cell division sexual reproduction = egg & sperm or asexual reproduction = single parent, no...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cell Division
Sexual Reproduction = egg & sperm
OR
Asexual Reproduction = single parent, no egg/sperm
Cell Division: reproduction of cells; “cells come from cells”
* Basis of all life2 Main Roles:
1) development of fertilized egg
2) continuation of life (growth, repair)
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Prokaryotes = binary fission (split in half)
OR
Eukaryotes = more complex; more genetic material
chromosome: structure which contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
chromatin: long, thin fibers of DNA & protein clumping together to form chromosomes
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gene: specific region of DNA on chromosomes
somatic cell: all body cells except egg & sperm; contain chromosomes
(humans= 46)
Human egg & sperm (gametes) have 23 chromosomes
Prior to Cell Division…
* All chromosomes duplicate…result in 2 identical parts = sister
chromatids (X-shaped)
* joined at centromere
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When Cells Divide
* sister chromatids separate..each goes to separate cell (daughter
cell)
* each daughter cell has complete set of chromosomes
Overview of Cell Division
* eukaryotic cells divide according to cell cycle
cell cycle: sequence of events including time a cell divides until its daughter cell divide
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Phases in the Cell Cycle
1) Interphase: most of cycle here
- chromosomes duplicate
- cell grows
2) Mitotic Phase: cell division phase
Includes Mitosis & Cytokinesis
* Mitosis unique to eukaryotes* Mitosis = continuous process but separated into defined stages
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Stages of Mitosis
1) Prophase
- chromatin fibers coil to form discrete chromosomes
- sister chromatids
- nuclear membrane breaks near end2) Metaphase
- sister chromatids line up along center of cell
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Stages of Mitosis
3) Anaphase
- sister chromatids separate & migrate to opposite ends of cell4) Telophase
- nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes
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Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
- usually occurs along with telophase
- daughter cells separate
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- Certain drugs can stop cell cycle by preventing DNA synthesis, or inhibiting synthesis of necessary proteins
Ex: cancer drugs target rapidly dividing cells – including hair follicles and digestive tracts
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homologous chromosome: matched pair of chromosomes; same length, genes for same traits at same loci
e.g., each chromosome has gene for hair color at same loci, but the gene may be for any color of hair … impt pt = gene results in some color of hair
locus (loci = plural): specific location of a gene on a chromosome
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• homologous chromosomes have matching loci &
• One chromosome of each pair inherited from mother & father
Human Example
Somatic cells = 46 chromosomes
23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
22 pairs = autosome chromosomes (F & M)
1 pair = sex chromosomes; specific to the sex (M or F)
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Sex Chromosomes
Human females 1 pair (2 XX)
Human male 1 pair (1X, 1Y)
• Are human male sex chromosomes homologous?
diploid cells: cells with 2 homologous sets of chromosomes in nucleus
total # chromosomes = diploid # = 2n
human diploid # = 46 (2x23=46)
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• Humans = diploid animals because most of our cells = diploid (e.g., somatic cell)
• But, eggs & sperm are not diploid
gametes: egg & sperm cells (sexual reproduction only)
haploid cells: cells with 1 homologous set of chromosomes
haploid # = n
human haploid # = 23
• Human gametes are haploid
• Fertilized egg = zygote = ????
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Why is there so much variety among species? (e.g., diversity in humans)
1) Independent orientation of chromosomes
- in Metaphase I --- way that tetrads line up is due to chance (random)
- Results in different possible combinations of chromosomes in gametes
- For humans = 8 million possible combos.!
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2) Random fertilization (1 egg & 1 sperm)
What is probability that 1 of 8 million possible sperm fertilizes 1 of 8 million possible eggs????
Humans = (8 M) * (8 M) = 64 trillion possible combinations of chromosomes due to random fertilization!
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3) Crossing Over
- can result in genetic recombination
genetic recombination: producing gene combinations different from those carried by original chromosomes
* During synapsis, tetrad formed – crossing over possible
1) homologous chromatids break at similar locations & chromatids join
2) h. chrom. separate at Anaphase I – crossing over
3) Meiosis II, sister chromatids separate
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Mendelian Genetics
genetics = science of heredity
gene: specific region of genetic material (DNA) that provides provides the cell with a “map”
Goal: determine patterns of inheritance
Mendelian Genetics
Gregor Mendel – 1860’s monk
significant findings = offspring obtain discrete heritable factors (genes) from their parents
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Mendelian Genetics
Gregor Mendel – 1860’s monk
-carefully chose organisms to study (garden pea), controlled pollinations, chose traits that were easy to observe, used statistical methods to analyze data
-significant findings = offspring obtain discrete heritable factors (genes) from their parents
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Terms
self-fertilization: plant’s egg fertilized by it’s own pollen
cross-fertilization: plant’s egg fertilized by another plant’s pollen (hybridization)
P generation: parental generation
F1 generation: filial generation; hybrid offspring of the P generation
F2 generation: offspring produced by F1 generation via self-fertilization
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Mendel’s Principles
1) Principle of Segregation – pairs of genes segregate during gamete formation; fertilization pairs genes again
monohybrid cross: cross of 2 individuals that differ in 1 trait
allele: alternate form of a gene found at same loci of homologous chromosomes
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1) Principle of Segregation
Ex: Flower color (P = purple, p = white)
P = 1 Purple (PP) & 1 white (pp)
F1 = all Purple (Pp)
F2 = ¾ Purple (PP & Pp) ¼ white (pp)
homozygous: identical pair of alleles
heterozygous: 2 different alleles for a trait
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phenotype: physical trait; appearance of organism; expressed as phenotypic ratio
genotype: genetic makeup of organism; expressed as genotypic ratio
• In the flower color example…..
What is the phenotypic ratio?
What is the genotypic ratio?
** For monohybrid cross… phenotypic ratio is always 3:1 & genotypic ratio is always 1:2:1
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
• each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation
dihybrid cross: cross of 2 individuals that differ in 2 traits
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
ExampleP generation: Round (RR) & Yellow (YY) seeds = RRYY
Wrinkled (rr) & Green (yy) seeds = rryy
Gametes = RY and ry
F1 gen: All RrYy (Round & Yellow seeds)
Gametes = RY, Ry, rY, ryFemale
Male
RY
ry RrYy
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
Example (continued)F2 gen: (Do Punnett Square
Female
Male
RY ryRy rY
RY
Ry
rY
ry
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
Example (continued)F2 gen: (Do Punnett Square
Female
Male
RY ryRy rY
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RRYY
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
Example (continued)F2 gen: (Do Punnett Square
Female
Male
RY ry
RRYy
Ry rY
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RRYY RrYY RrYy
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2) Principle of Independent Assortment
Example (continued)F2 gen: (Do Punnett Square
Female
Male
RY ry
RRYy
Ry rY
RY
Ry
rY
ry
RRYY
RRYy
RrYY RrYy
RRyy RryyRrYy
RrYY
rryyrrYyRryyRrYy
rrYyrrYYRrYy
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Probabilities• Probability (chance) of an event occurring ranges
from 0 to 1
Probability = 0 = event will not occur
Probability = 1 = event will occur always
Tossing a Coin
What is the probability of getting a “tails”?
= 0.5 (1/2)
What is the probability of getting a “heads”?
= 0.5 (1/2)What is the probability of getting a “heads” or a “tails”?
= P(heads) + P(tails) = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.0
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Tossing 2 Coins
What is the probability of getting a “heads” on both coins?
= P(heads) x P (heads) = (0.5)*(0.5) = 0.25
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Flower Color Example
F1 = Pp = 0.5 P & 0.5 p gametes
F2 = Pp x Pp
1 P (female) x 1 P (male) = 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.25 PP
1 P (female) x 1 p (male) = 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.25 Pp
1 p (female x 1 P (male) = 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.25 Pp
1 p (female) x 1 p (male) = 0.5 * 0.5 = 0.25 pp
• What is the probability of getting a heterozygote?• What is the probability of getting a homozygote?
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Why are some flowers pink?
• Complete dominance = dominant & recessive alleles
• Incomplete dominance = F1 offspring have phenotype somewhere between that of the 2 parents = both alleles expressed
Ex: Flower color (R = red, r = white)
P = 1 Red (RR) & 1 white (rr)
F1 = all Reddish-White = Pink (Rr)
F2 = ¼ Red (RR), ¼ white (rr), ½ pink (Rr)
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Incomplete Dominance
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Pleiotropy vs. Polygenic Inheritance
• pleiotropy = 1 gene influence many traits
e.g., sickle-cell anemia = homozygous recessive disease
sickle-cell gene influences:
- shape of RBC’s
- health of heart, brain, spleen, kidneys• polygenic inheritance = many genes
influence 1 trait, e.g., skin color
- many genes interact to give diverse skin color ranging very dark to very light
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Chromosomal Basis
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Review Problem / “Test-Like Question”
Cross the following (assume complete dominance)
AABbCC X AabbCc
Where: A = no anemia a = anemia
B = brown eyes b = blue eyes
C = climb trees c = don’t climb trees
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1) Find genotypes & phenotypes of F1 offspring & express in ratio format
2) Do a F1 X F1 cross using the AABbCC (one of the F1 offspring) & find the genotypes and phenotypes of the F2 offspring; express in ratio format
3) What is the probability of a F1 offspring having anemia, brown eyes, and tree-climbing abilities?