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SCIENCE : HOW DO WE DEFINE SCIENCE?

1. (fromLatin:scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise of gathering

knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing that knowledge into testable laws

and theories

2. According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is"knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering general truths of the

operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method [and]

concerned with the physical world."

3. Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and

experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to

the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the

word science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.

What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most general description is that the purpose of

science is to produce useful models of reality.

PROCESS SKILLS FOR LIFE SCIENCE (05)

Training Guide prepared by Karen L. Lancour, National Supervisor

This event is a lab-oriented competition involving the fundamental science processes of a

middle school life-science program. The event is not meant to be a comprehensive biology

course. If specific content is needed when students are being tested on certain process skills,

the supervisor will provide that content.

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

The event consists of a series of biological questions or tasks that involve the use of one ormore process skills. Science process skills are classified as basic skills and integrated skills.

These skills can be accessed by applying them to a series of lab station activities which are

included in the Guide for Supervisors, Coaches and Students. Tips to assist students in their

preparations are also included in this guide.

Basic Science Process Skills:

Observing - using your senses to gather information about an object or event. It is a

description of

what was actually perceived. This information is considered qualitative data. Measuring - using standard measures or estimations to describe specific dimensions of an

object or event. This information is considered quantitative data.

Inferring - formulating assumptions or possible explanations based upon observations.

Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based upon

characteristics or defined criteria.

Predicting - guessing the most likely outcome of a future event based upon a pattern of

evidence.

Communicating - using words, symbols, or graphics to describe an object, action or event.

Integrated Science Process Skills:

Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for

experiments.

These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable.

Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an experiment. It is

important

to change only the variable being tested and keep the rest constant. The one being

manipulated is the independent variable; the one being measured to determine its response is

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the dependent variable; and all variables that do not change and may be potential

independent variables are constants.

Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an experiment.

Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between variables in an

experiment such as between the independent and dependant variables plus the standard ofcomparison.

Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and describing

appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis.

Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions of the

procedure so the results can be verified by repeating the procedure several times.

Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations and

measurements.

Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for data collected.

Analyzing Investigations and Their Data - interpreting data statistically, identifying human

mistakes

and experimental errors, evaluating the hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and

recommending further testing where necessary.

Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to happen and why.

Formulating Models - recognizing patterns in data and making comparisons to familiar

objects or ideas.

CELLS

The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hookeand is the

functional unit of all known livingorganisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as

a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most

bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are

multicellular. (Humans have about 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10m; a

typical cell mass is 1nanogram. The largest cells are about 135 m in theanterior horn in

the spinal cordwhilegranule cellsin thecerebellum, the smallest, can be some 4 m and the

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longest cell can reach from the toe to the lowerbrain stem(Pseudounipolar cells).[2]) The

largest known cells are unfertilisedostrichegg cellswhich weigh 3.3 pounds

In 1835, before the final cell theory was developed,Jan Evangelista Purkynobserved small

"granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first

developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that allorganisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that

vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary

informationnecessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the

next generation of cells.

The word cellcomes from theLatincellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive term for

the smallest living biological structure was coined byRobert Hookein a book he published in

1665 when he compared thecorkcells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms

monks lived in.

The cell is one of the most basic units of life. There are millions of different types of cells.

There are cells that are organisms onto themselves, such as microscopic amoeba and bacteria

cells. And there are cells that only function when part of a larger organism, such as the cells

that make up your body. The cell is the smallest unit of life in our bodies. In the body, there

are brain cells, skin cells, liver cells, stomach cells, and the list goes on. All of these cells have

unique functions and features. And all have some recognizable similarities. All cells have a

'skin', called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside environment. The cell

membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell.

Inside of the cell membrane are the working parts of the cell. At the center of the cell is thecell nucleus. The cell nucleus contains the cell'sDNA, the genetic code that coordinates protein

synthesis. In addition to the nucleus, there are many organelles inside of the cell - small

structures that help carry out the day-to-day operations of the cell. One important cellular

organelle is the ribosome. Ribosomes participate in protein synthesis. Thetranscriptionphase

of protein synthesis takes places in the cell nucleus. After this step is complete, the mRNA

leaves the nucleus and travels to the cell's ribosomes, where translation occurs. Another

important cellular organelle is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria (many mitochondrion) are

often referred to as the power plants of the cell because many of the reactions that produce

energy take place in mitochondria. Also important in the life of a cell are the lysosomes.Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes that aid in the digestion of nutrient molecules

and other materials. Below is a labelled diagram of a cell to help you identify some of these

structures.

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There are many different types of cells. One major difference in cells occurs between plant

cells and animal cells. While both plant and animal cells contain the structures discussed

above, plant cells have some additional specialized structures. Many animals have skeletons to

give their body structure and support. Plants do not have a skeleton for support and yet

plants don't just flop over in a big spongy mess. This is because of a unique cellular structurecalled the cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid structure outside of the cell membrane composed

mainly of the polysaccharidecellulose. As pictured at left, the cell wall gives the plant cell a

defined shape which helps support individual parts of plants. In addition to the cell wall,

plant cells contain an organelle called the chloroplast. The chloroplast allow plants to harvest

energy from sunlight. Specialized pigments in the chloroplast (including the common green

pigment chlorophyll) absorb sunlight and use this energy to complete the chemical reaction:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (from sunlight) C6H12O6 + 6 O2

In this way, plant cells manufacture glucose and othercarbohydratesthat they can store for

later use.

Organisms contain many different types of cells that perform many different functions. In

the next lesson, we will examine how individual cells come together to form larger structures

in the human body.

TISSUES

Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate betweencellsand a complete organism.

Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin,

that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional

grouping together of multiple tissues.

A layer or group of cells

that collectively perform

a specific function forms

tissues. These are the

main types of tissues

found in the human

body and their

functions.

Tissues are composed of

groups or layers ofcells,

which collectively

perform a specific

function. Different types

of tissues have different

structures that are

specific to their function.

Tissues can be held together by a sticky coating called an extracellular matrix or the matrixmay weave the cells of tissues together. The Latin word for tissue is derived from the verb

texere,to weave.

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These are the major tissue types in the

human body:

Connective Epithelial Muscular Nervous system Lymphatic

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is made up of cells

and protein fibers and provides

support for other body tissues. The

main proteins in connective tissue are

collagen and elastin. There are five

types of connective tissue. They are:

Loose connective tissue: including adipose tissue (fat storage)

Dense connective tissue Blood

Bone Cartilage

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Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue, often called epithelium, is comprised of tightly packed cells, arranged to

form layers. Epithelium provides many functions, including absorption, excretion, protection,

reproduction, secretion and sensory reception. Epithelial cells are constantly renewing and

replacing the dead or inactive cells. The two main epithelial tissue types are lining andglandular. You can develop colorectal cancer in both of them. Cancer of epithelial tissue is

called a carcinoma.

The study of tissue is known as

histology or, in connection with

disease, histopathology. The classical

tools for studying tissues are the

paraffin block in which tissue is

embedded and then sectioned, the

histological stain, and the optical

microscope. In the last couple of

decades, developments in electron

microscopy, immunofluorescence, and

the use of frozen tissue sections have

enhanced the detail that can be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances

of tissues can be examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of clinical

diagnosis and prognosis.

ORGANS

In biology and anatomy, an

organ (Latin: organum,

"instrument, tool", from Greek

- organon, "organ,

instrument, tool" is a collection

of tissuesjoined in structural

unit to serve a common function.

Usually there is a maintissue and

sporadictissues. The main tissue

is the one that is unique for the

specific organ. For example,

main tissue in the heart is the

myocardium, while sporadic are

thenerves,blood,connective.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS

List of major mammalian organ systems

There are eleven major organ systems found in mammals.Mammalssuch as humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are also

widely studied inhuman anatomy.

Circulatory system: pumping and channelingbloodto and from thebodyand lungswithheart,bloodandblood vessels.

Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus,stomach,liver,gallbladder,pancreas,intestines,rectumandanus.

Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made byendocrine glandssuch as thehypothalamus,pituitaryor pituitary gland,pineal body

or pineal gland,thyroid,parathyroidsandadrenals, i.e., adrenal glands. Excretory system:kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance,

electrolytebalance and excretion ofurine.

Integumentary system:skin,hairandnails. Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer oflymphbetweentissuesand

theblood stream, the lymph and the nodesandvesselsthat transport it including the

Immune system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils,

adenoids,thymusandspleen.

Muscular system: movement withmuscles. Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information withbrain,spinal

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cord,peripheral nervesandnerves.

Reproductive system: thesex organs, such asovaries,fallopian tubes,uterus,vagina,mammary glands,testes,vas deferens,seminal vesicles,prostateandpenis.

Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea,bronchi,lungsanddiaphragm.

Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones,cartilage, ligamentsandtendons

External features

Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to bottom:

Skin

Head Forehead EyeEar Nose Mouth Tongue Teeth Jaw Face Cheek Chin

Neck Throat Adam's apple Shoulders

Arm Elbow Wrist Hand Fingers Thumb

Spine Chest Breast RibcageAbdomen Belly button Sex organs (Penis/Scrotum or Clitoris/Vagina) Rectum Anus

Hip Buttocks Leg Thigh Knee Calf Heel Ankle Foot Toes

Internal organs

Common names of internal organs (in alphabetical order):

Adrenal glands Appendix Bladder Brain DuodenumGall bladderHeartIntestines

KidneyLiverLungs Ovaries Pancreas Parathyroid gland Pituitarygland Prostate

gland SpleenStomachThymusgland Thyroidgland Testicles Womb.

Top 10 Useless Organs

10 - Plica Semilunaris (3rd eyelid) - You may not know it, but you have a third eyelid. Pull

open the two more noticeable eyelids and take a look - it's located right in the corner by the

tear duct. The third eyelid is left over from what's known as a "nictitating membrane," which

is still present in animals like chickens, lizards and sharks

9 - Body Hair- No doubt we were once hairier. Up until about 3 million years ago, we were

covered with it. But by the time Homo erectusarrived, the ability to sweat meant we could

shed our wooly ways.

8 Sinuses - Doctors don't really know much about sinuses, only that we have a lot of them.

Possibilities for their function range from insulating our eyes to changing the pitch and toneof our voice.

7 Adenoids - Adenoids trap bacteria, but they're also prone to swelling and infection. Just

ask any 7-year-old. Luckily, our adenoids shrink with age and are often removed, along

with...

6 Tonsils - Also prone to swelling and infection. If you have them by your 30s, it's almost

an accomplishment

5 Coccyx - More useful as a game-winning Scrabble word than part of the anatomy, the

coccyx, or tailbone, is several fused vertebrae left over from the olden days when we had tails.

4- Erector Pili- When were hairier the erector pili made the hairs stand on end when we

needed to appear bigger and scarier. Now, it just gives us goose bumps.

3 - Wisdom Teeth - Back in the day, when we ate mammoth meat off the bone and didn't

floss afterward, our teeth tended to fall out. Therefore, when those reserve molars, aka

"wisdom teeth," came in they were welcomed. Nowadays, fluoride and dental plans have just

made them a huge pain

2 Appendix - Darwin claimed the appendix was useful for digestion during our early

plant-eating years; it's dwindled down to little since we started eating more digestible foods.

1- Male Nipples - Because, they don't secrete milk at all, just all for show and nothing more.

http://h/wiki/Spinal_cordhttp://h/wiki/Spinal_cordhttp://h/wiki/Peripheral_nervehttp://h/wiki/Peripheral_nervehttp://h/wiki/Peripheral_nervehttp://h/wiki/Nervehttp://h/wiki/Nervehttp://h/wiki/Nervehttp://h/wiki/Reproductive_systemhttp://h/wiki/Reproductive_systemhttp://h/wiki/Sex_organshttp://h/wiki/Sex_organshttp://h/wiki/Sex_organshttp://h/wiki/Ovaryhttp://h/wiki/Ovaryhttp://h/wiki/Ovaryhttp://h/wiki/Fallopian_tubehttp://h/wiki/Fallopian_tubehttp://h/wiki/Fallopian_tubehttp://h/wiki/Uterushttp://h/wiki/Uterushttp://h/wiki/Uterushttp://h/wiki/Vaginahttp://h/wiki/Vaginahttp://h/wiki/Vaginahttp://h/wiki/Mammary_glandhttp://h/wiki/Mammary_glandhttp://h/wiki/Testeshttp://h/wiki/Testeshttp://h/wiki/Testeshttp://h/wiki/Vas_deferenshttp://h/wiki/Vas_deferenshttp://h/wiki/Vas_deferenshttp://h/wiki/Seminal_vesiclehttp://h/wiki/Seminal_vesiclehttp://h/wiki/Seminal_vesiclehttp://h/wiki/Prostatehttp://h/wiki/Prostatehttp://h/wiki/Prostatehttp://h/wiki/Penishttp://h/wiki/Penishttp://h/wiki/Penishttp://h/wiki/Respiratory_systemhttp://h/wiki/Respiratory_systemhttp://h/wiki/Breathinghttp://h/wiki/Breathinghttp://h/wiki/Pharynxhttp://h/wiki/Pharynxhttp://h/wiki/Larynxhttp://h/wiki/Larynxhttp://h/wiki/Vertebrate_tracheahttp://h/wiki/Vertebrate_tracheahttp://h/wiki/Bronchihttp://h/wiki/Bronchihttp://h/wiki/Lunghttp://h/wiki/Lunghttp://h/wiki/Lunghttp://h/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragmhttp://h/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragmhttp://h/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragmhttp://h/wiki/Skeletal_systemhttp://h/wiki/Skeletal_systemhttp://h/wiki/Bonehttp://h/wiki/Bonehttp://h/wiki/Cartilagehttp://h/wiki/Cartilagehttp://h/wiki/Ligamenthttp://h/wiki/Ligamenthttp://h/wiki/Tendonhttp://h/wiki/Tendonhttp://h/wiki/Tendonhttp://h/entry/Skinhttp://h/entry/Skinhttp://h/entry/Eyehttp://h/entry/Eyehttp://h/entry/Eyehttp://h/entry/Earhttp://h/entry/Earhttp://h/entry/Earhttp://h/entry/Mandiblehttp://h/entry/Mandiblehttp://h/entry/Mandiblehttp://h/entry/Adrenal_glandhttp://h/entry/Adrenal_glandhttp://h/entry/Duodenumhttp://h/entry/Duodenumhttp://h/entry/Duodenumhttp://h/entry/Gall_bladderhttp://h/entry/Gall_bladderhttp://h/entry/Gall_bladderhttp://h/entry/Hearthttp://h/entry/Hearthttp://h/entry/Hearthttp://h/entry/Intestinehttp://h/entry/Intestinehttp://h/entry/Intestinehttp://h/entry/Kidneyhttp://h/entry/Kidneyhttp://h/entry/Liverhttp://h/entry/Lunghttp://h/entry/Lunghttp://h/entry/Lunghttp://h/entry/Pancreashttp://h/entry/Pancreashttp://h/entry/Pituitaryhttp://h/entry/Pituitaryhttp://h/entry/Pituitaryhttp://h/entry/Prostatehttp://h/entry/Prostatehttp://h/entry/Prostatehttp://h/entry/Spleenhttp://h/entry/Spleenhttp://h/entry/Spleenhttp://h/entry/Stomachhttp://h/entry/Stomachhttp://h/entry/Stomachhttp://h/entry/Thymushttp://h/entry/Thymushttp://h/entry/Thymushttp://h/entry/Thyroidhttp://h/entry/Thyroidhttp://h/entry/Thyroidhttp://h/entry/Thyroidhttp://h/entry/Thymushttp://h/entry/Stomachhttp://h/entry/Spleenhttp://h/entry/Prostatehttp://h/entry/Pituitaryhttp://h/entry/Pancreashttp://h/entry/Lunghttp://h/entry/Liverhttp://h/entry/Kidneyhttp://h/entry/Intestinehttp://h/entry/Hearthttp://h/entry/Gall_bladderhttp://h/entry/Duodenumhttp://h/entry/Adrenal_glandhttp://h/entry/Mandiblehttp://h/entry/Earhttp://h/entry/Eyehttp://h/entry/Skinhttp://h/wiki/Tendonhttp://h/wiki/Ligamenthttp://h/wiki/Cartilagehttp://h/wiki/Bonehttp://h/wiki/Skeletal_systemhttp://h/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragmhttp://h/wiki/Lunghttp://h/wiki/Bronchihttp://h/wiki/Vertebrate_tracheahttp://h/wiki/Larynxhttp://h/wiki/Pharynxhttp://h/wiki/Breathinghttp://h/wiki/Respiratory_systemhttp://h/wiki/Penishttp://h/wiki/Prostatehttp://h/wiki/Seminal_vesiclehttp://h/wiki/Vas_deferenshttp://h/wiki/Testeshttp://h/wiki/Mammary_glandhttp://h/wiki/Vaginahttp://h/wiki/Uterushttp://h/wiki/Fallopian_tubehttp://h/wiki/Ovaryhttp://h/wiki/Sex_organshttp://h/wiki/Reproductive_systemhttp://h/wiki/Nervehttp://h/wiki/Peripheral_nervehttp://h/wiki/Spinal_cord