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Cell Host & Microbe
Article
Salmonella Require the Fatty Acid RegulatorPPARd for the Establishment of a MetabolicEnvironment Essential for Long-Term PersistenceNicholas A. Eisele,1,4 Thomas Ruby,1,4 Amanda Jacobson,1 Paolo S. Manzanillo,2 Jeffery S. Cox,2 Lilian Lam,1
Lata Mukundan,3 Ajay Chawla,3 and Denise M. Monack1,*1Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA2Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Program in Microbial Pathogenesis and Host Defense3Cardiovascular Research Institute
University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA4These authors contributed equally to this work
*Correspondence: [email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2013.07.010
SUMMARY
Host-adapted Salmonella strains are responsible fora number of disease manifestations in mammals,including an asymptomatic chronic infection in whichbacteria survive within macrophages located in sys-temic sites. However, the host cell physiology andmetabolic requirements supporting bacterial persis-tence are poorly understood. In a mouse model oflong-term infection, we found that S. typhimuriumpreferentially associates with anti-inflammatory/M2macrophages at later stages of infection. Further,PPARd, a eukaryotic transcription factor involvedin sustaining fatty acid metabolism, is upregulatedin Salmonella-infected macrophages. PPARd defi-ciency dramatically inhibits Salmonella replication,which is linked to the metabolic state of macro-phages and the level of intracellular glucose availableto bacteria. Pharmacological activation of PPARdincreases glucose availability and enhances bac-terial replication in macrophages and mice, whileSalmonella fail to persist in Ppard null mice. Thesedata suggest that M2 macrophages represent aunique niche for long-term intracellular bacterialsurvival and link the PPARd-regulated metabolicstate of the host cell to persistent bacterial infection.
INTRODUCTION
Host-adapted strains of Salmonella enterica cause systemic
infections and have the ability to persist within host tissues for
long periods of time despite the induction of a robust immune
response (Monack et al., 2004b). For example, Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhi (S. typhi) causes a systemic infection
(typhoid fever), which involves colonization of the reticuloendo-
thelial system (House et al., 2001; Monack et al., 2004a). Typhoid
fever affects more than 20 million people per year, resulting in
greater than 220,000 deaths annually (Crump et al., 2004;
Cell Hos
Woc-Colburn and Bobak, 2009). Upon the resolution of acute
disease, a significant percentage (1%–6%) of patients become
asymptomatic chronic carriers of S. typhi. Chronically infected
hosts are critical reservoirs of infection and transmit disease to
naive individuals, thus posing a significant threat to public health
(Lawley et al., 2008; Parry et al., 2002). From the bacterial
perspective, persistent infection is essential for microbial sur-
vival in nature. To date, very little is known about the molecular
mechanisms driving chronic Salmonella infections of mamma-
lian hosts. Thus, a better understanding of long-term systemic
Salmonella colonization should provide insight into bacterial
survival strategies, as well as the host factors organisms are
exploiting in order to persist.
Salmonella enter the host through the gastrointestinal tract,
where bacteria translocate across the epithelial barrier either by
invading microfold (M) cells overlying Peyer’s patches, or by
being taken up by CD-18-expressing immune cells (Haraga
et al., 2008). In order for the infection to extend beyond the intes-
tinal mucosa, bacteria survive and replicate within macrophages
by creating a privileged intracellular niche that allows organisms
toevadeadaptive immune responses.Wehavepreviously shown
in a murine model of long-term S. typhimurium infection that
bacteria persist within macrophages residing in systemic tissues
(Monack et al., 2004a). However, very little is known about the
physiological state of the macrophages that harbor Salmonella.
Macrophages can change their physiology in response to envi-
ronmental cues, giving rise to different populations of cells with
distinct functions depending on the local concentration of cyto-
kines. For example, highly microbicidal macrophages (referred
to as classically activated or M1 macrophages) polarize in
response to the Th1 cytokine IFN-g, and the tissue healing,
anti-inflammatory macrophages (also known as alternatively
activated or M2 macrophages) are elicited by the Th2 cytokines
IL-4 and IL-13 (Gordon and Martinez, 2010). Following infection,
there is frequently a shift from Th1 to Th2 type immunity as the
adaptive immune response transitions from acute to chronic
phases. This shift is associated with a change in the ratio of
pro- to anti-inflammatory macrophages at sites of inflammation
and may be a common feature following infection or tissue
damage that is important for the resolution of inflammation and
wound healing (Fairweather and Cihakova, 2009).
t & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 171
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
Over the last decade, the unique transcriptional signature of
alternatively activated or M2 macrophages has been defined
(Gordon, 2003;Mosser and Edwards, 2008). Genes induced dur-
ing alternative activation include arginase-1, various phagocytic
receptors and lectins, chemokines, cytokines, and transcrip-
tional regulators. Acquisition and maintenance of this phenotype
require the metabolic regulators peroxisome proliferator-acti-
vated receptors (PPARs) PPARg, PPARd, and the coactivator
protein PGC-1b (PPARg coactivator-1b) (Bouhlel et al., 2007;
Kang et al., 2008; Odegaard et al., 2007, 2008). PPARs bind fatty
acids and fatty acid metabolites in the cytosol, then translocate
to the nucleus to facilitate a transcriptional program that
responds to fuel availability (Brunmair et al., 2006; Xu et al.,
1999). Recent studies indicate that the ability of immune cells
to perform their effector functions is tightly linked to, and
controlled by, their metabolic state (Biswas and Mantovani,
2012). For example, classically activated macrophages require
anaerobic glycolysis to fuel the microbicidal program (Biswas
and Mantovani, 2010). In contrast, IL-4 induces uptake and
oxidation of fatty acids and biogenesis of mitochondria, pro-
grams that are transcriptionally controlled by PPARs in macro-
phages (Huang et al., 1999; Odegaard et al., 2007).
There have been several studies characterizing the role of
PPARs during microbial infection. For example, PPARg- and
PPARd-dependent arginase-1 induction has been shown to
enhance intracellular growth of Leishmaniamajor (Gallardo-Soler
et al., 2008). Similarly, macrophage-specific PPARg-deficient
mice are more resistant to L. major and Listeria monocytogenes
(Abdullah et al., 2012; Odegaard et al., 2007). Although these
results suggest that M2 macrophages and PPARs contribute to
the ability of intracellular pathogens to cause persistent infec-
tions, the molecular mechanisms are unknown.
To better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in
facilitating the persistence of facultative intracellular bacterial
pathogens, we characterized the host response during chronic
S. typhimurium infection in our mouse model of long-term infec-
tion (Monack et al., 2004a). We found that the initial response
toward infection encompasses a proinflammatory/Th1 cytokine
response, followed by an anti-inflammatory/Th2 cytokine
response. We further show that S. typhimurium preferentially
associates with anti-inflammatory/M2 macrophages at later
stages of infection, indicating that these cells might represent
a unique niche for the long-term intracellular survival of bacteria.
In addition, we demonstrate that PPARd is upregulated in
Salmonella-infected macrophages. In the absence of PPARd,
bacteria are unable to replicate in macrophages due to a
decreased availability of glucose, and PPARd-deficient mice
are unable to sustain persistent S. typhimurium infection. Taken
together, these data describe a molecular mechanism by which
a host metabolic program drives persistent colonization by an
intracellular bacterial pathogen, and suggest unique therapeutic
targets for the disruption of chronic Salmonella carriage.
RESULTS
Salmonella Associates with Anti-Inflammatory/M2-likeMacrophages In VivoTo gain functional insights into the host pathways exploited by
S. typhimurium during the establishment and maintenance of
172 Cell Host & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevi
persistent systemic colonization, we orally infected 129/SvJ
Nramp1+/+mice andmonitored immune responses and bacterial
loads at various time points after infection. To characterize the
immune response during the course of infection, a large panel
of cytokines in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) were
measured at 0, 5, 15, and 42 days postinfection (Figure 1A). In
addition, the relative composition of macrophage subclasses
was measured during the first 60 days postinfection (Figure 1B).
Concomitant with increasing concentrations of Th2 cytokines in
persistently infected MLNs (Figure 1A), there was an increase in
the percentage of CD301+ macrophages (a transmembrane
C type lectin expressed on anti-inflammatory/M2 macrophages)
in the spleen and MLNs over time, with maximum levels
observed at 30 days after infection (Figure 1B). An increase in
the percentage of the CD301+ macrophage population corre-
lated with an increase in the levels of S. typhimurium colonizing
the spleen and MLNs (Figure 1B). We also observed that
S. typhimurium colocalized with cells expressing two addi-
tional anti-inflammatory/M2 macrophage markers, Ym-1 (see
Figure S1A online) and Arginase I (data not shown), in frozen
spleen sections 30 days postinfection. Furthermore, a higher
percentage of CD301+ macrophages were associated with
S. typhimurium compared to other (CD301�) macrophages
(19.1% ± 5.2% versus 1.46% ± 0.4%, respectively) (Figure 1C).
The level of Salmonella was higher in the CD301+ macrophage
population compared to the CD301� population as determined
by an increase in themean fluorescent intensity (MFI) (Figure 1D).
We define these infected cells as anti-inflammatory/M2-like
macrophages because they express some of the markers
commonly used to distinguish M2 cells from M1 cells (CD301,
Ym-1, and Arginase I). In accordance with these data, a previous
study suggests that Salmonella survives in hemophagocytic
macrophages (Nix et al., 2007), phagocytes that have taken up
leukocytes and erythrocytes (Fame et al., 1986). Indeed, we
and others have found that these macrophages also express
markers of anti-inflammatory/M2 macrophages (Figures S1B
and S1C) (McCoy et al., 2012). To test whether S. typhimurium
exploits IL-4-dependent signaling in macrophages, we infected
wild-type (WT) and conditional knockout mice defective in IL-4/
IL-13 signaling in macrophages (Il-4raLoxP/LoxP-LysmCre) and
found significantly higher levels of Salmonella in the MLNs of
WT-infected mice 28 days postinfection (Figure 1E). Thus, these
data demonstrate that Th2 cytokine signaling in macrophages
during chronic infection contributes to persistent bacterial
colonization.
Salmonella Replication Is Enhanced withinIL-4-Stimulated Primary MacrophagesSince IL-4 has a major role in establishing an anti-inflammatory
phenotype in macrophages, we analyzed Salmonella replication
in IL-4-stimulated macrophages ex vivo to determine whether
the increase in Salmonella-infected anti-inflammatory/M2-like
cells in host tissues correlated with increased survival and/or
replication in these cells. The numbers of intracellular
S. typhimurium strain 12023 increased over time in both unsti-
mulated and IL-4-stimulated bone marrow-derived macro-
phages (BMDMs) and RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cells
(Figure 2A and Figure S2A). Similar results were seen for the
SL1344 strain we used for in vivo experiments (data not shown).
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Figure 1. S. typhimurium Resides in Anti-Inflammatory/M2-like Macrophages during Chronic Infection
(A) Biphasic immune response in infected MLNs. Concentrations of cytokines were determined by multiplex analysis at the indicated time points after infection.
Each block corresponds to one cytokine value in one mouse. Results from one representative experiment are shown. ‘‘1’’ and ‘‘2’’ indicate the two clusters of
cytokines identified based on similar expression profiles along the time course of infection. Cluster 1 contains proinflammatory cytokines, and cluster 2 shows
anti-inflammatory factors.
(B) Macrophages from the spleen and MLNs were identified based on CD301 cell-surface expression in CD11b+ F4/80+ macrophages. Percentage of CD301+
cells relative to the total number of cells from the corresponding tissue (gray bars, left y axis), and Salmonella colonization level from the same organs (solid black
line, right y axis) are shown. Data presented are representative of two independent experiments.
(C) Splenocytes were isolated at 30 dpi, and CD301+ macrophages were identified based on CD301 expression of CD11b+ F4/80+ Ly6G cells. Salmonella-
positive gates were drawn based on plots from samples stained with an appropriate isotype control antibody. Numbers indicate the percentage of positive cells in
each gate. The data presented are representative of three independent experiments.
(D) Salmonella-associated mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) associated with CD301+ or CD301� macrophages from the spleen at 30 dpi. Graph shows the
means ± SD of five mice and are representative of at least three independent experiments.
(E) WT or Il-4raLoxP/LoxP-LysmCre BALB/c mice were infected orogastrically with 109 CFU S. typhimurium SL1344DaroA, and bacterial loads in the MLNs were
quantified at 28 dpi. Shown is the geometric mean determined from two independent experiments. All other data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < 0.05, **p <
0.01. Figure is related to Figure S1.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
However, there were significantly higher levels of bacteria at
24 hr postinfection in IL-4-stimulated cells compared to the un-
stimulated cells. As expected, S. typhimurium did not replicate
in IFN-g-stimulated macrophages (Figure 2A and Figure S2A).
To validate that cytokine treatment skewed the activation state
of the macrophage during infection, we monitored macrophage
activation bymeasuring extracellular nitric oxide (NO) production
and cytoplasmic arginase activity (Figures S2B and S2C). In
addition, there were no significant differences in the amount of
LDH released from cytokine-treated BMDMs infected with
S. typhimurium for 26 hr, indicating that the differences in the
levels of S. typhimurium recovered from infected BMDMs were
not due to differences in host cell death (Figure 2B). Notably,
Cell Hos
IL-4 stimulation of the human-derived monocytic cell line
THP-1 also supported higher levels of intracellular replication
of the human-specific pathogen S. typhi (Figure S2D).
We also observed that the level of CD301 expressed on the
surface of BMDMs varies, suggesting that macrophage activa-
tion states are heterogeneous within an infected cell culture (Fig-
ure S2E). Thus, we first separated CD301+ and CD301� cells
from infected IL-4-stimulated BMDMs and compared the level
of S. typhimurium replication over time in these two populations.
Although the percentage of macrophages containing bacteria
was similar between the two populations after 2 hr of infection
(CD301+ = 3.4 ± 0.8, CD301� = 2.8 ± 0.6 CFU/macrophage, Fig-
ure 2C), CD301+ macrophages harbored significantly higher
t & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 173
Figure 2. Enhanced S. typhimurium Repli-
cation within IL-4-Stimulated Cells
(A) Salmonella replication in BMDMs treated as
shown. At the indicated time points, cells were
lysed and bacterial loads were enumerated.
(B) Cell death was determined by measuring LDH
release at 26 hpi and is represented as the per-
centage of total cell death in lysed control cells.
(C) Relative proportion of Salmonella-associated
cells in the CD301+ and CD301� populations from
IL-4-stimulated BMDMs at 2 hpi.
(D) Salmonella MFI of CD301+ or CD301� macro-
phages at 26 hpi.
(E) Fold replication of Salmonella in CD301+ and
CD301� populations. Data are presented as
mean ± SD. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. Graphs show the
means of triplicate samples and are representative
of at least three independent experiments. Fig-
ure is related to Figure S2.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
levels of S. typhimurium compared to CD301� cells after 26 hr
(Figure 2D). This result was also observed for CD301+ and
CD301� cells present in an untreated, infected BMDM cell
culture (Figure 2E, Figure S2F), albeit to lower levels than in
cells treated with IL-4, indicating that cytokine stimulation is
needed for establishment of the full M2 phenotype. Taken
together, these results suggest that the intracellular environment
of CD301+ macrophages is well suited to accommodate
Salmonella replication and that this macrophage subset repre-
sents a unique niche that is permissive for bacterial colonization.
PPARd Is Critical for Salmonella Replication withinIL-4-Stimulated MacrophagesTo investigate a host molecular pathway that might be control-
ling Salmonella replication within IL-4-stimulated macrophages,
we focused on a superfamily of nuclear receptors, PPARs, which
have been implicated in sustaining the anti-inflammatory/M2
phenotype in macrophages (Odegaard et al., 2007, 2008). We
first measured the levels of Ppara, Pparg, and Ppard gene
expression in untreated BMDMs infected with S. typhimurium
174 Cell Host & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc.
and found that Ppard transcript levels
increased significantly, whereas Ppara
and Pparg mRNA levels decreased (Fig-
ure 3A). We also observed an increase in
PPARd protein expression (Figure S3A).
The mRNA level of Adrp (a gene specif-
ically regulated by PPARd [Mukundan
et al., 2009]) was also significantly higher
in IL-4-stimulated BMDMs infected with
Salmonella, providing further evidence
that activation of PPARd transcriptional
activity is associated with Salmonella
colonization (Figure S3B). In addition,
the level of Salmonella associated
with IL-4-stimiulated macrophages at
26 hr postinfection correlated with an
increased level of PPARd protein expres-
sion (Figure S3C). To confirm that a loss
of PPARd expression inhibits polariza-
tion toward the M2 phenotype during Salmonella infection, we
measured arginase activity and the level of CD301 surface
expression in infected WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs stimulated
with IL-4 (Figures S3D and S3E).
Consequently, we investigated whether PPARd is required for
creating an intracellular environment that supports Salmonella
colonization by comparing the ability of bacteria to replicate
within WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs. Unexpectedly, Salmonella
did not replicate in Ppard�/� BMDMs treated with IL-4, and there
was no increase in macrophage cell death (Figure 3B, Fig-
ure S3F). Although the number of infected cells 24 hr after infec-
tion was similar between IL-4-stimulated WT and Ppard�/�
BMDMs (Figure 3C), the level of Salmonella colonization 24 hr
after infection was higher in WT macrophages (Figure 3D).
Importantly, the level of bacterial invasion at the time of infection
was similar (Figure 3E). Using a complementary approach, we
also determined that the synthetic PPARd agonist GW0742
added to WT BMDMs resulted in increased intracellular
Salmonella replication to an extent similar to IL-4 stimulation
(Figure 3F). These results suggest that Salmonella may take
Figure 3. PPARd Is Required for Salmonella Replication
(A) Upregulation of Ppard mRNA in S. typhimurium-infected BMDMs treated with IL-4. Relative transcript levels for genes encoding Ppar family members are
shown. Data were normalized to uninfected samples for each gene.
(B) Salmonella 12023 replication in IL-4-stimulated WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs.
(C) Percentage of infected cells determined by flow cytometry among WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs at 24 hr post-IL-4 stimulation.
(D) Salmonella-associated MFI in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs 24 hr following activation with IL-4.
(E) Salmonella-associated MFI in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs 2 hr after infection, prior to IL-4 stimulation.
(F) Salmonella fold replication in BMDMs unactivated (unact) or stimulated with IL-4 (20 ng/ml), or GW0742 (100 mM), 26 hpi. The data presented are repre-
sentative of at least three independent experiments. *p < 0.05.
Data are presented as mean ± SD. Figure is related to Figure S3.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
advantage of a PPARd-regulated pathway(s) in order to replicate
within IL-4-stimulated macrophages.
Requirement of PPARd for Replication in MacrophagesIs Specific for Salmonella
PPARs regulate broad transcriptional programs that control not
only the expression of important metabolic systems but also
inflammatory responses. Previous studies indicate that macro-
phages deficient in Pparg or Ppard secrete elevated levels of
proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNFa, IL-6, and IL-12,
upon bacterial infection or LPS stimulation, respectively (Abdul-
lah et al., 2012; Odegaard et al., 2008; Rajaram et al., 2010).
Notably, this hyperactive inflammatory phenotype has been
linked to the inhibition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis replica-
tion in human-derived macrophages in which Pparg has
been knocked down (Rajaram et al., 2010). Similarly, Listeria
monocytogenes does not replicate in Pparg�/� BMDMs (Abdul-
lah et al., 2012; Rajaram et al., 2010). To test whether a similar
mechanism may be controlling bacterial replication in Ppard�/�
BMDMs, we first examined the ability of several pathogens to
replicate in IL-4-stimulated macrophages. M. tuberculosis repli-
cated in PPARd-deficient BMDMs to the same extent as in WT
Cell Hos
cells (Figure 4A), suggesting that PPARd and PPARg play
different roles during macrophage infections with this pathogen.
Consistent with these results, Ppard gene expression in BMDMs
did not increase duringM. tuberculosis infection, whereas Pparg
gene expression increased �10-fold (Figure 4B). Similar to
M. tuberculosis, L. monocytogenes and Francisella novicida
replicated in PPARd-deficient BMDMs to the same extent as
in WT BMDMs (Figures 4C and 4D). Although the intracellular
replication of each of these pathogens is known to be limited
by proinflammatory cytokine signaling (Kirimanjeswara et al.,
2008; Shaughnessy and Swanson, 2007; Zuniga et al., 2012),
their replication was not hindered in the absence of PPARd.
These results suggest that, in the context of bacterial infections,
PPARd deficiency does not result in increased levels of proin-
flammatory cytokine production or signaling.
To directly test whether PPARd deficiency leads to increased
cytokine secretion during S. typhimurium infection, we mea-
sured the concentrations of a number of cytokines in the super-
natants of IL-4-stimulated WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs during a
time course of infection (Figure 4E and Figure S4A). There
were no significant differences in the levels of most of the cyto-
kines tested between WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs that were not
t & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 175
Figure 4. Ppard Deficiency Does Not Lead to Elevated Secretion of Proinflammatory Cytokines in S. typhimurium-Infected Macrophages
(A) M. tuberculosis replication in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs over time.
(B) Ppard and Pparg transcript levels in WT C57BL/6 BMDMs infected with M. tuberculosis. Data were normalized to uninfected cells.
(C) L. monocytogenes replication in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs over time.
(D) F. tularensis replication in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs over time.
(E) Cytokine concentrations from supernatants of IL-4-stimulated WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs were determined by multiplex analysis at the indicated time points
following infection. Results from one representative experiment are shown. Asterisk indicates the cluster of proinflammatory cytokines identified based on similar
expression profiles along time course of infection. All other data are presented as themean of triplicate samples ± SD and are representative of three independent
experiments. Figure is related to Figure S4.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
infected, or at early time points after infection (2 hpi, Figure S4A).
Unexpectedly, concentrations of many of the proinflammatory
cytokines were significantly higher in the supernatants taken
from infected IL-4-stimulated WT BMDMs relative to Ppard�/�
cells after 12, 18, or 24 hr (Figure 4E and Figure S4A). These
results further support the conclusion that the inability of
S. typhimurium to replicate in Ppard�/� BMDMs is not due to
increased proinflammatory cytokine-induced bacterial killing
mechanisms. Consistent with these results, the rate of E. coli
killing was the same in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs (Figure S4B).
Moreover, NO levels were higher in the supernatants of
WT BMDMs compared to Ppard�/� BMDMs infected with
Salmonella (Figure S4C), indicating that the inability of
Salmonella to replicate in Ppard�/� macrophages cannot be
attributed to NO-dependent antimicrobial mechanisms. Taken
together, these results suggest that PPARd regulation of the
cytokine and receptor program expressed by IL-4-stimulated
cells does not restrict the ability of Salmonella to successfully
replicate within these cells.
The Metabolic Program Controlled by PPARd RegulatesSalmonella ReplicationPPARd functions to coordinately regulate the expression of
metabolic programs, most notably fatty acid b-oxidation (Barak
et al., 2002) which becomes dysregulated in Ppard�/� BMDMs
(Figure S5A). We found that the inhibition of fatty acid oxidation
by etomoxir, a carnitine palmitoyltransferase I inhibitor, abro-
gated the enhancing effects of IL-4 on Salmonella replication
(Figure 5A). Etomoxir had no effect on BMDM viability, activation
176 Cell Host & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevi
state, or bacterial growth in broth (Figures S5B–S5E). Taken
together, these results indicate that S. typhimurium replication
in IL-4-stimulated cells is dependent on PPARd-regulated fatty
acid metabolism.
Since PPARd regulates the shift from a glucose-based meta-
bolism in host cells to a fatty acid-based metabolism (Brunmair
et al., 2006), we reasoned that a major carbon source might be
more readily available for Salmonella when PPARd is active. To
test this, we first determined that glucose is a major carbon
source for Salmonella in macrophages. A mutant Salmonella
strain that cannot transport glucose (DptsG, Dglk, and
DmanXYZ) is defective for intracellular replication in BMDMs
(Figure 5B), similar to results obtained when macrophage or
epithelial cell lines were used (Bowden et al., 2009). Furthermore,
we found that intracellular Salmonella acquires glucose from the
macrophage as determined by the ability of bacteria to appro-
priate a fluorescent glucose analog that was administered to
BMDMs during infection (Figures 6B and 6C). We also measured
the expression level of Salmonella genes involved in glucose
transport, since it has previously been shown that bacteria regu-
late the expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism in
relation to the levels of available glucose in the local environment
(Meadow et al., 1990). The expression of Salmonella genes
involved in glucose transport and metabolism was lower when
infecting Ppard�/� macrophages (Figure S6A), suggesting that
Salmonella encounters a lower concentration of glucose in
Ppard�/� BMDMs compared to WT cells. To test this further,
we measured the concentration of glucose in infected WT and
Ppard�/�BMDMs and found that the level of intracellular glucose
er Inc.
Figure 5. Salmonella Is Able to Acquire Glucose from the Host
(A) Salmonella fold replication 24 hr after administration of the indicated
treatment is shown.
(B) Salmonella strain 12023 (plain) or a DptsGDglkDmanXYZ triple mutant
(hatched) fold replication in WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs prestimulated with IL-4
for 24 hr prior to infection. IL-4 wasmaintained in the medium along the course
of infection. Graph shows the fold replication at 24 hr. The data presented are
mean ± SD of triplicate samples and representative of three independent
experiments. *p < 0.05. Figure is related to Figure S5.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
in PPARd-deficient BMDMs was significantly lower compared to
the levels in WT BMDMs (Figures 6A and 6D). These results indi-
cate that PPARd activity influences intracellular glucose levels. In
addition, we stimulated WT BMDMs with a PPARd agonist,
GW0742, and found that specific activation of PPARd increases
the intracellular concentration of glucose (Figure S6B). Conse-
quently, Salmonella acquires significantly less glucose in the
absence of PPARd (Figures 6B and 6C). We also examined the
ability of bacteria to replicate in BMDMs treated with the AMP-
activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator AICAR. AMPK activa-
tion increases glucose transport into cells, resulting in elevated
intracellular concentrations of glucose in both WT and Ppard�/�
BMDMs (Figure 6D) (Merrill et al., 1997). AICAR administered to
infected cells rescued bacterial replication in IL-4-stimulated
Ppard�/� BMDMs in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 6E).
Taken together, these data indicate that Salmonella replication
within IL-4-stimulated BMDMs is regulated by the PPARd-
dependent availability of glucose in macrophages.
PPARd Is Required for Salmonella Persistence In VivoTo determine whether PPARd is essential for the long-term
persistence of Salmonella in systemic host tissues, we
infected WT and Ppard�/� mice orogastrically with 108 CFU
S. typhimurium. Bacteria colonized the spleen and MLNs of
WT and Ppard�/�mice to the same extent at 5 and 10 days post-
infection. However, viable S. typhimurium was not detected in
Ppard�/� tissues 6 weeks following infection, indicating that
S. typhimurium did not persist in Ppard�/� mice (Figure 7A).
These results correlated with the number of CD301+ macro-
phages in the spleen and MLNs, which were significantly lower
inPpard�/� compared toWTmice (Figure 7B).We also evaluated
the ability of S. typhimurium to persistently colonize Ppard�/�
chimeric mice (Figure 7C). While very few bacteria were recov-
ered from the MLNs of lethally irradiated Ppard�/� mice that
were reconstituted with Ppard�/� bone marrow, significantly
higher levels were found in mice transplanted with WT bone
marrow. Thus, Salmonella requires PPARd activity in cells that
Cell Hos
differentiate from the hematopoietic compartment in order to
maintain a persistent infection.
To confirm the role of PPARd in S. typhimurium persistence
and to ensure that the effect of PPARd observed in vivo was
not due to possible differences in mouse genetic backgrounds,
WT mice were injected with the PPARd agonist GW0742 or the
vehicle control every day for 6 days prior to infection with
S. typhimurium. Mice treated with the PPARd agonist had
a significantly higher percentage of CD301+ cells that were
expressing PPARd compared to control mice (Figures 7D
and 7E). Thus, as expected, the levels of Salmonella were sig-
nificantly higher at 20 days postinfection in the spleen and at
15 and 20 days postinfection in the MLNs of GW0742-injected
mice compared to control mice (Figure 7F). These results further
support the role of PPARd in creating an environment conducive
for bacterial colonization, leading to long-term Salmonella
persistence.
DISCUSSION
In this report, we have demonstrated that S. typhimurium prefer-
entially associates with anti-inflammatory/M2 macrophages at
later stages of a systemic murine infection and that PPARd, a
host regulator of fatty acid metabolism in M2 macrophages, is
required for bacterial persistence. A previous study using an
acute model of infection showed a similar association between
the number of M2 macrophages and level of S. typhimurium
colonization in mice but did not demonstrate a significant differ-
ence in intracellular bacterial replication in IL-4-stimulated RAW
264.7macrophages (Bishop et al., 2008). Indeed, the vast major-
ity of Salmonella studies in macrophages have been conducted
usingmacrophage-like cell lines which have been shown to have
markedly different metabolic requirements than primary cells
(Biswas and Mantovani, 2010, 2012; Gordon and Martinez,
2010). Thus, our results suggest that primary anti-inflamma-
tory/M2-like macrophages may represent a more biologically
relevant model to study Salmonella pathogenesis.
We found at least one mechanism underlying enhanced
Salmonella replication in IL-4-stimulated macrophages
that requires PPARd-regulated availability of glucose within
macrophages. Importantly, the replication of M. tuberculosis,
F. tularensis, and L. monocytogenes in IL-4-stimulated Ppard�/�
BMDMs was unimpaired. In addition, we show that
M. tuberculosis infection induced the expression of Pparg, but
not Ppard, suggesting that a requirement for PPARdmay be spe-
cific to Salmonella. We speculate that such specificity could be
due to unique metabolic needs required during infection. In sup-
port of this notion, previous studies indicate thatM. tuberculosis
primarily utilizes fatty acids as a major source of energy within
macrophages (Eisenreich et al., 2010; McKinney et al., 2000;
Pandey and Sassetti, 2008). In contrast, L. monocytogenes
and F. tularensis utilize amino acids as energy sources during
replication withinmacrophages (Alkhuder et al., 2009; Eisenreich
et al., 2010; Eylert et al., 2008; Raghunathan et al., 2010). More-
over, we show here that the inability of Salmonella to replicate in
Ppard�/� BMDMs is due to a decreased concentration of intra-
cellular glucose, a crucial carbon source that is essential for
the replication of S. typhimurium (Bowden et al., 2009). The
reduced availability of glucose for intracellular Salmonella is
t & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 177
Figure 6. Salmonella Acquires Less
Glucose from Macrophages in the Absence
of Ppard
(A) BMDMs were stimulated for 48 hr with IL-4
(20 ng/ml) prior to infection with Salmonella 12023.
Glucose levels were measured at indicated time
points after infection. IL-4 was maintained in
medium throughout the experiment.
(B) 2-NBDG fluorescence intensity measured
within each bacterium, normalized over the volume
of the bacterium. Results are shown for the 12023
Salmonella strain inWT andPpard�/�BMDMs, and
for the 12023DptsGDglkDmanXYZ mutant in WT
BMDMs, 26 hr after infection. Cells were presti-
mulated with IL-4 for 48 hr before infection. Over
100 bacteria were analyzed for each macrophage
genotype. The data presented are mean ± SD and
representative of three independent experiments.
(C) BMDMs were infected with the indicated
Salmonella strains (red) before 2-NBDG (green)
was added to the medium. Images are a projection
of a 10 mm z stack collected through the 633
objective of a confocal microscope.
(D) IL-4-stimulatedWT and Ppard�/�BMDMswere
treated with ddH20 (Vehicle) or 200 mMAICAR, and
intracellular glucose was measured after 24 hr.
The data presented are representative of three
independent experiments ± the SD of triplicate
samples.
(E) IL-4-stimulated WT and Ppard�/� BMDMswere
infected then treated with either ddH20 (Vehicle)
or the indicated concentration of AICAR. Fold
replication was determined at 24 hpi. Data are
combined from three independent experiments,
and the SEM is shown. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p <
0.001. Figure is related to Figure S6.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
likely a consequence of the inability of Ppard�/�macrophages to
upregulate the fatty acid metabolic program, resulting in an
increased dependence on glucose utilization by the host cell
for energy. Few studies have focused on the link between
PPAR family members and the ability of intracellular pathogens
to cause infection, but all of them to date have suggested an
indirect role via the regulation of the immune response (Gal-
lardo-Soler et al., 2008; Odegaard et al., 2007). Contrary to this
observation, our data demonstrate that proinflammatory cyto-
kine production by Ppard�/� macrophages is decreased
compared to WT cells during Salmonella infection. Therefore,
our data link the PPARd-regulated metabolic state of the host
cell to bacterial infection.
Since M2 macrophages do not express many of the defense
mechanisms needed to eliminate invading microbes, some
pathogens have evolved strategies to actively polarize cells
toward the M2 phenotype as a virulence mechanism. For
example, Toxoplasma gondii bypasses IL-4 signaling by directly
phosphorylating STAT6 using the rhoptry kinase ROP16
178 Cell Host & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc.
expressed by type I and III strains, result-
ing in increased parasite replication in
macrophages (Jensen et al., 2011).
In addition, a previous study suggests
that F. tularensis induces alternatively
activated/M2 macrophages and that
increased bacterial survival is dependent on IL-4 (Shirey et al.,
2008). However, several conflicting studies report that IL-4, in
addition to other products secreted by mast cells, inhibits
F. tularensis intracellular replication (Ketavarapu et al., 2008;
Rodriguez et al., 2011; Shirey et al., 2008). Given the importance
of M2 macrophages and PPARd for Salmonella persistence, we
hypothesize that bacteria have evolved mechanisms to actively
modulate the M2 phenotype. Indeed, we show that bacteria
dramatically induce the upregulation of Ppard gene and protein
expression during infection in the absence of IL-4 stimulation.
Thus, future studies aim to identify the bacterial factor(s) required
for the induction of Ppard, and to determine whether Salmonella
directly augments PPARd activity and/or the M2 phenotype to
promote persistence within the mammalian host.
Importantly, we also showed that S. typhimurium does not
persist in PPARd-deficient mice and correlate this to decreased
levels of CD301+ macrophages. Notably, similar levels of bacte-
ria were recovered in the spleens and MLNs of infected WT and
Ppard�/�mice during the acute phase of the infection, when high
Figure 7. PPARd Is Required for Long-Term Carriage of S. typhimurium in Systemic Organs
(A) Salmonella colonization of the spleens and MLNs from WT and Ppard�/� mice was quantified at the indicated time points following oral infection.
(B) Proportion of CD301+ macrophages in spleens and MLNs of infected WT and Ppard�/� mice was assessed by FACS at 42 dpi.
(C) Bacterial loads in the MLNs of chimeric Ppard�/� mice were measured 42 dpi.
(D and E) Proportion of CD301+ (D) and PPARd+ (E)macrophages in the spleens ofmice injectedwith GW0742 or the vehicle control. Graph shows cell percentage
before mice were infected.
(F) PPARd activation increases Salmonella colonization levels of spleen (left) and MLN (right). Data are presented as the geometric mean ± SD. *p < 0.05, **p <
0.01. Each experiment was performed twice with three to five mice per time point for each genotype or treatment.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
levels of proinflammatory cytokines are produced, indicating
that there is no initial defect in the ability of Salmonella to system-
ically colonize Ppard�/�mice. In contrast, lower levels of bacteria
were recovered from Ppard�/� mice during the chronic phase of
the infection, when relatively higher levels of anti-inflammatory
cytokines are produced, supporting the notion that the combina-
tion of PPARd activity and the cytokine environment are required
for the establishment and/or maintenance of the chronic
phase of infection. Although we were able to restore disease in
lethally irradiated Ppard�/� mice reconstituted with WT bone
marrow, we cannot completely exclude the possibility that a
cell type other than macrophages is responsible for Salmonella
persistence in vivo. In the future, it will be prudent to study
Cell Hos
the role of PPARd in different cell types during persistent
Salmonella infection in the appropriate mouse genetic back-
ground (Nramp1+/+).
We have previously shown that IFN-g plays an important role
in controlling the levels of Salmonella in mice (Monack et al.,
2004a). In this study, we showed that chronically infected mice
contained S. typhimurium in systemic tissues within microgranu-
lomas/typhoidal nodules in which the central areas contained
tightly opposed macrophages that contain bacteria. However,
when asymptomatic, chronically infected mice were treated
with an IFN-g-neutralizing antibody, high levels of bacteria
were detected in systemic tissues. Neutralization of IFN-g led
to the disintegration of the typhoidal nodules, and there was
t & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevier Inc. 179
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
uncontrolled bacterial replication. These findings indicate that
the balance between the Th1 and Th2 responses had been dis-
rupted when we neutralized IFN-g. This is very similar to what is
seen during persistent M. tuberculosis infection where the bac-
teria are located within macrophages in granulomas and T lym-
phocytes (producing many different cytokines, including IFN-g)
and surround the macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis
to ‘‘wall off’’ the infection (Monack et al., 2004b).
Taken together, our data strongly support the hypothesis that
Salmonella has evolved to survive long-term in M2-like macro-
phages by exploiting the unique metabolism of these cells.
PPARd has emerged as a powerful metabolic regulator in diverse
tissues, highlighting the broad potential of PPARd augmentation
in the treatment of metabolic disease. Its combined activities
make PPARd a key regulator with the potential to therapeutically
target multiple aspects of metabolic syndromes, including
obesity and insulin resistance (Barish et al., 2006). Future exper-
iments investigating the role of PPARd, as well as other PPARs,
during human infection with S. typhi will be important, as there
might be differences in humans compared to mice (Bouhlel
et al., 2009). It is tempting to speculate that Salmonella evolved
to take advantage of host factors critical for the homeostasis
of various host cell processes. Such factors that influence
asymptomatic carriage of S. typhi in humans are unknown.
Thus, future studies seek to determine if there are genetic differ-
ences in S. typhi carriers that influence the recruitment and
activation of macrophages where Salmonella persists within
mammalian hosts.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Mouse Strains and Cell Culture
Female 129x1/SvJ mice (6–8 weeks old, Jackson Laboratories) were used for
in vivo infections and to analyze the interactions between Salmonella andmac-
rophages (Figures 1 and 2). Ppard�/� 129/SvImJmice (Barak et al., 2002) were
utilized to study the role of PPARd in Salmonella persistence. WT littermates
were used as controls. Mice were obtained from Jackson Laboratories to
generate the chimeric mice. 129/SvImJ WT mice were used for the PPARd
agonist injection in mice. WT BALB/c and Il-4raLoxP/LoxP-LysmCre mice were
obtained from Dr. Ajay Chawla (Nguyen et al., 2011).
BMDMswere prepared fromWT and Ppard�/�mice as previously described
(Warren and Vogel, 1985). Briefly, marrows were aseptically removed and
flushed with DMEM. BMDMs were differentiated in DMEM (Invitrogen) with
10% (v/v) heat-inactivated FBS (Hyclone), 10% 3t3-MCSF cell supernatant,
10 mM HEPES (GIBCO), and nonessential amino acids (GIBCO). RAW264.7
cells were cultured in DMEM with 10% (v/v) heat-inactivated FBS. The human
monocyte cell line THP-1 (ATCC TIB-202) was maintained in RPMI 1640
(GIBCO) containing 10% (v/v) heat-inactivated FBS (Invitrogen), 25 mM
HEPES (GIBCO), 2 mM L-glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, and 55 mM
2-mercaptoethanol. All cell cultures were incubated in a humidified chamber
at 37�C in 5% CO2.
Mouse Infections
Mice were kept under specific pathogen-free conditions in filter-top cages and
were provided sterile water and food ad libitum. Mice were deprived of food for
14 hr before orogastric inoculation. Mice were inoculated orogastrically with
108 CFU/mouse S. typhimurium SL1344. In experiments utilizing BALB/c
mice, the S. typhimurium SL1344DaroA strain was used, and mice were not
deprived of food prior to infection with 109 CFU/mouse (Fang et al., 2005).
Mice were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation and cervical dislocation, followed
by dissection and harvesting of the indicated organs. Tissues were weighed
and homogenized in PBS, and appropriate dilutions were plated on LB agar
plates to obtain CFUs per gram of tissue.
180 Cell Host & Microbe 14, 171–182, August 14, 2013 ª2013 Elsevi
Macrophage Infections
BMDMswere seeded at a density of 2.53 105 cells per well of a 24-well culture
dish. For infection of WT and Ppard�/� BMDMs, cells were incubated in low-
glucose medium (1 g/L) supplemented with 5% FBS and 5% 3t3-MCSF cell
supernatant 24 hr prior to infection. Low-glucose medium was then used
throughout the time course of infection. Where indicated, cells were treated
with recombinant mouse IL-4 (20 ng/ml, Peprotech) for 24–48 hr prior to infec-
tion (this length had no effect on bacterial survival or replication). AICAR-
treated samples were incubated in medium containing 4.5 g/L glucose.
Salmonella strains from a culture grown overnight were used to infect the mac-
rophages at an moi of 5, and bacteria were centrifuged for 5 min at 50 3 g to
synchronize bacterial uptake. Following a 30 min incubation, cells were
washed and incubated in medium containing 100 mg/ml of gentamicin for
90 min. Cells were then incubated in medium containing 10 mg/ml of genta-
micin until the end of the experiment. Cells were stimulated with recombinant
mIL-4, mIFNg (100 units/ml) (R&D Systems), etomoxir (50 mM, Sigma), or
AICAR (Sigma) 2 hr after infection when switching to gentamicin 10 mg/ml.
Gentamicin-protected bacteria were harvested from macrophages at various
time points by lysis of cells with 1% Triton X-100 and plated for enumeration.
For experiments involving AICAR,Salmonella expressingmCherry was used at
an moi of 20, and intracellular bacteria were counted in macrophages that
were stained as described above. Z stacks taken from 15 random fields in
three replicates at each time point were examined. Fold replication was calcu-
lated by normalizing the CFU concentration from a given time point to the CFU
concentration from the 2 hpi time point. For experiments utilizing
M. tuberculosis, F. novicida, and L. monocytogenes, an moi of 1, 10, and 1
was used, respectively.
To assess bacterial levels as a function of luxCDABE light production, RAW
cells were seeded at a density of 53 104 cells/well in DMEM lacking phenol red
in Optilux 96-well, black-wall, clear-bottommicrotest plates (BD Falcon). Light
production from infected cells was assayed using a Veritas Microplate Lumin-
ometer. The relative light units obtained from luminometer readings were log10
transformed and normalized to levels at 2 hr postinfection to account for var-
iations in bacterial uptake by the macrophages. The data were additionally
normalized to the average value for unactivated cells. A stock culture of
THP-1 cells was maintained as monocyte-like, nonadherent cells. For infec-
tion, cells were seeded at 53 105 cells per well in 24-well tissue-culture dishes
and were differentiated by the addition of 10�7 M phorbol 12-myristate 13-
acetate for 48 hr. Infection with S. typhi was performed as described above
at an moi of 10.
See the Supplemental Experimental Procedures.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Supplemental Information includes six figures, Supplemental Experimental
Procedures, and Supplemental References and can be found with this article
online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2013.07.010.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all members of the Monack lab for valuable comments. We also
thank Justin Odegaard for helpful discussions. N.A.E. is supported by Molec-
ular and Cellular Immunobiology training grant NIH T32 AI07290-28. T.R. is
supported by grants from the Philippe Foundation and NIH T32 AI007328.
This work was supported by AI08972 from the National Institute of Allergy
and Infectious Diseases and a Burroughs Wellcome Fund Investigator in the
Pathogenesis of Infectious Diseases award to D.M.M. and by NIH grants
DK081405 and HL076746 and an NIH Director’s Pioneer Award
(DP1AR064158) to A.C. All animal care was in accordance with Stanford Uni-
versity’s A-PLAC committee guidelines. T.R., N.A.E., and D.M.M. designed
research; T.R., N.A.E., A.J., P.S.M., and L.L. performed research; L.M. and
A.C. contributed analytical tools and mice; T.R., N.A.E., A.J., L.L., and
D.M.M. analyzed data; T.R., N.A.E., L.M., A.C., and D.M.M. wrote the paper.
Received: February 27, 2013
Revised: May 10, 2013
Accepted: June 20, 2013
Published: August 14, 2013
er Inc.
Cell Host & Microbe
Persistent Salmonella Infection Requires PPARd
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