t just happen; they need to be developed by eachindividual working together. It’s possible, too, that you have never been on a team or wereon one and didn’t like it. Perhaps you felt uncomfortable giving up control or knowing thatyour grade depended on the work of others. Whatever the case, teamwork offers not onlygreat opportunities, but serious challenges. Since teams are an integral part of your coursesand in your career, the following sections offer some techniques to face these challenges.

7.1 GOOD TEAMSWhat qualifies as a good team project? Both the process of team interaction and the productthe team produces must be high quality. A team project is a success when the individualwork and collaborative interactions are effective and enjoyable as well as when the productthe team produces meets all the quality standards.

When you are assigned to a team, do not be alarmed if that team is not immediately effective.Effective teams must develop in order to function well. In most of your courses, the goalyour team is to complete the assignment. This goal is seldom achieved by entirely ignoringthe team development process.

Five stages of team development are frequently referred to as forming, storming, norming,performing, and adjourning:

♦ Forming. When the team first comes together, everyone is cautious and polite.The team can form efficiently if team members exchange contact information (e-mail addresses, phone numbers, etc.), state their individual interest level in theassignment, and share their personal goals for the team. Forming is basicallygetting to know each other.

♦ Storming. This is the least comfortable part of team development. Generally teammembers seem to be pursuing goals based on their own point of view. Typically,


storming happens when team members fail to collaborate or to properly handleconflict resolution. Focusing on the shared goal and the processes (rather thanpersonalities) is one way to get past the storming stage.

♦ Norming. At this point, team members are becoming accustomed to each other,and trust between individuals is developing. Open communication (aboutexpectations, results, etc) is the best way to reach this team development stage.

♦ Performing. This is occurs when everyone is working towards a shared goal.Team members feel valued and have established trust and respect for othermembers.

♦ Adjourning. This occurs when the team has completed its assignment or task.

Learning these stages may help you perform more effectively as a team member and mayhelp you understand why problems can occur on teams.

7.2 DISASTROUS TEAMSWhat are two typical scenarios that lead to disastrous team projects?

Scenario #1. Sometimes teams that have disastrous interactions produce a goodproduct simply because one or two people pull together and do most of the work, butthat doesn’t qualify as a successful team project. The result? The team may get anacceptable grade, but the work load has been inequitably distributed, the value ofcollaborative interaction has never been tapped, a few people have shown themselvesto be professionally (and personally) irresponsible, and no one has enjoyed theprocess. Who would want to collaborate again with those team members? Or on anyteam?

Scenario #2. Sometimes teams have disastrous experiences because they mistakenlybelieving that they can produce a good product by segmenting the project into pieces,assigning everyone on the team one of the segments to complete, and then comingtogether and assembling the pieces. This process violates one of the basic tenets ofeffective teamwork. There is no teamwork; there are simply individuals doing tasksthat will be assembled. The scenario gets worse when some team members do little orno work…or do work that’s of such a low quality that someone else has to redo it.Who would want to collaborate again with those team members? Or on any team?

You’ve heard about advantage or benefits that comes from effective collaboration: multipleareas of expertise, different perspectives and points of view, more hands to do and review thework. But let’s be realistic. Working with other people is time consuming and frequentlyannoying. In lots of ways, collaborative is more difficult than doing a project individually —unless the project is so large or complex that its completion by one individual is unlikely orimpossible.

7.3 TEAM DISCUSSIONS AND DECISIONSSo what can you do to increase the likelihood of a productive team project? The basicguideline is that you need to do a LOT of interaction. This section suggests categories for


discussion as well as specific topics and questions that team members need to addresstogether. Time consuming? Yes. But the result is usually a functional, productive team inwhich everyone is a contributing member.

7.3.1 Basic GroundrulesEarly on, you will select or be assigned to a team. Effective teams recognize the need tobalance the team's tasks and the team’s human relationships or dynamics. A technique toassist teams in doing this is to establish ground rules.

Although many things listed in a team’s ground rules seem to be common sense andcourtesy, your group needs to have discussion about expectations and agree on groupbehavior. Some typical ground rules might include:

♦ Be truthful

♦ Communicate openly

♦ Only take on responsibilities/tasks you can complete

♦ Do not interrupt

♦ Direct (constructive) criticism at ideas, objects, or actions, not at individuals

♦ Decisions require consensus, not majority rule

♦ Stay focused

♦ Have fun

You and your team mates also need to explicitly discuss the following issues. Suchdiscussions help clarify groundrules and greatly reduce problems that might otherwise occur.

♦ Structure. What are the general roles and responsibilities of each team member?What are the strengths each member brings to the team? Is the assumption thateveryone will be an equally contributing member of the team?

♦ Decision making. How will decisions be made? How will disagreements beresolved?

♦ Interaction. How will the team members communicate with each other? Howoften? What level of detail? What are the expectations?

7.3.2 Team MeetingsEffective team meetings greatly facilitate team development are key to a successful productor project. You and your team members increase the likelihood of having a productive,enjoyable experience if you follow these standard practices:

6 Timely. Start the meetings on time. All members should be fully aware of the meetinglogistics and courteous enough to be there on time. If someone must miss or be late for ameeting, they are responsible for contacting all team members.

7 Agenda. An agenda should be prepared for each meeting stating the meeting objectives.Ideally the agenda is prepared in advance, allowing team members to review it prior tothe meeting and prepare for the discussion items.

8 Review. At every meeting after the first one, the team should review the progress toward


its goals.

9 Minutes. Meeting minutes should be taken and distributed to all team members. Theminutes should be brief but include important items such as key points discussed duringthe meeting, the tasks that were assigned, who the tasks were assigned to, meetingparticipants, dates and times of future meetings, etc.

7.3.3 Team Member RolesOn an effective team, work is organized to support the team's goal and everyone shouldcontribute equally without overlapping efforts. To achieve this, team member roles,relationships, and responsibilities must be clearly defined to all team members. Thefollowing are the typical roles within teams:

♦ Team Leader. Leads the team by running the meetings, preparing the agendas, reviewingthe progress, resolving conflicts, etc.

♦ Recorder. Keeps records for the team. The record keeper take notes at meetings, send oute-mails, provide meeting minutes, etc.

♦ Facilitator. Guides the meetings. The facilitator makes sure meetings start and end ontime, keeps the discussion focused on the topic, encourages everyone to participate, etc.

7.4 STRATEGIES FOR TEAM WRITINGOnce you've been assigned to a project team, most of the work is the same as it would be ifyou were writing by yourself, except that each phase is a team effort. Meet with your team toplan the following work:

♦ Tasks. Discuss and agree on the task your team wants to accomplish. Analyze theproject assignment, including the writing and presentation parts.- What is the topic and purpose?- What will be included in the content?- What is the context?- What style and format will be used?- What has to be done (specific steps and activities)?- How are these tasks going to get done?

♦ Responsibilities. In a team assignment all team members must agree on individualand team responsibilities.- Who will be doing what specific tasks (outlining, information search,

preparing visual, etc)?- What quality assurances are in place?- How will the project be monitored—for accuracy? for completeness? for

responsiveness to purpose? for responsiveness to audience? for effectivedesign?…and so on?

♦ Schedule. Develop a work schedule for the project.- When will each step be started and completed?- How will team members regularly contact each other?- When and where will meetings be held?- When and how will peer reviewing be done?


In addition to these issues, you’ll need to agree on several other critical factors: Specifically,you’ll need to agree on the way in which you all want the individual segments to be written.You probably save the team a lot of time if you collaboratively write a few sampleparagraphs together so that you all agree on the overall organization, conventions, tone, andstyle you want each section to have. Do you want to use question headings or topical phraseheadings? Do you want each paragraph to have an initial topic sentence? Do you want to usefirst person or third? Do you want to use in-text examples to illustrate general points? Do youwant to use internal citations, footnotes, or endnotes? Simply agreeing in the beginning aboutfeatures such as these will help create uniformity (and reduce the revising that’s needed).

In team writing one of the more difficult tasks comes when you have to coordinate individualsections written by different team members into the rough draft. If you haven’t agreed aheadof time about the overall organization, conventions, tone, and style you want each section tohave, then you'll notice that the compiled draft reads like a patchwork document—which itis. Your team project will be in trouble.

By not working together initially and making critical decisions about team tasks andresponsibilities, you’ve increased your end-of-project workload tremendously. Moreseriously, you’ve jeopardized the success and quality of the project because you may not beable to eliminate the inconsistencies between sections—for example, the differences in thelevel of detail, the differences in writing style, the differences in the ways tables and figuresare used to reinforce the text, and so on. Even a skillful editor would have a challenging jobto revise and edit the rough draft to make it read consistently so that it won't be so obviouslywritten by three or four different people who didn’t carefully plan or coordinate their work.You can avoid such problems by good teamwork up front.

7.5 TEAM ASSESSMENTTeams need to develop skill in self-evaluation, in part because sometimes no outsideevaluation will be available and in part because the most critical and valuable assessment cancome from those involved in a team.

The evaluation form following this discussion provides one tool you can use to self-assesssome aspects of your team’s process, specifically, each team member’s engagement andcommitment.

Engagement includes a number of things:♦ taking responsibility for a fair share of the tasks♦ doing what was committed to do♦ showing up at all meetings♦ participating actively in team activities♦ participating productively in team activities♦ staying is regular contact with team members♦ behaving in a professional manner…and so on.

Team contributions to the project are assessed by considering how important or relevant aperson’s contributions are to the outcome of the project.


When you consider the overall assessment, you might discover team members with any ofthese combinations of engagement and contributions:

♦ high engagement and a high contribution rating—The team member was activelyinvolved and made valuable, influential contributions.

♦ high engagement and a low contribution rating—The team member was activelyinvolved (perhaps being at every meeting and also talking a lot) and but,ultimately, made few contributions that positively influenced the project.

♦ low engagement but a high rating—The team member was minimally involved(perhaps being very quiet or offering infrequent input) but made valuable orinfluential contributions.

♦ low engagement and a low rating—The team member was minimally involvedand made few or no influential contributions.

Of course, the reasons for a particular assessment can be as important as the assessmentitself. For example, is low engagement caused by shyness or second-language interference orsimply by overcommitment to social activities and lack of concern for the class or project?Are high levels of contributions characterized by a genuine goal of creating a good productof by a need to play oneupsmanship? The numbers by themselves don’t tell a sufficient storyabout the engagement and contributions of team members.


Collaborative Self-Assessment (NOTE: THIS IS A CONFIDENTIAL ASSESSMENT.)People have various commitments, interests, amounts of time, so they put different effort into collaborativeprojects. Your collaborative projects all receive the same grade for the product, but the process is a differentmatter. This form helps you self-assess some aspects of your team’s process, specifically, each team member’sengagement and commitment.

Project: _________________________________ (e.g., proposal, design project, lab report)

♦ Rank order the engagement of each person on your team, with 1 being the most engaged and 5being the least engaged. Engagement includes things such as (a) taking responsibility for a fairshare of the tasks,(b) doing what was committed to do, (c) showing up at all meetings, (d) participating actively inteam activities, (e) participating productively in team activities, (f) staying is regular contact withteam members, and (g) behaving in a professional manner…and so on. After rank ordering eachteam member, provide a brief rationale for the rank you assign.

♦ Rate the quality of each person's contributions to the project—that is, how important or relevantwas a person’s contributions to the outcome of the project: 1 = excellent, superior; 2 = aboveaverage; 3 = average; 4 = below average; 5 = unacceptable. A person might have highengagement and a high contribution rating OR high engagement and a low contribution rating ORlow engagement but a high rating (unlikely but possible) OR low engagement and a low rating.After rating each team member, provide a brief rationale you’re the rank you assign.

Rank order of the engagement/involvement of each member(including your self) in the overallproject

Rate the quality of each member'scontributions (including your self)to the overall project

Your name______________________ ____ ____

Other team members______________________ ____ ____

______________________ ____ ____

______________________ ____ ____

______________________ ____ ____

Source: Rebecca E. Burnett, Department of English, Iowa State University


References for Section 7:The University of Michigan, Department of Mechanical Engineering and AppliedMechanics, ME 495 - Teamwork Guidelineshttp://www.engin.umich.edu/class/me495/

Harvard University, Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learninghttp://www.fas.harvard.edu/~bok_cen/docs/wigfaculty.html

Sandra A. Howard, North Carolina A&T State University, “Guiding CollaborativeTeamwork In The Classroom”http://cte.uncwil.edu/et/articles/howard/

http://www.engin.umich.edu/class/me495/

http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~bok_cen/docs/wigfaculty.html

http://cte.uncwil.edu/et/articles/howard/