cellular reproduction chapter 9...
TRANSCRIPT
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Cellular ReproductionChapter 9
http://www.carolina.com/product/life+science/dvds+and+videos/basics+of+genetics-+cellular+reproduction-+mitosis,+cytokinesis,+and+the+cell+cycle+dvd.do#
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Cellular Growth9.1
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Cell Differentiation• Multicellular organisms develop
beginning with a single cell (fertilized egg).
• This single cell will give rise to many different types of cells, each with a specialized structure and function.
• This is done through the process of cell division.
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Cell Differentiation
• As cells undergo cell division, they not only grow in number, but they also undergo differentiation.
• The various types of cells arrange into tissues --> organs --> organ systems --> organism.
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Cell Differentiation• Nearly all cells in a multicellular organism
have exactly the same chromosomes and DNA.
• When cells differentiate, only specific parts of the DNA are activated.
• This will determine the function and specialized structure of a cell.
• All cells essentially contain the same DNA, therefore they have the potential to become any type of cell.
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Stem Cells• Unspecialized cells that continually
reproduce themselves and have the ability to differentiate into one or more types of specialized cells.
• Embryonic Stem Cells: have not yet differentiated into various cell types. Have the capability of developing into a wide variety of specialized cells.
• Adult Stem Cells: found in various tissues in the body and might be used to maintain and repair the same kind of tissue where they are found.
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Stem Cells
http://www.biocat.com/cgi-bin/page/sub2.pl?sub1=stem_cell_related_products&sub2=stem_cell_differentiation_reporter_system&main_group=cell_biology
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Cell Size Limitations
• Higher ratio of surface area to volume means that cells can:
• Efficiently supply nutrients and expel waste products.
• Maximize the ability of diffusion and motor proteins to transport nutrients and waste products.
• Efficiently move signaling proteins throughout the cell.
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Cell Size Limitations
https://youngbloodbiology.wikispaces.com/A+Panoramic+View+of+the+Cell
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The Cell Cycle
http://ehumanbiofield.wikispaces.com/MA+Cell+division+hw
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The Cell Cycle
• A repeated pattern of growth and division.
• For every complete cycle, 2 cells will be produced.
• Repeated cycling results in a continuous production of new cells.
• The duration of the cell cycle varies.
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The Cell Cycle
• Three main stages:
• 1) Interphase
• 2) Mitosis
• 3) Cytokinesis
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The Cell Cycle:Interphase
• Majority of cycle spent in interphase.
• Cells grow, develop into mature, functioning cells, duplicate DNA, and prepare for division.
• Divided into 3 stages:
• 1) Gap 1 (G1)
• 2) Synthesis (S)
• 3) Gap 2 (G2)
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The Cell Cycle:Interphase
http://www.revisionworld.co.uk/a2-us-grades-11-12/biology/genes-genetic-engineering/cell-cycle
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The Cell Cycle:Interphase
• Gap 1 (G1): period immediately after cell divides. Cell is growing and carrying out normal cell functions. Prepares to replicate DNA, synthesizes proteins.
• Synthesis (S): period when the cell copies its DNA to prepare for cell division. Chromosomes replicate and divide to form sister chromatids.
• Gap 2 (G2): period when the cell prepares for division of its nucleus. The cell makes sure it is ready to continue with mitosis at this time.
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The Cell Cycle:Interphase
http://www.macroevolution.net/sister-chromatids.html#.Tn_ywXN7f_E
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The Cell Cycle:Mitosis
• Purpose: Cell Division (making two cells out of one)
• The cells nuclear material divides and separates into opposite ends of the cell.
• Each cell has to have its own cytoplasm and DNA.
• Divided into 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).
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The Cell Cycle:Cytokinesis
• The cell divides into 2 daughter cells with identical nuclei.
• Animal Cells: cleavage furrow forms from cell membrane, pinches the cell into 2 equal parts.
• Plant Cells: cell plate forms between the divided nuclei, gradually develops into a separate membrane.
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The Cell Cycle:Mitosis/Cytokinesis
http://169.204.146.130/pauly/Life%20Science%20Web/Projects/Mitosis%20Resources%20for%20project.htm
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Prokaryotic Cell Division
• Prokaryotic cells reproduce by a method called binary fission.
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookmito.html
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Mitosis and Cytokinesis9.2
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Mitosis/Cytokinesis
• Mitosis: the process of nuclear division.
• Cytokinesis: the process of cytoplasm division.
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Mitosis
• The cell’s replicated genetic material separates and the cell prepares to split into two cells.
• Enables the cell’s genetic information to pass into the new cells, resulting in two daughter cells that are genetically identical.
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Mitosis
• Increases the number of cells as a young organism grows to its adult size.
• Replaces damaged cells.
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The Stages of Mitosis
http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k4ch8mitosisnotes.html
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Mitosis: Prophase
• The cell’s chromatin condenses into chromosomes (shaped like an X).
• Each half of the X is called a sister chromatid. These contain identical copies of DNA.
• Sister chromatids are attached in the center by the centromere.
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Mitosis: Prophase• The nucleolus and nuclear envelope will
disappear.
• The spindle apparatus forms. It is important in moving and organizing the chromosomes.
• Spindle apparatus: spindle fibers, centrioles, and aster fibers.
• Spindle fibers attach to the sister chromatids and attach to the centrioles at opposite ends of the cell.
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Mitosis: Prophase
http://www.riaxin.com/celldiv.htm
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Mitosis: Metaphase
• The sister chromatids are pulled along the spindle apparatus toward the center of the cell.
• The sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell (equator).
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Mitosis: Metaphase
http://www.riaxin.com/celldiv.htm
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Mitosis: Anaphase
• The chromatids are pulled apart because the microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten.
• Shortening pulls at the centromere of the sister chromatids causing them to separate into identical chromosomes.
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Mitosis: Anaphase
http://www.riaxin.com/celldiv.htm
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Mitosis: Telophase
• Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell.
• Nuclear membrane begins to form around chromosomes at each pole and the nucleoli begin to reform.
• The spindle apparatus disassembles.
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Mitosis: Telophase
http://www.riaxin.com/celldiv.htm
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Cytokinesis• Divides the cytoplasm resulting in
two cells with identical nuclei.
• Animal Cells: cleavage furrow forms from cell membrane, pinches the cell into 2 equal parts.
• Plant Cells: cell plate forms between the divided nuclei, gradually develops into a separate membrane.
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Cytokinesis
http://www.riaxin.com/celldiv.htm
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Mitosis/Cytokinesis
• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__mitosis_and_cytokinesis.html
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Cell Cycle Regulation9.3
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Cell Cycle Control• The timing and rate of cell division
are important to the health of an organism.
• The cell cycle is driven by a chemical control system that both triggers and coordinates key events.
• This control system is regulated at certain checkpoints.
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Cell Cycle Control
• Signals from inside the cell (internal signals) and from outside the cell (external signals) are involved in turning the process of cell division off and on.
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Cell Cycle Control
• An internal signal involves the cell sensing the presence of enzymes produced inside the cell.
• An external signal involves the cell sensing the presence of chemicals which were produced in other specialized cells (growth factor).
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Cell Cycle Control
• Cells can also respond to physical signals from their environment.
• If the cells are too closely packed, cell division will be turned off.
• If the cell senses it is not in contact with a surface, cell division will be turned on.
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Normal Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle in eukaryotes is driven by proteins called cyclins that bind with enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK’s).
• Different combinations of cyclin/CDK control different activities at different stages in the cell cycle.
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Normal Cell Cycle
• G1 stage of interphase: combination of cyclin with CDK signals the start of the cell cycle.
• CDK and cyclin combinations also signal DNA replication, protein synthesis, and nuclear division throughout the cel cycle.
• These same combinations also signal the end of the cell cycle.
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21238/
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Control Checkpoints
• Stop and go signals regulate the cycle.
• Ex) Checkpoint near end of G1 stage monitors for DNA damage and can stop the cycle from entering the S stage.
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Control Checkpoints
• Other checkpoints include those during the S stage and after DNA replication in the G2 stage.
• During mitosis, if a spindle fiber failure is detected the cycle can be stopped before cytokinesis.
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26824/
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Abnormal Cell Cycle• When cells do not respond to the
normal cell cycle control mechanisms, cancer can result.
• Cancer: uncontrolled growth and division of cells.
• If left unchecked, cancer can kill an organism by crowding out normal cells, resulting in tissue failure.
• Cancer cells will divide as long as they are supplied with essential nutrients.
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Abnormal Cell Cycle
• Malignant Tumor: a mass of cancerous cells that invades and impairs the functions of one or more organs.
• Benign Tumor: a mass of abnormal cells that remains at the original site.
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Abnormal Cell Cycle
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Abnormal Cell Cycle
• http://www.cancerquest.org/cancer-biology-animations.html