ceramics and ceramic composites materialographic preparation

CERAMICS AND CERAMIC COMPOSITES: MATERIALOGRAPHIC PREPARATION

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Ceramics and Ceramic Composites:

Materialographic Preparation

Gerhard Elssner,

Helmut Hoven, Gonde Kiessler, and Peter Wellner

Translated by

Randall Wert

ELSEVIER

AMSTERDAM - LAUSANNE - NEW YORK - OXFORD - SHANNON - SINGAPORE - TOKYO 1999

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First edition 1999

Library of Congress Cataloging in PubUcation Data

A catalog record from the Library of Congress has been apphed for.

ISBN: 0 444 10030 X

Transferred to digital printing 2005 Printed and bound by Antony R o w e Ltd, Eastbourne

Table of Contents

Abbreviations ix

1 Introduction 1

2 Fundamentals of preparing polished sections 2

2.1 Selection and sampling 2

2.2 Sectioning 2

2.3 Mounting and impregnation 8

2.3.1 Hot (compression) mounting 9

2.3.2 Cold mounting 9

2.3.3 Recovery of embedded samples 12

2.3.4 Impregnation 12

2.4 Grinding, lapping, and polishing 17

2.4.1 Preparation equipment 23

2.4.2 Grinding 25

2.4.3 Materialographic lapping 27

2.4.4 Polishing 28

3 Revealing the microstructure 33

3.1 Microstructural imaging in the optical microscope (OM) 33

3.1.1 Imaging methods of optical microscopy 33

3.1.2 Electronic image processing and contrast enhancement 34

3.2 Tips on contrast enhancement and etching 39

3.2.1 ReUef poHshing 39

3.2.2 Contrast enhancement with interference layers 39

3.2.3 Chemical dip etching 40

3.2.4 Thermal etching 43

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2.5 Plasma etching 43

3.2.6 Ion etching 45

3.2.7 Electrolytic etching 46

3.3 Microstructural imaging in the scanning electron microscope 48

3.4 Ultrasonic scanning microscopy 54

4 Material-specific preparation of polished sections 59

4.1 Properties of ceramic materials 61

4.2 Pores in ceramic materials 67

4.3 Examples of preparing ceramic materials 74

a-Al203 (corundum) in single-crystal form 74

Aluminum oxide ceramic: 99.5% a-Al203 74

Aluminum oxide ceramic: 99.7% a-Al203 76

Aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with Si02 and MgO additives 78

Aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with glass phase 79

Aluminum nitride AIN, sintered 80

Boron carbide B4C, high density 81

Boron nitride BN, sintered 83

Calcium carbonate CaC03, white marble 84

Cerium oxide Ce02 85

Chromite 86

Refractory ceramics 87

Glass 88

Graphite 89

Coal 90

Lanthanum strontium manganese oxide 91

Silicon carbide SiC, pressureless-sintered 92

SiUcon carbide varistor ceramic 95

Silicon nitride Si3N4, hot-pressed 96

Si-SiC-C ceramic 97

TABLE OF CONTENTS VII

Zinc oxide ZnO 97

Zirconium oxide Zr02 100

Zirconium oxide with aluminum oxide inclusions 103

Zirconium oxide, partially stabilized with MgO and Si02 105

4.4 Preparation of ceramic composites 105

4.5 Examples of preparing ceramic composites 107

Active-brazed joint between graphite and

a TZM molybdenum alloy 107

Aluminum alloy reinforced with boron fibers 110

Flame-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel I l l

Glass fiber reinforced plastic 113

Solder glass/stainless steel joint 114

Ceramic/cermet composite 115

Carbon fiber reinforced carbons 116

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic 117

Spherical nuclear fuel 120

Copper coating on an aluminum nitride ceramic 122

Plasma-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel 124

Plasma-sprayed chromium oxide coating with Ni-20%Cr

interlayer on steel 125

Plasma-sprayed zirconium oxide coating on a nickel super alloy 126

SiC/C fibers in an aluminum alloy 127

Titanium carbide coating on graphite 129

Titanium nitride coating on an inconel alloy 130

WC-Co carbide metal 131

5 Preparing polished sections for examination 134

5.1 Polished sections 135

5.1.1 Oblique sections 135

5.1.2 Controlled removal 136

VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.2 Thin sections 140

5.2.1 Preparation of thin sections 140

5.2.2 Microscopic examination of thin sections 143

6 Analysis of hardness testing indentations 144

6.1 Hardness testing of ceramic materials 144

6.2 Determining fracture toughness by indentation hardness testing 151

6.3 Application of hardness testing to composite layers and

surface layers 154

6.3.1 Indentations in the layer surface 156

6.3.2 Measuring the layer hardness in the section 157

7 Literature 159

Appendix 174

Abbreviations

BF bright field

D diamond

DF dark field

Die differential interference contrast

Fe/02 reactive sputtering with iron cathode and oxygen gas

OM optical micrograph

POL polarized fight

SEM scanning electron micrograph

TEM transmission electron micrograph

Chapter 1

Introduction

Ceramics and ceramic composites are now used in almost all areas of technology. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly important to study polished sections of these materials in industrial laboratories by means of optical microscopes and scan-ning electron microscopes. In some cases, the experience required for the preparation of pohshed sections is lacking, or preparation steps typically used with metals are unsuccessfully apphed to these materials. Chapter 2 therefore presents fundamental information on preparing pohshed sections of ceramics and ceramic composites. This information encompasses the main steps of samphng, sectioning, mounting and im-pregnation, and mechanical grinding, lapping and poUshing.

In past experience, the use of diamond products has been preferred for the sec-tioning and abrasive processing of ceramics and ceramic composites. The use of automated grinding, lapping, and poUshing machines makes it possible to obtain a uniformly high degree of section quaUty with reproducible results. In cases of low-volume sample throughput, manual preparation of polished sections can also produce quite useful results.

Chapter 3 discusses microstructural imaging in the optical microscope (OM) and the use of the scanning electron microscope (SEM). After a section of a ceramic or a ceramic composite has undergone final poUshing, it must be subjected to etching or contrast enhancement in order to reveal its microstructure. This practice is similar to the study of metal specimens. Chapter 4 presents material-specific preparation procedures for pol-ished sections. These procedures take into account the properties of the ceramic or composite being examined and the purpose of the examination. These procedures have proven to be very suitable for the respective materials and are effective for reveaUng the pores. The examples presented here for ceramics and ceramic composites provide pol-ished sections of good to exceUent quaUty for routine examination under the optical microscope. They include tips for etching and contrast enhancement, as weU as micro-structural images. Chapter 5 discusses the preparation of polished sections for purposes of examination and contains information on producing obUque sections and controlled removal of material. It also addresses the production of thin sections.

As a complement to the examination of the microstructure, chapter 6 provides insight into the evaluation of hardness testing indentations. Chapter 7 concludes this work with an overview of the technical Uterature.

Chapter 2

Fundamentals of preparing polished sections

2.1 Selection and sampling

After a region of a structural member or test material has been selected for exami-nation, the samples are taken. Here it is important to consider microstructural dif-ferences between the longitudinal and transverse directions, as well as special conditions arising from the manufacture of ceramic workpieces. Sintered products may exhibit microstructural differences between the core and surface regions, for example. Examples of microstructural inhomogeneities may include the "firing skin" found on ceramics or the variations in porosity between different regions of a structural member, as caused by uneven compression.

The selection of the specimen size is critically important in preparing poUshed sections. Relatively small specimens with a section surface area of 100 mm^ are preferable. These are considerably easier and quicker to prepare than very small or very large specimens.

2.2 Sectioning

The sectioning of ceramic materials is generally performed with the help of power-driven diamond cut-off wheels. Water, emulsions, aqueous solutions or low-viscosity mineral oils may be used as coolants and lubricants. Alcohol or mineral oils are used with water-sensitive materials, such as P-AI2O3, calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, sintered magnesite, or cement cUnker. It is not advisable to obtain samples by dry sectioning or by chopping them off. Compared to dry sectioning, the use of cutting fluid in wet sectioning not only reduces the sectioning time, but also considerably improves surface quality and extends the service life of the wheels.

Wet sectioning usually involves the use of machines and diamond cut-off wheels operating by the plunge cutting method. The abrasive layer is found along the cir-cumference of the disk (see Fig. 1). The feed motion proceeds in a radial direction. A sufficient quantity of cutting fluid must be supplied to the proper location during

2.2 SECTIONING

p>(z%/^specimen

t feed

Figure 1. Plunge-cutting method for sectioning ceramic specimens.

sectioning, because this fluid helps to eject from the kerf that material which has been removed from the cut surface and the cut-off" wheel. This fluid also provides the necessary lubrication and cooHng of the wheel and sample material.

Conventional sectioning machines operate either in the low-speed range at rota-tional speeds up to 1000 rpm or in the high-speed range at 1000-7600 rpm.

Low-speed sectioning machines are available as table models. These allow sec-tioning of samples up to approximately 30 mm in diameter. When suitable wheels and cutting fluids are used, it takes about 5-10 min to section a round specimen of an AI2O3 ceramic with a diameter of 10 mm. Low-speed sectioning is especially well suited for small structural members - even those with comphcated shapes, for which special clamping devices are suppUed by equipment manufacturers. It should also be noted that the use of thin cut-off* wheels in low-speed sectioning greatly reduces the cutting loss, and that the quaUty of the sample surface is relatively high after sectioning.

High-speed sectioning machines of robust design are preferred for sectioning large pieces of material. The sectioning time is shorter than in low-speed sectioning. However, the wider kerf of the cut-off* wheels results in a greater loss of material. There is also a greater risk that grains will break loose from the cut surface of the ceramic, creating flaws known as "pull-outs". The removal of these flaws requires a longer grinding time in the subsequent stages of preparing the polished section.

The diamond cut-off" wheel consists of a supporting disk of steel or bronze. On its circumference is the abrasive layer, consisting of diamond particles and the binder. Cut-off* wheels can be described by characteristics such as the type of bond, diamond concentration, and diamond grain size (see Appendix A). Wheels with continuous or segmented rims are available. Wheels with continuous rims are used for preparing poUshed sections. They produce smooth cut surfaces with a minimum of material damage. Wheels with segmented rims are most commonly used for sectioning large pieces of material.

The diamond grain size and type of bond must be matched to one another so that blunted grains are pulled out during sectioning, while new, sharp-edged grains of the

4 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PREPARING POLISHED SECTIONS

abrasive layer are exposed. The term "binder hardness" indicates the degree to which the bond resists the detachment of diamond grains. Cut-off wheels with a soft bond will ordinarily wear more quickly than wheels with a hard bond. The following rule of thumb is useful in practical appHcation:

A harder bond is preferred for softer materials, while wheels with a softer bond are used with harder materials.

Manufacturers offer diamond cut-off wheels with metal bonding (bronze or nickel) and resin bonding. Cut-off wheels with resin bonds have proven effective for hard ceramics, e.g., hot-pressed sihcon nitride. Aside from their relatively high rate of wear, they are sensitive to tilting of the sample during sectioning. Cut-off wheels with metal bonding are predominantly used with oxide ceramics.

Diamond grain sizes are estabhshed by a standard issued by the (FEPA) Fede-ration Europeenne des Fabricants des Produits Abrasifs (see Appendix A). The grain size and grain size distribution of the diamond particles affect the cutting performance and service life of the wheel. As a rule, a finer diamond grain size will also produce better surface quahty in sectioning.

In addition to the specifications pertaining to the abrasive layer, the diameter and thickness of the wheels are also critically important to the sectioning operation. The rotational speed, which affects cutting performance, is determined by the wheel diam-eter and the arbor speed of the machine. For purposes of reUabiUty and directional stabiUty, one third of the cut-off wheel diameter should be enclosed by the flange. The width of the kerf and the cutting loss are determined by the thickness of the cut-off wheel.

Wheels with a thickness of approximately 0.8-2 mm are used to ensure the stabiUty of machines operating at high speeds. Thinner wheels with a thickness of about 0.2-0.6 mm can be used for low-speed machines. An ordinary dressing stone can be used to help restore the cutting effectiveness of used, metal-bonded wheels. Lubricants are used in sectioning to protect against corrosion and to improve cutting quaUty.

When sectioning ceramic coatings, it is extremely important to ensure that both the rotation and feed motion of the wheel proceed from the coating into the base material. When the wheel enters a stationary, round specimen which has not been embedded - for example, a plasma-sprayed WC-Co coating on a steel substrate - the coating can be severely damaged (Fig. 2(c)). When the wheel exits the sample, the coating can be damaged even more severely (Fig. 2(b)). Good results are exhibited by the specimen region indicated in Fig. 2(a), while satisfactory results are exhibited by the region indicated in Fig. 2(d). Sensitive samples should be embedded before sec-tioning, in order to prevent pull-outs in the surface region of the workpiece. Fig. 3(a) shows another non-embedded sample of a plasma-sprayed WC-Co coating on a steel substrate, in which pull-outs are visible after sectioning. These flaws are eliminated by embedding the sample prior to sectioning (Fig. 3(a)).

When selecting the sectioning blades, it is important to consider the specifications pertaining to the abrasive layer and the dimensions of the cut-off wheel. The type of

2.3 SECTIONING

Figure 2. Sectioning of a fixed, non-embedded round specimen. The positions of the cut sur-faces are labeled (a)-(d). The scanning electron micrographs indicate the sectioning quahty of the round steel specimen, which is plasma-sprayed with tungsten carbide-cobalt.


Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs of the cut surfaces of a plasma-sprayed WC-Co coating on steel, (a) Sample not embedded prior to sectioning, (b) Sample embedded prior to sectioning.

ceramic material being sectioned exerts a strong influence on the surface quality of the sectioned specimen, as well as the cutting performance and service Hfe of the wheel. It is advisable to conduct preUminary tests in which the quality of the cut surface is studied, in order to establish the optimum conditions for the sectioning operation.

Fig. 4(a) and (b) shows optical micrographs of the cut surfaces of a sintered SiC ceramic, as produced with diamond blades on low-speed and high-speed machines, respectively. Fig. 5 contains scanning electron micrographs of surfaces of ceramics consisting of silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide. These surfaces were produced by sectioning with low-speed and high-speed machines, respectively. Low-speed sectioning at 200 rpm with a wheel of thickness 0.35 mm generally produces a better surface quality than high-speed sectioning at 3400 rpm with a diamond wheel of thickness 1.5 mm. Although both types of cut surfaces display a large number of pull-outs, low-speed sectioning produces less subsurface damage. This is evidenced by the larger unbroken regions of material with a relatively level surface.

Figure 4. Optical micrographs of the cut surfaces of a sintered SiC ceramic, (a) Using a low-speed machine (200 rpm) and a diamond wheel of thickness 0.35 mm. (b) Using a high-speed machine (3400 rpm) and a diamond wheel of thickness 1.5 nmi.

2.3 SECTIONING

SiC

Si3N4

A1203

low-speed (200 rpm) high-speed (3400 rpm)

Figure 5. Scanning electron micrographs of ceramic surfaces consisting of SiC, Si3N4, and AI2O3, produced by sectioning with a diamond wheel. Comparison of results obtained with low-speed and high-speed sectioning machines.

It is absolutely essential to heed the following rule:

After sectioning, the sample must be cleaned in an ultrasonic bath and then dried with a hot-air blower or in a drying cabinet.


In porous ceramics, cutting fluid and swarf penetrate the pores and pull-outs and are practically impossible to remove without cleaning and drying. Specimens intended for examination by scanning electronic microscope must be subjected to especially intense cleaning.

2.3 Mounting and impregnation

Mounting in plastic - also known as embedding or encapsulation - has proven to be an advantageous method of preparing a ceramic sample for grinding and poUshing, because of the easier manipulation and improved edge retention it makes possible. Specimens are rarely left unmounted or merely glued to a metal plate or clamped into a specimen holder for further processing. Fig. 6 shows a Tribaloy coating on a steel substrate, in which cracks have formed after the specimen was clamped into a steel holder.

Both hot-setting and cold-setting plastics can be used for mounting. These plastics consist of small molecules - so-called "monomers" - which combine to form tangled or cross-Unked macromolecules as they cure. One important distinguishing charac-teristic is their respective plastic behavior. There are thermoplastics (which become plastic when heated), thermosets (which harden when initially subjected to heat and pressure), and elastomers.

Thermoplastics are plastics which exhibit plastic flow when subjected to heat and pressure or the action of a catalyst (hardener) and then harden upon cooling. These consist of individual molecule chains. The state changes from sohd to plastic and back to solid can be repeated, i.e., they are reversible. Thermoplastics can be shaped without cutting. Examples of thermoplastics include polymethyl methacrylate and PVC. Thermosets undergo changes in molecular structure when subjected to heat and pressure or the action of catalysts. This results in spatially cross-linked molecule

IOOM^I

Figure 6. Cracking after a Tribaloy coating on a steel substrate has been clamped into a steel holder.

2,3 MOUNTING AND IMPREGNATION 9

chains. In other words, the molecules enter into new chemical bonds, that is, they polymerize. This state is irreversible. Thermosets can only be shaped by machining. Examples of thermosets include polyester resins, phenolic resins, Bakelite, diallyl phthalate, and epoxy resins. The molecules contained in elastomers - e.g., rubber -are only partially cross-linked. The degree of cross-linking determines the hardness and elasticity of an elastomer.

The selection of a suitable mounting compound is determined by the properties of the plastic, such as viscosity, shrinkage, adhesion to the sample, abrasion resistance, chemical resistance, and thermal resistance, as exhibited in the processes used to prepare the section and render the microstructure more visible. Another determining property is hardness, which serves as an indicator of possible edge rounding. For the most part, the requirements for a mounting medium are fulfilled by the plastics available on the market.

Electrically conductive mounting media containing iron, copper, or graphite are used for the examination of specimens in scanning electron microscopes.

Mounting processes are ordinarily categorized as hot mounting (also known as compression mounting) or cold mounting. In hot mounting, curing is accomplished by means of pressure and temperature. In cold mounting, a hardener serves as a catalyst. Even the cold mounting process can involve heating up to approximately 100°C.

Tables 1 and 2 provide an overview of the properties and possible apphcations of hot and cold mounting media.

2.3.1 Hot (compression) mounting

Thermosets with or without fillers are suitable for hot mounting in a mounting press. Thermoplastics are also suitable for this purpose. Thermoplastics do not need to be heated under pressure, but they do need to be subjected to pressure while cooling. Thermosets, which are heated under pressure, can be removed from the press im-mediately after polymerization has occurred. For a mold diameter of 25 mm, the mounting time lies within the approximate range of 12-15 min. Thermoplastics are not as hard as thermosets. Unlike thermosets, thermoplastics are transparent.

The temperatures required for hot mounting (15O-190°C) do not alter the mi-crostructure of ceramics. However, cracks in the specimen can result from the molding pressure and the rapid temperature drop in cooUng. In such cases, it is best to resort to cold mounting. Fig. 7 shows a chromium oxide coating on steel, in which cracks developed after hot mounting in epoxy resin at a load of 20-30 kN and a diameter of 25 mm, or a pressure of 0.4-0.6 kbar.

2.3.2 Cold mounting

The basic substances used in cold mounting media include epoxy resins and polyester resins (thermosets), as well as acrylates (thermoplastics) that cure exothermically


Table 1. Hot mounting media

Plastic

Thennosets Phenolic resins (Bakelite)

Epoxy resins*

Diallyl phthalate*

Thermo-plastics Acrylates (transpar-ent)

Hard-ness (HV)

46

71

60

20

Rate of abrasion*' ( m/min)

560

130

440

520

Adhesion

Slight to good; dependent on pressure

Very good

Very good, no shrinkage

Moderate, dependent on pressure

Resistant to

Dilute acids and lyes, organic solvents, oils, benzene, alcohol Dilute acids and lyes, organic solvents, oils, benzene, alcohol Dilute acids and lyes, organic solvents, oils benzene, alcohol Aqueous solutions and lyes. greases, and alcohol up to 30%

Not resistant to

Strong acids and lyes

Concen-trated acids and lyes, ketones, esters, acetone

Concen-trated acids and lyes, organic solvents, hydrochlo-rocarbons Concentrated acids, solvents. hydrochlo-rocarbons. gasoUne, benzene, nitro[?], and plasticizers

Thermal resistance

120-150°C flame-resistant

13a-180°C flame-resistant continues to bum

120-160°C briefly up to 200°C

Max 65-95°C bums in a sizzling manner. without residue

* Plastic with hardening filler. ^ Determination of rate of abrasion: diameter of mounting medium 25 mm, new SiC abrasive paper of grain P600; pressure 35 kbar, rotational speed of wheel 150 rpm, specimen holder counterrotating at 66 rpm. These data were obtained from: Werkstoff*-Fuhrer Kunststoffe, Carl Hanser Verlag and B. Bousfield, Surface Preparation and Microscopy of Materials, Wiley, 1992.

when mixed with hardeners and catalysts. The ratio of curing time to heat of reaction is constant, i.e., the curing time is short at a high heat of reaction. The heat of reaction is influenced by the mixing ratio of the substances, the method of stirring, the quantity of mounting compound, and the external temperature (as affected by the drying cabinet, hot-air blower, or water cooling system). High reaction temperatures pro-

2.3 MOUNTING AND IMPREGNATION II

Table 2. Cold mounting media

Plastic Hardness (HV)

Epoxy 25 resins

Polyester 24 resins

Acrylates 23

Rate of Abrasion^ ( im/min)

870

1100

1040

Adhesion

Very good, no shrinkage, suitable for impregnat-ion

Moderate

Shght

Resistant to

Dilute acids and lyes, hydrochlo-rocarbons, oils, benzene, toluene

Dilute acids and lyes. oils. benzene, alcohol

Aqueous acids and lyes. alcohol up to 30%

Not resistant to

Concentrated acids and lyes. ketones, esters. acetone, boiling water Concentrated acids and lyes, hydrochlo-rocarbons, organic solvents, benzene, boiling water Concentrated acids. alcohol. hydrochlo-rocarbons, nitro thinner[?]

Thermal resistance

80°C

80-160°C depen-dent on structure of polyester

max 65-95°C

^Determination of rate of abrasion: diameter of mounting medium 25 mm, new SiC abrasive paper of grain P600, pressure 35 kbar, rotational speed of wheel 150 rpm, specimen holder counterrotating at 66 rpm.

These data were obtained from: Werkstoff-Ftihrer Kunststoffe, Carl Hanser Verlag and B. Bousfield, Surface Preparation and Microscopy of Materials, Wiley, 1992.

mote shrinkage, cracking, and brittleness. Cold mounting media can be used to prepare poUshed ceramic sections without problems.

The addition of fillers - e.g., in the form of spongelike AI2O3 particles - increases the hardness and abrasion resistance of epoxy resins and acrylic resins and reduces both shrinkage and edge rounding in the ceramic specimen. However, detachment of filler material can lead to troublesome scratches on the section surface. Skin contact should be avoided during cold mounting by the use of protective gloves and safety glasses, and by working under a fume hood. This appUes especially to work involving epoxy resins.


100 Mm

Figure 7. Development of cracks in a chromium oxide coating on steel after hot mounting in epoxy resin, BF.

2.3.3 Recovery of embedded samples

If the specimen is going be examined in a scanning electron microscope, or even etched thermally or in molten salts, the mounting medium must first be removed. It is generally possible to do this by sawing or breaking along the surfaces of the embedded specimen. Any residual resin clinging to the specimen can be decomposed in a laboratory furnace at about 500-600°C in an atmosphere of air or in boiling A , A -dimethylformamide (at approximately 150°C). Heat can be used to extract specimens from thermoplastic mounting media. Please note:

Toxic gases are released when residual resin is burned out or decomposed. It is absolutely essential that such work be performed under a fume hood.

The resin must be carefully and completely removed before the impregnated specimen is subjected to thermal etching, because the infiltrate will expand as it decomposes under these temperatures, possibly causing the specimen to break apart.

2.3.4 Impregnation

When imaging the microstructure of a ceramic or ceramic composite material, it is desirable to obtain the most accurate possible image of the open and closed porosity in the material, because the overall porosity and the size and distribution of the pores provide indications of the probable material properties. (The term "open porosity" indicates that there are open channels between pores.) During grinding and polishing of a specimen, however, exposed pores represent possible starting points for surface damage caused by pull-outs. These exposed pores can also become clogged with swarf. This creates a risk that the finished poHshed section will not accurately rep-

2,3 MOUNTING AND IMPREGNATION 13

resent the porosity of the ceramic material under investigation. Fig. 8 shows these effects in the preparation of impregnated and non-impregnated poUshed sections of a refractory ceramic.

In order to make the poUshed section considerably easier to prepare, and to ensure a credible representation of its porosity, the sectioned sample should be impregnated with a synthetic resin of low viscosity. This should ordinarily occur after sectioning, but in the case of very brittle and highly porous samples, it should be performed even before sectioning. Epoxy resins with a low viscosity of approximately 250 cP are especially well suited for use as impregnating media. Aided by capillary forces, these

Non-impregnated specimen showing pull-puts and pores

Schematic representation Microstmctural image

Impregnated with epoxy resin

Schematic representation Microstmctural image. Epoxy resin is gray.

Figure 8. Effect of impregnation in the preparation of polished sections. Left: schematic rep-resentation. Right: microstructure of a refractory ceramic (OM, BF).


resins will completely fill the open pores to a depth that is sufficient for purposes of sample preparation. Closed pores, i.e., pores which are mostly closed-off from one another, are only impregnated by the resin in the surface region of the specimen. In these cases, it is advisable to impregnate the specimen once again after planar grinding has been performed. The presence of the filler in the pores greatly reduces the risk that material will break out of the pore edges. It also protects the pores from clogging with swarf and prevents contamination of the specimen by polish residues or cleaning fluids in the pores.

For purposes of impregnation with epoxy resin, porous ceramic materials can divided into three groups:

• Specimens with porosity between 0 and approximately 5% do not require im-pregnation.

• Specimens with porosity between approximately 5% and 15% can be prepared more effectively by impregnating them with epoxy resin. It is often impossible to thoroughly impregnate the specimen, however, due to the presence of closed pores, the lack of pore channels, or the narrowness of these channels. In such cases, it may be helpful to perform a second impregnation close to the surface after embedding and planar grinding have been performed. To this end, the specimens being prepared by a semiautomatic process are left in the specimen holder, cleaned thoroughly, and dried. They are subsequently placed in a vacuum desiccator, which is then evacuated. A few drops of epoxy resin are appHed to the specimen surfaces. This is followed by a repeated cycle of ae-ration and evacuation.

• Specimens with porosity greater than 15% can usually be impregnated quite effectively. However, there are a few highly porous materials with such fine pore channels that impregnation is impossible.

Vacuum impregnation represents a simple and effective method for impregnating a sample with epoxy resin. The apparatus used for this process consists of a vacuum vessel, a backing pump (also known as a "fore pump" or "rough vacuum pump") or a water jet pump, and a dehydration vessel supphed with a drying agent. The samples are placed in embedding molds or other small containers and then transferred to the vacuum vessel. Together with the resin, which is placed in a separate container, the samples are evacuated to a pressure of approximately 1000-1500 Pa (10-15 mbar). The vacuum is maintained as impregnation is performed by pouring the resin over the surface of the sample. It is important for the samples to be dry before they are impregnated. It may be necessary to dry them in a drying cabinet for approximately 30-60 min (depending on their size) at approximately 110°C. It is important to ensure that the epoxy resin is free of bubbles after being mixed. During the impregnation process itself it is also important to ensure that the negative pressure does not become excessive. Excessive negative pressure could allow the development of gas bubbles, which would disrupt the impregnation process and impair its effectiveness. It is therefore advisable to evacuate the samples for a few minutes before impregnation.

2.3 MOUNTING AND IMPREGNATION 15

The resin is then poured in, and the vacuum is maintained for about 10-30 min. The vacuum chamber is then aerated; in this operation, the atmospheric pressure forces the liquid resin into any open pores that remain. The thoroughness of the impreg-nation is strongly affected by the sample thickness, the pore size, and the number of channels connecting the pores. The samples are subsequently removed from the vacuum chamber and the resin cures upon exposure to air. Each type of epoxy resin used for infiltration and mounting will cure at its own rate. This curing time (or "pot life") may vary between 1 and 12 h. It can be shortened by heating the sample to a temperature of 30-60°C. It is important to note that while the increase in temperature will shorten the curing time, it will also promote the decomposition of the hardener and thus the formation of gas within the impregnating medium.

The equipment shown in Fig. 9 is an example of a suitable vacuum impregnation apparatus. A motor-driven turntable inside the vacuum vessel allows multiple sam-ples to be impregnated simultaneously. A simple pouring mechanism makes it pos-sible to pour the premixed epoxy resin components (cresin and hardener) over the samples or into the embedding molds.

Fig. 10 is an image of a porous, fine-grained graphite specimen which has been impregnated with epoxy resin. The cavities that have been filled with resin appear as dark gray areas.

Some of the epoxy resins on the market are mixed, or can be mixed, with special dyes that cause the mounting materials to glow as the specimen is examined in an optical microscope under a bright field or polarized Ught. The same effect can be achieved by means of fluorescent substances and a filter set intended for fluorescence applications. The illumination of these components has the advantage of making impregnated features of the microstructure (e.g., pores and cracks) immediately visible. It also causes them to stand out clearly from other microstructural features

Figure 9. Vacuum impregnation apparatus.


Figure 10. Porous, fine-grained graphite specimen impregnated with epoxy resin, OM, BF.

Figure 11. Ceramic specimen embedded in fluorescent epoxy resin. The regions of the poUshed section that are filled with the fluorescent mounting medium appear to glow brightly.

2.4 GRINDING, LAPPING, AND POLISHING 17

and any undesirable pull-outs or cracks introduced in the preparation process (see Fig. 11.)

2.4 Grinding, lapping, and polishing

Material is damaged in the processing of ceramic surfaces, just as in the prepara-tion of metal samples. In contrast to metals, ceramic materials are particularly likely to exhibit pull-outs, fragmentation of grains, and cracking. This comparison is shown in Fig. 12. Deformation twins and dislocations can also develop during grinding. These features are usually arranged along scratches caused by grinding and poHshing.

Fig. 13 is a transmission electron micrograph of the microstructure of a scratch on the surface of an AI2O3 ceramic that was poUshed with diamond (grain size: 6 |im). This shows the formation of dislocation arrays, in which parallel dislocation hues run roughly perpendicular to the direction of the scratch.

In preparing polished sections, damages that distort the image of the micro-structure should be eliminated as thoroughly as possible while maintaining a plane section surface. This is accomplished by reducing these damages in a stepwise manner in the individual processing steps. This can be monitored by means of an optical microscope. Fig. 4 shows the grooves that result from sectioning a sample of a sintered SiC ceramic. As shown in Fig. 14(a), these grooves are removed by semi-automatic grinding with a diamond disk of grain size 20 jim. Fig. 14(b) shows the appearance of the surface after subsequent grinding with a 10 ^m diamond film, and Fig. 14(c) shows the results of pohshing with a 6 jim diamond suspension on a synthetic fiber cloth. Fig. 14(d) and 14(e) shows the satisfactory quahty of the spec-imen after polishing with diamond of grain size 3 ^m on a synthetic fiber cloth, and then with diamond of grain size 1 jiun on a nylon cloth, respectively.

roughened — surface

induced detects

disturbed layer — with — internal stresses

tnie _ microstaicture

METAL plastic deformation abrasive

preparation materials parameter

CERAMIC cracldng pull-outs porosity

Figure 12. Schematic representation of surface damage in the preparation of sohd section.


Figure 13. Transmission electron micrograph of a surface scratch resulting from the polishing of an aluminum oxide ceramic with diamond paste (grain size: 6 jim).

Fig. 15 shows scanning electron micrographs of the surface quality of a semiauto-matically prepared section of an AI2O3 ceramic (99.7% AI2O3 by weight) after sec-tioning, grinding, and polishing. Fig. 15(a) shows the surface created by sectioning with a diamond wheel of grain size 64 )im on a high-speed sectioning machine. This surface is fragmented by pull-outs. The surface structure remains essentially unchanged after subsequent semiautomatic planar grinding (Fig. 15(b)). This was followed by grinding with a disk of grain size 20 |xm, which smoothed the coarser surface hard synthetic fiber cloth, using an alcohol-based lubricant, large portions of the surface are already smoothed (Fig. 15(d)). The depth of the pull-outs has been reduced considerably. After polishing on a hard synthetic fiber cloth with a diamond grain size of 3 jim, the pores are still deceptively enlarged by pull-outs (Fig. 15(e)) regions, giving them a scaly appearance (Fig. 15(c)). At this point, however, these smoothed regions still alternate with areas affected by pull-outs. After poUshing with diamond of grain size 6 |im on a hard synthetic fiber cloth, using an alcohol-based or water-based lubricant, large portions of the surface are already smoothed (Fig. 15(d)). The depth of the pull-outs has been reduced considerably. After poHshing on a hard synthetic fiber cloth with a diamond grain size of 3 im, the pores are still deceptively enlarged by pull-outs (Fig. 15(e)). The true pore structure is not exposed until final polishing has been performed with a diamond of grain size 1 im on a cotton cloth (Fig. 15(f)). Fine scratches have also been eliminated at this point. The small, dark areas on the scanning electron micrograph are caused by subsurface pores. Fig. 15(g) shows the structure after etching the poUshed section in boiUng phosphoric acid. This exposes additional pores.

Before taking up the description of the individual preparation steps farther below, some information on material removal, abrasives, and preparation parameters may be helpful to the reader's understanding of the processes occurring here.

The various modes of utihzing the abrasive and the underlying material serve as the basis for distinguishing between grinding, lapping, materialographic lapping, and poUshing (Fig. 16).


Figure 14. Optical micrographs of a sintered SiC ceramic after grinding with a diamond disk of grain size 20 pm (a), grinding with a resin-bonded diamond fihn of grain size 10 mi (b), polishing with diamond of grain size 6 ml on a synthetic fiber cloth (c), polishing with diamond of grain size 3 jim (d), and poUshing with diamond of grain size 1 mi on a nylon cloth (e).

• Grinding involves working with a firmly bonded abrasive for the purpose of removing material rapidly and flattening the sample surface. The force Ri acting on the sample lies at an angle a to the horizontal force F. Although the grinding process reduces the damage caused by sectioning the sample, it also introduces damage to the surface regions. This is especially true of planar grinding. The sample displays a uniform pattern of scratches after grinding.

• Lapping involves working with tumbling particles on a lapping disk. It removes less material than grinding. The force R2 acts upon the sample at a greater angle e, which is suitable for brittle materials. The sample surface plainly exhibits a dull appearance.


Figure 15. Scanning electron micrographs of an AI2O3 ceramic: (a) after sectioning, (b) and (c) after grinding with diamond disks of grain sizes 64 and 20 ^m, respectively, (d)-(0 after poUshing with diamond of grain sizes 6, 3, and 1 ^m, respectively, (g) after etching with boiUng phosphoric acid.

• Composite disk are used for materialographic lapping. This operation repre-sents a combination of grinding and lapping. The variety of component materials in the composite disk yields the following possible modes of material removal:

Abrasive particles tumble across hard regions of the disk surface, as in normal lapping. Abrasive particles become embedded in softer regions of the disk surface, as in grinding disks.

Abrasive particles are stopped at the interfaces between different surface layers of the disk and function as they would in a grinding operation.

Abrasive particles are held firmly on the disk surface as a result of the con-trolled porosity of the surface layer.

One mode of material removal may predominate, or there may be a combination of all of the above-mentioned possibiUties, as is often the case in actual practice. This is determined by the structure of the composite disk and the types of surface layers present.

• In a poHshing operation, the poUshing grains move up and down within the short-napped or long-napped surface layer of the cloth. Polishing is performed

ccmposite tapping disk

Materialographic Lapfiing Polishing

Figure 16. Schematic representation of grinding, lapping, materialographic lapping, and pol-ishing (from B. Bousfield).


with various polishes on different cloths. The surface of a ceramic sample will have a dull finish with Uttle or no scratching. PoUshes with fine grain sizes remove only a small amount of material. The effect of a poUsh is also influenced by its concentration and the lubricants being used.

Aside from diamond, cubic boron nitride B4N (CBN), boron carbide B4C, siUcon carbide SiC, aluminum oxide AI2O3, and alimiinum oxide/zirconium oxide mixtures are used as abrasives for ceramics and composite materials.

• Diamond is the abrasive used most often, due to its great hardness and re-moval performance. Both monocrystaUine (single-crystal) and polycrystalUne diamonds are used. The polycrystalUne form provides the best removal per-formance, due to its great number of cutting edges. Both resin-bonded diamond films and resin-bonded and metal-bonded diamond grinding disks contain bonded grains. Loose grains are contained in diamond suspensions and sprays based on water, oil, and alcohol, as well as diamond pastes. More detailed information on grain size, diamond concentration, grain shape, and the use of natural or synthetic diamonds can be found in manufacturers' specifications. The grain size distribution should be as narrow as possible, because the max-imum scratch depth is determined by the coarsest diamond particles present.

• Boron nitride is used in metal-bonded boron nitride grinding disks. It is also used in the form of loose grains.

• Boron carbide is used in slurries of loose grains.

• Silica (silicon dioxide) in the form of a colloidal, basic suspension is an abrasive that is used effectively for final poUshing in a broad range of applications.

• SiUcon carbide is used in a bonded form in SiC wet abrasive papers. It is also used in a loose form. SiC grains exhibit hard, weU-formed cutting edges, but they are relatively brittle and thus break easily. Fig. 17 is a scanning electron micrograph of the surfaces of an SiC wet abrasive paper (grain size P1200).

• Aluminum oxide is used as a slurry and as a suspension. Aluminum oxide grains are not as hard as siUcon carbide, but they do not break as easily, either. Some AI2O3 wet abrasive papers still contain a certain amount of zirconium oxide.

Water is used as the abrasive medium (lubricant) for aU bonded abrasives in grinding disks and films. In addition to water, fluids and carriers containing oil and alcohol are used most commonly for all loose abrasives in pastes and suspensions.

The greatest amount of material removal is achieved with bonded diamond grinding disks. Progressively lower rates of removal are associated with polycrystal-Une diamond suspensions, monocrystaUine diamond suspensions, diamond sprays, diamond pastes, SiC papers, and AI2O3 slurries (in that order). However, as the rate of material removal increases, so does the amount of damage caused to the sample surface. In the case of relatively soft or porous ceramics, it can be practical to use an

2A GRINDING, LAPPING, AND POLISHING 23

Figure 17. Scanning electron micrograph of a silicon carbide wet abrasive paper (grain size P1200).

oil-based abrasive medium, rather than one based on alcohol or water. This makes it possible to reduce the damage to the material.

Diamond suspensions are especially well suited to the automatic preparation of polished sections. It is easy to meter these suspensions and to distribute the diamond particles uniformly across the platen. As a rule, the use of these suspensions also eliminates the need for any additional abrasive mediimi. These properties of diamond suspensions make it possible to plan and automate the preparation stages of mate-rialographic lapping and polishing with relatively httle trouble and a high degree of reproducibiUty.

2.4.1 Preparation equipment

Table 3 provides an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of manual and automatic devices for sample preparation. The automatic preparation devices make it possible to vary the rotational speed of the disk, the sample pressure, the preparation time, and the rotational speed and direction of rotation of the sample holder. As the rotational speed of the disk increases up to approximately 250 rpm and the pressure on the sample is held constant, the removal rate also increases. As the speed continues to increase beyond this point, however, the removal rate remains essentially constant. The grinding speed will assume values between 1 and 18 m/s, as determined by the disk diameter, the rotational speed, the position of the sample, and the motion of the sample induced by the sample holder. While grinding, the samples should go sUghtly beyond the edge. Incorrect positioning of the sample holder and excessive rotational speeds can lead to uneven removal of material from the sample. This is called the "half-moon effect".


Table 3. Equipment for mechanical grinding, lapping, and polishing

Equipment Advantages Disadvantages

©Manual preparation. Flat plate, manual grinding equipment

©Manually on rotating platen, belt, or rotating wheel

® Automated, with samples inserted individually

©Automated, with samples clamped firmly in place

©Fully automated, with samples clamped firmly in place and automatic changing of samples and abrasive supply

Economical, universally appHcable, portable; for large and small samples. Individual preparation. Quick preparation of standard materials Individual preparation. Removal is quicker than in 1. Sample is flatter Individual loading. Preparation time is controlled. For individual preparation steps

Samples are very flat. High edge definition. Faster cleaning and faster changing of specimen holder than in 3. Reproducible preparation Best reproducibility. Optimum results. High-volume sample throughput

Long preparation times for hard materials. Great risk of edge rounding. No lapping

Equipment is more expensive than in 1. Greater risk of sample deformation Equipment is more expensive than in 2. Samples are not sufficiently flat. Edge definition is less than optimum Longer set-up time. Must start with planar grinding step. High removal rate, thus a risk of losing sample

Expensive equipment. Large space requirement. Not as suitable for individual samples

On some devices, it is possible for the sample holder to rotate in either the same direction as the disk or in the opposite direction. These modes are referred to as complementary rotation and counterrotation, respectively. Counterrotation yields a higher removal rate, which can be especially advantageous in planar grinding. With complementary rotation, a medium disk rotational speed (150-200 rpm) will allow the surface to be processed gently and uniformly. For this reason, the use of comple-mentary rotation predominates.

As the contact pressure (load divided by total surface area) increases, the removal rate also increases. But the roughness (peak-to-valley height) and depth of damage increase by a similar proportion. For example, in the case of six clamped samples, each with a diameter of 25 mm, under a total load of 200 N, the contact pressure measures 0.07 N/nmi^. In the technical literature, however it is customary to specify only the rotational speed of the disk in rpm and the load in N instead of the removal rate and contact pressure. When testing recommendations for the prepa-ration of polished sections, the rotational speed and load must be converted accordingly.

2A GRINDING, LAPPING, AND POLISHING 25

Conventional semiautomatic equipment can function with either central pressure or single sample pressure. In the case of central pressure, the loaded sample holder is pressed against the disk by centralized pressure apphed by means of a pressure cyl-inder. On equipment that employs single sample pressure, the pressure can be appUed to each individual sample by means of a corresponding pushrod. The advantage of single sample pressure consists in the fact that it allows for either a single sample to be processed, or for the sample holder to be loaded with the desired number of samples. Another advantage is that all samples acquire an optimum degree of flat-ness. This is not possible in the central pressure method, and unsatisfactory prepa-ration results are sometimes obtained. Another advantage of the single sample pressure method is that it allows the sample to be removed from the sample holder as often as desired. This offers great benefits when preparation is directed at a limited objective - specifically, preparation in one particular plane. Furthermore, individual samples that have been reinserted can be supplied to other preparation processes. When working with central pressure, it is especially important to ensure that the samples are securely clamped in the sample holder and lie in a common plane. They may not be removed during the individual preparation steps. This means that they are inserted into the holder after sectioning and mounting, and that the entire set of samples must be processed completely from planar grinding through the end of the preparation process.

Semiautomatic rotating wheel grinding machines with specimen holders are equipped with grinding disks with a diameter of 200-300 mm. They are designed for disk rotational speeds between 50 and 1200 rpm. They allow either a choice between one or two fixed speeds or continuously variable speed settings. Loads between 0 and approximately 300 N can be appUed to the specimen holder by means of a hydraulic system or a compression spring. The specimen holder, which is driven by an addi-tional motor, rotates during the grinding operation. This rotation occurs at a rela-tively low speed, either in the same direction as the grinding disk, or opposite to it. Semiautomatic rotating wheel grinding machines allow multiple samples to be pro-cessed simultaneously. They are also used for the subsequent pohshing of the sections. In comparison to manual grinding methods, these devices offer improved surface quaUty, greater edge definition, and an improvement in the flatness of the polished sections. They also ensure greater reproducibility of the preparation results.

2.4.2 Grinding

Mechanical grinding is performed either with automated equipment or by hand. Manual grinding is generally performed on a rotating wheel. When manual grinding is performed with diamond particles, a three-step process is advisable. The process parameters will be determined by the surface quality of the samples after sectioning. The samples are generally subjected to planar grinding at a wheel rotational speed of 120 rpm and with a coarse diamond grain size within a range of 70-120 jxm. They are then subjected to coarse and fine grinding with smaller grain sizes. Semiautomatic grinding often requires only two processing steps. Planar grinding can be performed


under a load^ of 120-150 N and at rotational speeds of 120-300 rpm. In fine grinding, the load is decreased to a range of 60-90 N, in order to reduce pull-outs and improve the surface quality of the samples.

Planar grinding is intended to create a flat sample surface after sectioning. It is a very important preparation step and must be performed carefully. Depending on the surface quality of the samples after sectioning, planar grinding of hard ceramics and composites containing hard ceramics may be performed with diamond grinding disks. Softer and less dense ceramics may be planar-ground with composite lapping disks and diamond suspensions, or with silicon carbide paper. Planar grinding is complete when the samples have been flattened to a common plane. The time required for planar grinding is determined by the degree of surface damage caused by sectioning, and by the sample material's resistance to removal. Of course, this also applies to the subsequent grinding, lapping, and polishing steps. In planar grinding, it is also im-portant to ensure that the selected grain size of the abrasive is not too coarse in relation to the grain size of the cut-off* wheel.

Disks with an abrasive layer of resin-bonded or metal-bonded diamond grains are used to process ceramic surfaces because of their excellent cutting quaUty, their low rates of wear, and the abihty of diamond to hold its edge. Disks with a synthetic resin bond are suitable for hard materials, such as siUcon nitride ceramics and sialon ceramics. Metal-bonded grinding disks are used for oxide ceramics and siHcate ce-ramics. The type of bond on the disk helps determine the surface quaUty of the polished section.

Two or three grinding steps are used after planar grounding. These steps are carefully planned to form an overall grinding process. Chapter 4 describes standard methods for grinding ceramics and composite materials with semiautomatic equip-ment and by hand.

Abrasive layers with diamond grain sizes D15-D90 and with nonstandard grains up to medium grain sizes of 10 m are used. As the size of the grains used in grinding decreases, the roughness and depth of damage of the sample surfaces are reduced. Large proportions of excessively coarse abrasive grains create scratches that will be diflScult to eliminate in subsequent preparation steps. On the other hand, if abrasive grains of insuflScient size are present in excessive proportions, the rate of removal will be reduced. Optimum results are therefore achieved by maintaining a narrow grain size distribution for the diamond abrasive. For grinding disks, the preferred diamond concentration is C50, which corresponds to a diamond proportion of 12.5% of the total volume of the abrasive layer. The right-hand side of Fig. 18 shows a metal-bonded diamond grinding disk.

When grinding is performed on a rotating wheel instead of diamond disks, it is possible to use pastes, suspensions, or sprays with diamond grain sizes of 9-45 |Am. Hard synthetic cloths, which are sometimes perforated, are used as the un-

^ All loads specified in N apply to a set of six clamped samples of diameter 25 mm.

2,4 GRINDING, LAPPING, AND POLISHING 11

Figure 18. Disks for preparing polished sections. Four composite lapping disks (top and bottom), two diamond grinding disks (center and right), and one pohshing platen (left).

derlying material. Grain sizes of 45-25 |im are suitable for a two-step grinding process.

Although diamond is the abrasive that is used most frequently for ceramics, other abrasives are also used. The basic rule is that their hardness must be greater than the hardness of the material being processed. It is generally best to process aluminum oxide ceramics with diamond abrasives. SUicon carbide wet abrasive papers can be used for graphite, zinc oxide, and silicate ceramics.

SiC wet abrasive papers are especially well suited to the grinding of highly porous samples and samples that tend toward pull-outs. Non-impregnated samples with a porosity greater than 8% can be ground with SiC abrasive papers of grain sizes P320, P500, and PIOOO, provided that the SiC abrasive is harder than the samples. Due to the weak bonding of the abrasive grains, wet abrasive papers work quite gently, because they wear down within a few minutes and thus continuously change to the next finer grain size.

Running water is generally used as a medium when grinding on diamond disks or silicon carbide papers. The water serves to carry away the swarf and cool the sample. Oils, kerosene, and glycerol-alcohol mixtures are used as media for grinding water-sensitive ceramics. If loose diamond particles are used in place of diamond grinding disks or siUcon carbide papers, then oil-soluble pastes or the conventional diamond suspensions based on water, alcohol, or oil are used in connection with suitable lubricants.

2.4.3 Materialographic lapping

Like grinding with bonded grains, lapping is intended to eUminate surface irregu-larities and damages in the ceramic sample. It can be used for the preparation steps


that follow planar grinding, replacing fine grinding and coarse polishing. In practical appUcation, lapping disks with diamond abrasives of grain size 6-30 ^m are generally used. After planar grinding has been completed, a single lapping step and subsequent poUshing are often sufficient to produce samples of high quality. Lapping is especially effective in maintaining the flatness and edge definition of samples consisting of composite materials with hard and soft components.

Lapping disks can be classified as: hard disks, in which the abrasive grain does not become embedded; soft disks, in which loose grains become embedded and held fast; and composite disks. Composite disks may consist of plastic and metal, or of metal, ceramic, and plastic on metal supporting disks. Diamond sprays or suspen-sions may be used as lapping abrasives with composite disks. Composite disks prove to be very effective in quick, economical preparation routines for ceramics and ceramic composites. The sections created with composite disks display excellent edge definition. Examples include smooth disks with a layer of gray cast iron powder in plastic, into which softer, circular regions of copper powder and plastic are incor-porated. Some disks feature a grooved plastic coating containing finely distributed metal particles of varying hardness. Many composite disks feature a segmented, concentrically shaped surface, or a surface with a spiral groove. These features help prevent the samples from "seizing" and allow the swarf to be carried away more effectively. Hard lapping disks can only be operated at low speeds. At high speeds, the grains enveloped in the lapping medium would be removed from the disk by the powerful radial forces. Four different composite lapping disks are shown at the top and bottom of Fig. 18.

In the lapping process, samples move in constantly alternating directions on a flat disk (lapping disk) while abrasive grains are suppUed to the process. The samples are separated from the disk by a film that contains the loose lapping grains, the lapping fluid, and the swarf. Conventional suspensions with various diamond grain sizes are preferred as lapping abrasives. Lapping fluids include water, low-viscosity mineral oils, paraffin oils, alcohol, kerosene, and aqueous solutions with additives. These fluids improve lubrication and cooling while preventing the agglomeration of the lapping grains and swarf. The thickness of the lubricant film plays an important role in this process, as shown in Fig. 19.

A glass plate provided with a uniform layer of silicon carbide grains is well suited to the lapping of titanium boride and zirconium boride. These samples can then be pohshed effectively in 20 min or less with diamond paste or a diamond suspension.

2.4.4 Polishing

After grinding or materialographic lapping, the preparation process for ceramic materials continues with mechanical polishing. Electropolishing is only possible with electrically conductive ceramics, and ion poUshing is uneconomical because of its low removal rates.


lapping grain

The lapping grains remove the material surface, breaking down in the process and thus adapting as the surface becomes progressively finer.

thin lubricant film high removal rate

thick lubricant film low removal rate

excessively thick lubricant film, grains slip without

removing material

The viiBJOoslty of the lubricant film determines the film thickness and thus the aggressiveness of the grains.

Figure 19. Lapping and viscosity of the lubricant film.

Mechanical polishing involves the use of loose grains. The transition between grinding and poUshing cannot be clearly defined in terms of the surface quaUty achieved. Surface processing with abrasive grain sizes less than 10 im is generally described as poUshing. Polishing can be performed either by an automated or manual method.

Diamond is now used almost exclusively in polishing. The poHshing of sample sections with diamonds requires more time than grinding, regardless of whether manual or automated methods are used. Standard times for automatic polishing are always shorter than the standard times for manual poHshing. Diamond polishes are available in the form of pastes, sprays, and suspensions in grain sizes of 0.25, 1, 3, 6, and 9 jim. The grain size and grain size distribution affect the surface quality of the sample.

When working with diamond suspensions, the rotating polishing platen is con-tinuously supplied with lubricant by means of a drip dispenser, and the suspension is replaced at predetermined time intervals.

When using diamond paste, a "string" of paste approximately 6 cm in length may be evenly distributed on a polishing cloth with a diameter of 300 mm, for example. Polishing is then performed as lubricant is supplied through the drip dispenser. This removes the swarf and enhances the poUshing effect of the diamond grains. The supply of Uquid rinses the swarf from the poUshing platen in an outward direction. Carrier media based on alcohol, glycerol, or oil must be used very sparingly. An excessive amount of such media causes a "hydroplaning" effect in which the diamond grains no longer abrade the sample. The amount of lubricant can be tested by rubbing a finger over the polishing cloth. If this leaves a sUghtly glossy film on the finger, the amount of lubricant is correct.


A sequence of diamond polishing stages - for example, with grain sizes of 6, 3, and 1 im, respectively - is often followed by a polishing operation using colloidal silica (silicon dioxide) or aluminum oxide in an aqueous solution. The size of the Si02 or AI2O3 particles would be 0.05 im in this case. This extra poUshing step removes any very fine scratches that remain and produces a slight degree of surface relief. It also faciUtates phase identification and prepares the sample for chemical etching.

The diamond or other polishing abrasive is applied to a cloth, which in turn is either slipped over, or glued onto, a metal or plastic platen. Metal platens are pre-ferred for their hardness and thermal conductivity. The left side of Fig. 18 shows an example of this. Synthetic cloths intended for coarse polishing can be either hard or soft and are sometimes perforated. Hard cloths yield very Uttle to pressure. They remove material at a high rate and create a flat section surface. Hard cloths are suitable for all ceramics. Perforated, hard cloths may be used for pohshing steps requiring grain sizes of 9 im and then 3 im, for example, while non-perforated and short-napped synthetic cloths are predominantly used for polishing at 3 |im or even finer grain sizes. These cloths remove material less aggressively, i.e., more slowly. In this case, greater contact pressure must be applied in order to maintain a flat poUshed surface.

Fine polishing involves the use of natural and synthetic silk cloths, as well as napped synthetic cloths. Satisfactory results have been obtained by using napped synthetic cloths with long fibers for final polishing. A diamond grain size of 1 im, or even 0.25 yun under special conditions, is used for this purpose. Natural silk cloths slipped over aluminum platens are suitable for final polishing of AI2O3, Zr02, and other oxide ceramics. Extended fine polishing on a soft cloth can lead to the devel-opment of surface relief. Final polishing with colloidal silica or aluminum oxide is performed with chemically resistant cloths.

A napless nylon cloth is shown in Fig. 20. It is also capable of preventing the development of rehef. Fig. 21 shows the scanning electron micrograph of a hard, woven silk cloth with 50 threads per centimeter. This cloth is well suited to the polishing of extremely brittle materials. Fig. 22 shows a short-napped synthetic fiber cloth that can be used to produce surfaces with a low degree of rehef and edge rounding. Table 4 hsts a sequence of poUshing cloths from hard to soft. Information on selecting appropriate polishing cloths can be obtained from any suppUer of con-sumables or equipment to the ceramographic and metallographic industries. The same applies to the selection of lubricants and carrier media and the special consid-erations pertaining to them.

The platen speeds used in polishing usually he within a range of 120-300 rpm. Typical poUshing rates for ceramics Ue between 1 and 5 m/s. PoUshing pressures of 0.02-0.07 N/nrni^ have proven effective in diamond poUshing. A high initial poUshing pressure is generally used to eUminate puU-outs that result from the grinding of hard ceramics (see Figs. 14 and 15). For softer or more porous materials, or when using finer diamond grain sizes, this pressure is reduced by two thirds. High pressure can


Table 4. Polishing cloths

Hard, perforated synthetic fiber cloth Hard synthetic fiber cloth Hard, woven synthetic fiber cloth, nylon cloth (Fig. 20) Woven silk cloth (Fig. 21) Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth (Fig. 22) Long-napped fiber cloth

hard

soft

Figure 20. Scanning electron micrograph of a hard, woven nylon cloth.

Figure 21. Scanning electron micrograph of a hard, woven silk cloth.


Figure 22. Scanning electron micrograph of a short-napped synthetic fiber cloth.

shorten preparation times, but it can also impair the quality obtained in polishing the section. As a rule, the poUshing time spent on a particular processing step must be sufficient to eliminate all surface damage caused in the preceding preparation step. For routine examinations requiring a polished section of average quality, a two-step poUshing process using diamond grain sizes of 6 and 3 |im is often suflBcient.

Annotation

In Figure captions:

BF DF Die OM POL SEM

bright field dark field differential interference contrast optical microscope polarized hght scanning electron microscope

Chapter 3

Revealing the microstructure

3.1 Microstructural imaging in the optical microscope (OM)

Polished and etched sections of composite materials and ceramics are examined by conventional methods of optical microscopic imaging at magnifications up to ap-proximately 1000:1. These methods are described in Section 3.1.1 and illustrated by microstructural images. Methods of electronic image processing are addressed in Section 3.1.2. Section 3.2 contains tips on contrast enhancement and etching of the poHshed section.

3.1.1 Imaging methods of optical microscopy

• The bright field (BF) method is used most often in optical microscopy. In this method, details of the sample appear either hght or dark, as determined by their respective positions in relation to the incident hght ray, and by their optical properties. In order for adjacent regions of the sample to be distinguished from one another, the difference between their reflectivity values must be at least 10%.

•

•

•

In dark field (DF) imaging, only those object regions that he at an obhque angle to the incident Ught ray are reflected. Diff'used hght rays are captured in the objective. This method makes it possible to detect fine cracks and scratches and distinguish pores from inclusions.

The polarization contrast method (POL) is suitable for surfaces with structures that alter the polarization state of the Ught when it is reflected. When the analyzer and polarizer are crossed, optically anisotropic phases can be distin-guished from optically isotropic phases. By eUminating troublesome lens re-flections - which impair the clarity of the image - it is possible to increase the image contrast, even when examining poUshed sections of low reflectivity.

In the differential interference contrast (DIC) method, the polarized Ught ray is spUt into two coherent component rays. Interference between these component rays is produced after they pass through the system separately. The DIC method makes it possible to distinguish even fine increments by representing

33

34 CHAPTER 3 REVEALING THE MICROSTRUCTURE

them as relief. It creates textured images of slight surface irregularities caused by the structure and/or the preparation process. This method is also used in evaluating the quality of the section, because it makes any remaining scratches clearly visible.

Fig. 23 shows the effect of using different imaging methods of optical microscopy to create microstructural images, using a mounting medium with included aluminum oxide particles as an example. The sample surface is shown in sharp focus in the bright field image in Fig. 23(a). The porous AI2O3 particles have a bright appearance, while surface holes caused by pull-outs (detached particles) are dark in appearance. Because the mounting medium is transparent, regions below the sample surface can be shown in the bright field. The ceramic particles are blurred, while the edges of the deeper, darker holes are sharply defined (Fig. 23(b)).

When bright field imaging (Fig. 23(c)) is used, coating a specimen with a thin gold film suppresses reflections and scattered light that originate in subsurface regions and also enhances the contrast when imaging AI2O3 particles. In dark field imaging (Fig. 23(d)) of the gold-coated poUshed section, the AI2O3 particles have a flattened appearance and stand out sharply, exhibiting light edges. Holes in the dark plastic background can be easily recognized by their rehef-Uke structure. In the polarization contrast method (Fig. 23(e)), the image of the specimen is still somewhat transparent, despite the presence of the thin gold coating. Even relatively deep subsurface regions are visible. AI2O3 particles which have been cut in the section plane have a bright appearance, and holes appear as transparent bubbles. In the differential interference contrast method (Fig. 23(0), the roughened AI2O3 particles stand out clearly. The mounting compound displays rehef and the pores are dark.

Because of the high transmittance exhibited by the phases of ceramic materials, the Ught that is present during microscope examination also penetrates samples of these materials. This light is then scattered and reflected below the surface by pores, in-clusions, grain boundaries, and phase boundaries. The image quality of a ceramic microstructure can also be improved by applying a highly reflective gold coating with a thickness of approximately 5 nm. With gold coatings of this thickness, even phases of a ceramic material that have different degrees of reflectivity can be distinguished from one another through the gold coating.

Fig. 24 shows an example of how a prepared section can be examined by the DIC method for purposes of quality control. The quality obtained by the preparation of the aluminum oxide specimen shown here is unsatisfactory, as indicated clearly by the grinding scratches and pull-outs at the pores.

3.1.2 Electronic image processing and contrast enhancement

Electronic image processing is a method for purposefully altering a microscopic im-age. Modem electronic microstructural analyzers and contrast enhancement systems

3.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL IMAGING IN THE OM 35

Figure 23. Imaging methods from optical microscopy, using as an example a mounting me-dium with spherical, porous AI2O3 particles to adjust hardness, (a) BF, focused on section plane, (b) BF, focused beneath the section plane, (c) BF, specimen coated with thin gold fihn. (d) DF, specunen coated with thin gold fihn. (e) POL, specimen coated with thin gold film, (f) Die, specimen coated with thin gold film.

are capable of electronicaUy enhancing or otherwise modifying the contrast of images for which physical, chemical, and optical contrast enhancement methods have not produced adequate results.

The normal contrast range of an image can be altered to intensify interesting components or structures while partially or completely suppressing insignificant in-formation contained in the image. Microstructural components that display low


Figure 24. Image of scratches and pull-outs in an AI2O3 ceramic using the DIC method.

contrast because of their similar gray values can be converted by electronically as-signing them to values that he farther apart. For example, Ught gray can be converted to white, and medium gray can be converted to black.

It is also possible to represent the gray values by colors. This color assignment method offers even better recognition and identification of the structural details.

Electronic contrast enhancement systems can process the image of a normal black-and-white or color TV camera or a digital camera that has been adapted for use with the microscope.

The preferred steps in manipulating the image include:

• Enhancement of contours, grain boundaries, and phases of polished sections of low contrast.

• Anisotropic enhancements, e.g., the representation of fibers, band structures, and preferred orientations.

• Pseudo-3D-effect lending the image the appearance of three dimensions, com-parable to the differential interference contrast method.

• Image storage. Changes in microstructure (transformations, growth) resulting from heat treatment can be directly detected by switching from the stored image to the live image and comparing them. The creation of difference images also makes it possible to show surfaces that are not plane.

• Image editing eliminates disturbing objects and flaws from the image.

• Pseudocolor. Incremental gray values can be distinguished and displayed more clearly by electronically assigning colors to them.

3.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL IMAGING IN THE OM 37

The application of electronic image processing and contrast enhancement is docu-mented in the two examples that follow. Fig. 25 shows the electronic creation of a difference image from two imaging planes of an uneven titanium carbide surface, followed by detection of grain boundaries for the purpose of grain size analysis. Fig. 26 shows the effect of electronic phase contrast enhancement in the example of a porous AI2O3 sample with approximately 3% glass phase. When examined before or after etching, the normal ceramographic section gives no clear indication of the amount, position, or distribution of the glass phase. After mild gas ion etching, it is possible to electronically enhance the contrast of the glass phase and eUminate the pores by means of the 3D-effect, gray value assignments, and color assignments.

imaging plane 1 imaging plane 2

difference image detected grain boundaries

Figure 25. Difference image and detection of grain boundaries on an uneven titanium carbide surface. Instrument: IBAS, manufacturer: Kontron.

3D effect assignment of gray values

assignment of colors (matrix: blue) and elimination of pores

Figure 26. Electronic image processing for enhancing the contrast of the glass phase in a poUshed section of aluminum oxide. Instrument: Multicon, Leica.

5.2 TIPS ON CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT AND ETCHING 39

3.2 Tips on contrast enhancement and etching

Contrast enhancement with interference layers and rehef poUshing are used to reveal the microstructure in some routine examinations in which efficiency is desired. Pol-ished sections of ceramic materials are generally etched by either chemical or thermal methods for the purpose of evaluating the microstructure. Grain boundary etching is usually used, but grain face etching and color-specific etching methods are also used to a lesser extent. Twin boundaries and phase boundaries are also rendered visible by grain boundary etching. Chemical etching recipes exist for many ceramic materials. Thermal etching can only be used for ceramics with little or no silicate content. In both chemical and thermal methods of etching, there is a risk that the section surface will not be attacked evenly. It is therefore advisable to etch in small increments until the most suitable etching conditions are determined.

3.2.1 Relief polishing

For ceramic materials that are not extremely hard (e.g., stabilized zirconium oxide or multiphase materials), surface relief can be created within a few minutes by means of final poUshing with colloidal silica on a chemically resistant, short-napped fiber cloth. Because removal is dependent on the grain orientation and the type of phase, it is possible to distinguish between grains of a single phase and between diiferent phases during microscopic examination. AppUcation of the DIC method makes it possible to use even poorly defined rehef to display microstructure under the optical microscope. A brief final poUshing step with very fine alumina (0.05 im) wiU help reveal the spinel phase in aluminum oxide materials, for example.

3.2.2 Contrast enhancement with interference layers

Interference layer microscopy is used to increase the contrast between two or more phases of a material that have been cut in the section plane. This involves the ap-plication of thin interference layers to the poUshed specimen surface. These inter-ference layers can consist of suitable dielectric substances appUed by means of vapor deposition, or metal oxides appUed by reactive sputtering. During subsequent ex-amination under the microscope, the Ught waves that strike the coated section are attenuated by multiple reflections at the substrate/coating interface and the coating/ air interface. This causes an increase in contrast between adjacent components of the microstructure. The magnitude of this increase is dependent on the respective indices of refraction and absorption coefficients of the two adjacent phases. Increase in both the brightness contrast and the color contrast can be observed. Because of the low index of refraction and the minimal Ught absorption exhibited by the components of ceramic materials, interference layer microscopy can only be used on a Umited scale in ceramography. Although the use of absorption-free coating materials with low indices of refraction (e.g., NasAlF^, PbF2, and MgF2) leads to optimum contrast conditions with ceramics, it has not yet become a well-estabUshed practice.


In ceramic-metal composites, the application of nonmetallic interference layers to polished or etched sections can also be used for purposes of brightness matching. This involves reducing the reflectivity of the phases of the metal component while in-creasing the reflectivity of the ceramic material.

Fig. 27 shows an example of this, using an image of a transverse section through the material transition zone (interface) in a composite of zirconium (top) and a siUcon nitride ceramic (bottom). The polished transverse section is covered with a thin iron oxide coating that has been created by reactive sputtering with an iron cathode in oxygen gas. If the coating were not present, the ceramic part would appear dark or even black. Here it appears in a Hght gray tone. Moving from top to bottom, the regions shown here in polarized hght include: the thin intermediate reaction layer, consisting of siUcides and nitrides; the individual grains of the hexagonal a-Zr phase; and the a-P-Zr basket-weave microstructure in various bright and dark shades. Fig. 28 shows the pohshed section of an ore specimen after it has been coated with lead fluoride PbF2. The coating thickness has been adjusted to correspond to first-order blue. The phases hematite (H), magnetite (M), calcium ferrite (C) exhibit the maximum amount of contrast when shown in the monochromatic hght produced by a green filter.

3.2J Chemical dip etching

Material-specific etching recipes exist for a variety of ceramics based on oxides, nit-rides, and carbides. Highly concentrated acids or molten salts are often used as etchants, although basic etchants are also used in some cases. Hydrofluoric acid etching is usually performed on aluminum oxide materials containing Si02. Etching

r -

^^ ^ 5 ,

mMiTt

Figure 27. Material interface between zirconium (top) and silicon nitride. The sample was coated with Fe/02 by reactive sputtering, POL.


Figure 28. Polished section of ore, with contrast enhanced by lead fluoride coating. H: hematite, M: magnetite, C: calcium ferrite.

BF.

conditions for several materials are presented in Table 5. Detailed information on etching recipes and instructions on etching can be found in the book Metallographic, ceramographic, plastographic etching by G. Petzow as well as in individual publi-cations from the technical literature (see Chapter 7).

Tables 6-9 present a variety of etchants and corresponding etching conditions for aluminum oxide materials with AI2O3 contents between 94% and 99.8% by weight, as well as Zr02 ceramics, silicon carbide materials, and siUcon nitride materials.

Hydrofluoric acid etching is reconmiended only when there is a substantial glass phase content.

Table 5. Conditions for chemical dip etching of several oxide ceramics and nitride ceramics

Material Etchant Etching conditions

Barium titanate

BeO ceramics

CaO and MgO ceramics Silicate ceramics ZnO ceramics

AIN and TiN-ceramics ZrN ceramics

1 part cone. HF + 3 parts cone. HCl, 75 ml H2O, 15 ml HCl, 10 ml HF 90 ml lactic acid, 15 ml HNO3, 5mlHF Concentrated hydrochloric acid

2 bis 5% ige FluBsaure 5% glacial acetic acid Murakami etching solution: 100 ml H2O, 10 g NaOH, 10 g K3[Fe(CN)6] 10 ml distilled water, 10 ml glacial acetic acid, 10 ml HNO3 (65%) 30 ml glycerol, 10 ml nitric acid, 10 ml hydrofluoric acid

20°C

65°C

20°C 3 s-6 min

7 min-2 h 4 min 10 min-2 h

20°C 20°C 20°C

100°C

1-20 min 30 s-5 min 10 s-10 min

10 s-2 min or 50 min fur AIN 10 s-3 min


Table 6. Chemical etching recipes for aluminum oxide materials with AI2O3 contents between 94% and 99.8% by weight

Etchant Etching conditions

10% hydrofluoric acid Concentrated sulfuric acid Concentrated phosphoric acid Molten K2S2O4 Molten KHSO4 Molten V2O5 Molten borax

Table 7. Chemical etching recipes for zirconium oxide materials

Etchant Etching conditions

Hydrofluoric acid (40%) 2-5 min, room temperature Phosphoric acid (85%) 20-30 min, 140°C 90 ml HNO3, 18 ml HP, 90 ml H2O 20 min, room temperature 50 ml H2O2, 50 ml distilled H2O 1-5 min, boiUng

20°C 230°C 250°C 650°C 300°C 900°C 900°C

15 min 2-10 min 1-10 min 1-1.5 min 15-20 s 1 min 15-45 s

Table 8. Chemical etching

Etchant

recipes

Molten NazCOa or molten K2CO. 30 g K3[Fe(CN)6], 3 g NaOH, 60 ml distilled H2O

Table 9. Chemical etching

Etchant

Molten NaOH Hydrofluoric acid 40% Phosphoric acid 85%

recipes

for siUcon carbide materials

Etching conditions

J 10 min 5-30 min, 110°C

for sihcon nitride materials

Etching conditions

10 s-1 min, 350^00°C 10-15 min, room temperature 5-30 min, 250°C

Listed below are some general undesirable effects that may occur in chemical etching. If high quality is required, these problems can be minimized by modifying the etching conditions or choosing a different etchant.

• Etching may be uneven.

• Grain boundaries may vary in width.

• Etching pits and other undesirable structures may develop on the grain faces.

• Very small grains may fall out or be etched away.


• Coatings consisting of foreign substances may conceal the microstructure.

• All scratches may be widened.

• Pores and cavities may become enlarged.

• Results may be difficult to reproduce, especially when molten salts are used.

3.2.4 Thermal etching

Thermal etching involves anneaUng polished, unmounted specimens in a furnace. At about 100°C below the sintering temperature, grooves that are detectable by optical and scanning electron microscopy develop at the grain boundaries and phase boundaries. The development of these grooves is determined by the equihbrium conditions for the interfacial tensions between the soUd phases that are in contact with the surrounding atmosphere. This process does not make scratches any more noticeable. AppUcation of thermal etching requires knowledge of the sintering tem-perature or hot pressing temperature of the material under examination, as well as knowledge of its behavior when subjected to heat treatment. For example, the heating, anneaUng, and cooHng of a Zr02 ceramic may cause precipitation reactions that alter the microstructure of the sample. When working with an aluminum oxide ceramic with an AI2O3 content less than 96% by weight, there is a risk of causing reactions between that corundum phases and glassy phases, which may also create false impressions regarding the original microstructure. Annealing at an excessively high temperature may lead to a coarsening of the grain.

Thermal etching is performed in a furnace prepared especially for this purpose, in order to avoid undesirable residual impurities from previous anneahng operations with unknown sample materials. The sample is removed from any mounting material and thoroughly cleaned. The furnace is heated to the required temperature, and the sample is then slowly inserted into the hot region. When etching recipes are first tested, the annealing temperature is varied. Thermal etching conditions for several ceramic materials are presented in Table 10.

The example shown in Fig. 29 is an optical micrograph of a section through the joint between two aliuninum oxide materials that had been bonded together. This shows the appearance of the section after thermal etching at 1400°C for 1 h. The micrograph demonstrates that the effects of etching were uniform in both the hot-pressed, fine-grained material (99.9% AI2O3 by weight) and the coarse-grained, sin-tered material (99.7% AI2O3 by weight). The dark areas represent pores and cavities.

3.2.5 Plasma etching

Plasma etching is a quick and effective etching method for revealing the micro-structure of ceramics based on silicon nitride (Chatfield 1983; O'meara (1986); Taffner 1990). It makes possible a clear representation of grain boundaries, grain boundary

44 CHAPTER 3 REVEALING THE MICRO STRUCTURE

Table 10. Conditions for thermal etching of several ceramic materials

Material

a-Al203(>96% P-AI2O3

AI2O3)

Sr and Ba ferrites Ti02 Silicon nitride

Hot-pressed silicon carbide

yk W^

Atmosphere

Air Air

Air Air Vacuum N2 Vacuum

Time

0.5-4.5 h 1-5 min

1 h 1 h 15 min 5 h 1 h bis 3 h

|^^^^^^^y.j4^^

Temperature

1250-1500°C 1470°C (200°C below the sintering temperature) 1050-1150°C 1350°C 1250°C 1600°C 1300-1500°C

Figure 29. Joint between two bonded aliuninum oxide materials, thermally etched at 1400°C for 1 h, BF.

phases (such as Si02, AI2O3, AIN, and Y2O3), and intergranular inhomogeneities. It also makes it possible to distinguish between a and P-Si3N4 and show fine cracks and pores. Specimens etched by this method are usually fine-grained and are generally examined by means of a scanning electron microscope.

Etching is performed in plasma etching systems, which are also known as "tunnel reactors" or "cold incinerators". Fig. 30 shows the schematic structure of such a system.

A CF4-O2 gas mixture is used for the etching of the unmounted specimens. This gas mixture is introduced into the discharge chamber at a regulated rate via two flowmeters. The discharge chamber is arranged between the plates of a high-frequency discharge capacitor (13 MHz). This discharge capacitor transmits energy-rich electromagnetic oscillations, thus producing a plasma. The etching gas is excited, ionized, or spUt by


throttle valve flowmeter

j = 3 * * i - 0 ''''-inlet

I—Intake manifold — O

M M M M ( V r ^ ' " * * ' ^ chamber-V j

1 1 j I ; ; ; L discharge J I I I ; r capacitor

U i-j U L-HL.

o g Lj LJjtzn|_ feed opening

vacuum gauge

f-reaction counter - 4 ^ ^ ^ electrode ' 1 1 1

exhaust manlfbld+O

high frequency signal generator

tut)e-[-( j

-^ to the vacuum pump

Figure 30. Schematic structure of a plasma etching system.

atomic fission, and ions and radicals of ozone and fluorine are formed by recombina-tion in this process. A chemical gas-surface reaction and/or ion bombardment of the specimen surface may be caused, depending on the energy state of the plasma. Here it is most desirable for the fluorine radicals to react with the Si3N4 matrix to form gaseous SiF4, which is then drawn off" with the rest of the combustion gases.

The following conditions represent optimum settings:

Reaction gas Gas pressure High-frequency energy consumption of capacitor Reflected power Etching time

CF4-O2 in a ratio of 2:1 60 Pa 200-300 W

20-30 W 1-5 min

Fig. 31 shows the results of plasma etching. This example is a scanning electron micrograph of an Si3N4 specimen.

3.2.6 Ion etching

In ion etching, the microstructure is revealed by the purposeful removal of atoms from poUshed specimen surfaces. This is accomplished by means of sputtering with an ion beam or ion bombardment from a gas discharge. Fig. 32 shows the structure of an ion beam etching system. An apparatus of this type can even be used to etch speci-mens that are embedded in synthetic resin. The operating conditions can be described by the following data: voltage 1-7.5 kV; ion current 60-400 lA; argon or krypton as the working gas; beam angle 5-60°; and etching time 20-90 min. Thus far, there is relatively Uttle available information on the ion etching of ceramic materials (Bierlein

46 CHAPTER 3 REVEALING THE MICRO STRUCTURE

Figure 31. Scanning electron micrograph of a plasma-etched Si3N4 specimen with 12.5% Y2O3. The Y2O3 grain boundary phase is lighter in appearance.

3 -

1 ion gun 2 power supply

and operating unit 3 specimen 4 vertically adjustable

and rotating specimen holder

5 gask)ottle 6 viewing window 7 connection for

vacuum gauge 8 vacuum system

Figure 32. Schematic structure of an ion beam etching system.

et al., 1958; Politis and Ohtani et al., 1978, 1980, 1981; Schluter 1967). Good results are obtained with porcelain, silicon-bonded siUcon carbide, and zirconium oxide ceramics.

Fig. 33 shows the surface of a Zr02 ceramic which has been partially stabilized with MgO and CaO and subjected to ion beam etching. In addition to the grain boundaries and pores (dark), fine precipitates are also barely noticeable. The precipitates grow from the grain boundaries inward toward the center of the grain. They consist of monoclinic Zr02, while the matrix consists of cubic Zr02 with dissolved CaO and MgO.

3.2.7 Electrolytic etching

Electrolytic etching can only be used with electrically conductive ceramic materials. Etching guidelines have been provided for materials based on NiO, TiC, TaC, SiC,


Figure 33. Zr02 ceramic after ion beam etching. BF.

B4C, TaB2, and LaB4 (Petzow 1964, 1994). The practicability of the electrolytic etching process is specifically determined not only by the composition of the base material and its impurities, but also by the type, quantity, and distribution of other phases, including the glass phase. Electrolytic etching often produces good results with coarse-grained siUcon carbide ceramics, while very fine-grained silicon carbide ceramics are more effectively etched by chemical means, according to the modified Murakami method (Table 11).

The conditions for color etching and subsequent grain boundary etching of siUcon carbide and grain boundary etching of boron carbide are given below as examples.

Fig. 34 shows the electrolytically etched section of a porous SiC ceramic. Before the section was etched and mechanically ground and polished, the pores of the ma-terial were impregnated with epoxy resin. Electrolytic etching causes surface layers to form on the individual grains. The thickness and interference colors of these surface layers are determined by the grain orientation. The grains therefore appear in various gray tones in the black-and-white image. Twin bands are also visible. After the specimen surface has been electrolytically etched, it is brushed off with an aqueous

Table 11. Electrolytic etching of SiC and B4C

Material Etching conditions Time

SiC Color etching, dependent on grain orientation 30-40 s with 10% oxalic acid at 15 V Grain boundary etching after removal of colored surface layer with 10-20% hydrofluoric acid

B4C Grain boundary etching with 1% KOH solution 1 s-5 min at 4-10 V Grain boundary etching with 50% sulfuric acid 1 s-5 min at 4^10 V


Figure 34. Porous SiC ceramic. Surface layers result from electrolytic etching with 10% oxaUc acid, BF.

Figure 35. Porous SiC ceramic. Surface layers removed by brushing off with aqueous 10% hydrofluoric acid, BF.

10% hydrofluoric acid solution. This removes the surface layers and clearly accen-tuates the grain boundaries (Fig. 35). The result is a high degree of brightness contrast between the SiC grains and the pores filled with epoxy resin.

3.3 Microstructural imaging in the scanning electron microscope

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is used instead of an optical microscope to examine microstructural regions whenever the following features are required:

• magnification greater than can be obtained with the optical microscope;

• greater depth of focus for representing spatial structures;

• optimum contrast adjustments;

• quick adjustment of magnification;

• localization of details;

• local X-ray microanalysis.

These features have become routine in the examination of both fracture surfaces and polished sections of ceramic materials.

The essential elements of a scanning electron microscope are shown in Fig. 36:

3.3 MICROSTRUCTURAL IMAGING 49

electron gun

microscope column 6V -100 K 5-50KV

• electromagnetic r-lenses -*•

• specimen holder

• electron detectors

• electronic imaging system

Figure 36. Basic structure of scanning electron microscope (from G. Pfefferkom).

The electrons emitted by the electron gun are focused on the specimen by the Wehnelt cylinder and two to three electromagnetic lenses. As the narrowly focused electron beam strikes the specimen surface, it has a focal diameter of 2-10 nm. A sweep generator is controlled in such a way that the electron beam scans the specimen surface line-by-line and point-by-point. The electron beam also sweeps across a cathode-ray tube. These two motions of the electron beam are synchronized so that each point on the specimen surface is depicted on the screen. The image on a second screen is recorded by a camera.

When the electron beam (consisting of primary electrons) strikes a point on the specimen, the specimen emits secondary electrons (SE), backscattered electrons (BSE), and X-rays (Fig. 37).

The secondary electrons and/or backscattered electrons emitted by the specimen are registered by detectors. The signals emitted by these detectors pass through a video ampUfier and are then used - individually or in an electronically mixed form - to perform intensity modulation on the cathode-ray tube. The intensity of a given point on the screen is determined by the electron emission from the corresponding point on the specimen. High electron emission from a point on the sample produces a bright point on the screen, while low electron emission produces a dark point. Intermediate values produce fine gradations of gray tones.


primary electron beam

backscattered W secondary electrons fc W ^^^^^^

X-rays ^ \ M .>^^

Figure 37. Signals resulting from interactions between electrons and the specimen.

Incident eledronbeam

specimen surfece

Interaction - ' ^ J ^ ^ ^ S . Interaction volume of y l l ^ ^ ^ s s s r - volume of

secondary / \ l)adcscatlered electron / \ electrons emission/

region penetrated by primary electrons volume of x-ray excitation

Figure 38. Volume of specimen excited by primary electron beam. Regions of electron emis-

sion.

Secondary electrons are used to create images that depict surface topography (Fig. 38). Secondary electrons (SE) are electrons of low energy {E = 1-100 eV) from regions close to the surface, i.e., at penetration depths of 5-50 nm. Secondary electron emission is determined by the slope of the area struck by the primary electron beam. Areas that he perpendicular to the beam emit very few secondary electrons and thus appear dark. Areas lying almost parallel to the beam emit the most secondary elec-trons and have a bright appearance in the image.

This gives rise to the following types of contrast:

Topographic contrast. Areas are shown in various degrees of brightness, depending on the angle of incidence of the primary electron beam.

3,3 MICROSTRUCTURAL IMAGING 51

Shadow contrast. Areas that face the electron deflector appear more brightly than areas turned away from the detector, despite having an equal angle in relation to the primary electron beam.

Edge effects. In images produced by secondary electrons, protruding edges, points, and pore edges are especially bright, because of the high emission of secondary electrons at these locations.

Texture contrast. As a result of the edge effect, rough surfaces are brighter than smooth surfaces of the same material.

When images of poHshed sections are created by means of backscattered electrons, it becomes possible to make quaUtative distinctions between phases of different composition. Backscattered electrons come from deeper zones, extending halfway to the range of the primary electrons. These are regions in which the beam has already begun to expand. The backscattering coefficient is determined by the atomic number Z (Fig. 39). Low-Z materials appear darkly on the screen, while high-Z materials are bright. Material contrast thus makes it possible for phases with different mean atomic numbers to be distinguished from one another as a result of their different brightness levels. Grains of different orientations on highly poUshed surfaces of a single-phase polycrystalline material can also be distinguished from one another; this is known as crystal orientation contrast.

The magnification setting depends on the size of the scanned specimen surface. It is calculated from the ratio of the screen size to the size of the scanned specimen surface. The magnification ranges of conunercial scanning electron microscopes he between 10:1 and 100,000:1.

The resolution is determined not only by the smallest diameter of the electron beam, but also by the size of the emitting object region.

The most outstanding characteristic of the scanning electron microscope is its great depth of focus. It can essentially be attributed to the fact that the image is produced

secondary electrons

20 40 60 atomic number Z

BO

Figure 39. Backscattering coefficient and secondary electron emission {EQ = 30 keV) as a function of atomic number Z (from Seidel, Wittry).


without lenses, and that secondary electrons from various depths contribute to the creation of the image. Fig. 40 is a comparison of the resolution, magnification, and depth of focus for imaging with the scanning electron microscope and the optical microscope.

The range of appUcation of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) can be made even considerably larger by the use of accessories. Aside from the imaging of surface topography, the SEM can be used to evaluate the chemical composition of small regions of the microstructure. In addition to secondary and backscattered electrons, the specimen struck by the electron beam emits characteristic X-rays from a depth of approximately 1 im. The X-ray spectrum can be analyzed by either energy-dispersive (EDA) or wavelength-dispersive (WDA) methods, in order to provide information on the chemical composition of a material.

When the SEM is supplemented with an X-ray spectrometer, it becomes possible to perform the following analytical studies:

• point measurements on microprecipitates (particle diameter > 1 ^m);

• measurement of surface area;

• linear concentration profiles;

• local element distribution images of the specimen surface.

Sample preparation for purposes of examination in the SEM is very simple. In order to avoid disruptive charges, electrically nonconductive ceramic materials must be coated with a film of gold, carbon, or platinum about 20 nm thick by a sputtering process. Etched and unetched sections, fracture surfaces, glazes, firing skins, powder compacts, and prefired and finished sintered products can then be examined directly in the scanning electron microscope.

lOpm paint resoiirtion

^ \im \O0nm lOnmSnm 10 mm

§ 100 pm

0,1 pm

\

light tical 1

Npm

S

nil

EM

\ Mt>SC

20 100 1000 10000 40000

efl8Ctiv» magnification

Figure 40. Point resolution, magnification, and depth of focus in imaging with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the optical microscope (from Pfefferkom).

3.4 MICROSTRUCTURAL IMAGING 53

There are many ways in which the scanning electron microscope can be used for purposes of examination and evaluation; only a few examples are Usted below. When the mean grain size is less than 10 ^m, the optical micrograph of an etched specimen at a magnification of 500:1 can provide only a general impression of the uniformity of the microstructure (Fig. 41). However, a scanning electron micrograph at a magni-fication of 3000:1 (Fig. 42) makes it possible to easily recognize and determine grain shapes, grain size, and grain size distribution.

An example of material contrast is provided by Fig. 43, which shows a scanning electron micrograph of a portion of a weld between two aluminum oxide bodies. The weld was doped with yttrium oxide. In the polished and thermally etched section, the yttrium oxide grains have a relatively bright appearance. This is due to the fact that Y2O3 has a higher mean atomic number than the coarser AI2O3 grains on both sides of the weld, which appear considerably darker in the image.

By examining the fracture surfaces of a ceramic material with the scanning electron microscope, it is possible to obtain initial information on the microstructure without preparing a poUshed section. This can be shown by comparing the image of the fracture surface of an aluminum oxide ceramic (Fig. 44) with a scanning electron micrograph at the same magnification (Fig. 45), which was prepared from an etched section of the aluminum oxide ceramic.

Figure 41. Hot-pressed SiC ceramic, etched with Murakami's solution, BF.

Figure 42. Hot-pressed SiC ceramic, etched with Murakami's solution, SEM.


- / 0%

§^^^m^

to pm

Figure 43. Weld doped with yttrium oxide, located between two aluminum oxide bodies, SEM.

mr^^^ Figure 44. Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture surface of an aluminum oxide ceramic.

Figure 45. Scanning electron micrograph of the chemically etched section of an alumi-num oxide ceramic.

Fig. 46 provides an example of a high depth of focus combined with high reso-lution. This is an image of the very fine-grained microstructure of a siUcon nitride ceramic after etching in molten NaOH.

The scanning electron microscope can also be used to monitor the preparation of polished sections. This can be accompUshed by producing images of specimen sur-faces after various preparation stages (Fig. 15).

3.4 Ultrasonic scanning microscopy

Ultrasonic scanning microscopy is one of the newer and less familiar methods of examination. It represents a meaningful contribution to the field of ceramography and could create new possibilities for this science. It is used predominantly in the nondestructive characterization and imaging of microcracks, crack paths and pores,

3.4 ULTRASONIC SCANNING MICROSCOPY 55

Figure 46. Scanning electron micrograph of a silicon nitride ceramic after etching in molten NaOH at 550°C for 30 s.

the testing of adhesion between contacting surfaces, and the detection of density differences, doping differences, states of stress, and textures.

The ultrasonic scanning microscope operates according to the pulse-echo method to produce an image of the surface and immediate subsurface volume of a flat ground or polished specimen.

A sapphire cylinder combines the functions of a transducer and an acoustic lens. It features a thin ZnO coating on its top end and a cup-shaped indentation (formed by polishing) on its front side. It produces, transmits, and receives brief sound pulses (Fig. 47).

0.05..2GHZ

Changeover swHch

K-C matching j^ network

scanner

lens coating

receiver

ZnO piezoelectric transducer

.^sapphire

coupling medium: water

Figure 47. Functional principle of ultrasonic scanning microscope.


High-frequency electromagnetic oscillations are converted to sound waves by a piezoelectric ceramic in the form of a ZnO coating. The cup-shaped indentation and the coupling medium (water) combine to function as an acoustic lens, which focuses the sound field on the specimen. The sound pulses reflected from the specimen are received by the sapphire cylinder during the breaks between transmissions. The acoustic transducer converts these sound pulses back to electromagnetic pulses, which are then subjected to signal processing and displayed on the monitor as predefined gray values. The image is constructed Une-by-line by scanning the specimen with the transducer/acoustic lens combination. It is possible to examine specimens with a maximum area of 160 x 160 mm^ and a height of 40 nmi. Fig. 48 shows an ultrasonic microscope.

The resolution of the ultrasonic microscope is determined by the aperture and sound wavelength. The sound wavelength, in turn, is determined by the ultrasonic frequency. Using water as the coupUng medium, the maximum resolution is 0.4 |j,m at 2 GHz, 15 jjm at 100 MHz, and 500 im at 10 MHz. The penetration depth depends on the frequency, the type of material, and the surface quality of the specimen. The scattering of the sound on the specimen surface is influenced by its roughness. The penetration depth can reach several millimeters at low sound frequencies.

One example of the application of this method of examination is the analysis of defects and weak points in surface layers. In one case involving a Zr02 electrolyte layer on the anode substrate of a fuel cell, an undesirably high permeability to gas was found. This could be attributable to pores, bubbles, or cracks in the surface layer. The image shown in Fig. 49 was created at a frequency of 100 MHz. It clearly shows defects in the surface volume of the electrolyte layer. These defects can be rendered

Figure 48. View of the SAM 100 ultrasonic microscope from Kramer Scientific Instruments, Herbom, Germany.

3.4 ULTRASONIC SCANNING MICROSCOPY 57

defects

8 mm

6 mm

2 mm

Figure 49. Top view of Zr02 electrolyte layer with defects; image created by acoustic mi-croscopy.

Gate pos: 700 ns - ^ _ . - ^ 1 A Gate width: 57 ns 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Omm

Figure 50. 3D reconstruction of a region of an electrolyte layer, showing defect.

Figure 51. Ceramographic transverse section through the region examined by acoustic mi-croscopy. Damage appears as pores, bubbles, and cracks.


more clearly visible by a computer-aided 3D reconstruction. This reconstruction of the defective Zr02 surface layer is shown in Fig. 50.

The material region under examination by acoustic microscopy was also studied by preparing a ceramographic transverse section. In the resulting image (Fig. 51), the detected defects are clearly recognizable as pores, bubbles, and crack formations in the Zr02 layer.

Chapter 4

4 Material-specific preparation of polished sections

Based on experience gained in preparing polished sections of ceramic materials and composites, information on grinding and polishing certain materials can be sum-marized into procedures that yield favorable results. These procedures account for semiautomatic grinding and poHshing with a specimen clamping and loading device, as well as manual sample preparation. The standard times apply to mounted speci-mens with a surface area of approximately 1 cm^ and a mounted specimen diameter of 25-30 nmi. Larger specimens require longer preparation times.

After the individual grinding and pohshing steps, the specimens must be tho-roughly cleaned in an ultrasonic bath. This removes abrasive particles, poHsh parti-cles, and swarf residue from the surface and pores of the specimen. These materials cannot be removed from the section surface by simple cleaning methods.

The cleaned specimens should be examined by optical microscope after each preparation step, in order to monitor the quality of the section. This method makes it possible to quickly detect any defects resulting from processing and to optimize the sample preparation process with respect to time.

The preparation process for ceramics can be modified by the introduction of materialographic lapping steps. Pohshing times must be kept short in order to avoid the formation of rehef. Diamond polishing produces a lower reUef than pohshing with substances of lesser hardness.

The suitabiUty of the section for mechanical processing is affected by the chemical composition, hardness, and phase distribution of the ceramic material, as well as the porosity and the presence of cracks. For materials of moderate hardness, such as aluminum oxide materials containing SiOi and siUcate ceramics, wet grinding with silicon carbide papers can be used instead of grinding with diamond grains. In these cases, three processing steps are generally sufficient as a preparation for the subse-quent diamond pohshing step. Because silicon carbide papers wear quickly, it is extremely important to replace them in a timely manner. A reduced level of grinding pressure must be used with ceramic materials of low hardness, nonimpregnated specimens of high porosity and specimens with cracks. After grinding on a diamond

59

60 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECIHC PREPARATION

disk, it may be helpful to process the specimen with SiC wet abrasive paper with a grain size of 1000 before polishing with diamond. This may help prevent the occur-rence of pull-outs in the section.

Hygroscopic or water-soluble substances such as magnesium oxide, calcium oxide, and ot-aluminum oxide must be prepared by the use of grinding and polishing fluids in a base of glycerol and oil and then cleaned in anhydrous liquids.

Ceramic composites and metallized ceramics are also prepared by semiautomatic methods with diamond grinding disks and diamond polishes, in accordance with the standard procedure. In this case, too, it may be advantageous to use materialographic lapping instead of fine grinding and coarse poUshing, provided that the metal is not too soft. The advantages of this method consist in a lower degree of edge rounding at the material transitions and higher edge definition. Excessive contact pressure will cause deformation of the metal. When final poUshing is performed with alumina for the purpose of removing scratches from the metal, the poUshing time must be kept short to prevent the development of great height differences between the metal and the ceramic. To illustrate this point. Fig. 52 shows two interferograms of transverse sections through a composite of a hard single-crystal aluminum oxide and a soft metal (single-crystal Nb). After the transverse section has been poUshed with diamond, it is subjected to final poUshing with alumina. After a half-hour, this final polishing step produces a height difference of 1.3 |im between the ceramic and the metal. After one hour of final poUshing with alumina, the height difference is 4.6 jam.

100 Mm ^^

sapphire phase niobium boundary

after final polishing with alumina for 0.5 h

Ah = 1.3 Mm

=: 2c17

A h = ^

sapphire phase niobium boundary

after final polishing with alumina for 1 h

Ah = 4.6 Mm

Figure 52. Interferograms of poUshed sections of a sapphire/niobium composite. A/i = height difference between sapphire and niobium; z = number of bands; X = wavelength of Ught.

4.1 PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 61

4.1 Properties of ceramic materials

In addition to size, shape, and distribution and etchability of the phases, Ught re-flectivity is a criterion for distinguishing and identifying the phases in a ceramic material. The reflectivity of ceramics is considerably lower than the reflectivity of metals. As an aid to microstructural examination, Figs. 53 and 54 plot the reflectivity

rvfractive index n

Figure 53. Reflectivity R of phases of ceramic materials and minerals as a function of the index of refraction n for the range « = 1 to « = 2.2 (from G. Hiibner).

62 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECmC PREPARATION

iO Z.5

refractive index n

Figure 54. Reflectivity R of phases of ceramic materials and minerals as a function of the index of refraction n for the range « = 1 to w = 3.5 (from G. Hiibner).

R (as a percentage) of the phases of ceramic materials and refractory construction materials over the index of refraction n.

The index of refraction n was calculated from the reflectivity R, disregarding the low amount of Ught absorbed by ceramics, and using the Fresnel formula:

4.1 PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 63

The scatter range plotted on the graph occurs because the optical properties are anisotropic, reflectivity is dependent on wavelength, and the chemical composition of the phases varies.

The brightness contrast K of two phases 1 and 2 occurring next to one another in the polished section is represented by the value:

i^ = ^ ^ i ^ where y?i>/?2. R\

Assuming that a minimum contrast value of 0.2 is necessary for distinguishing be-tween two adjacent phases with certainty, then the contrast value of ^ = 0.21 between muUite 3AI2O3 • 2Si02 (i 2 = 6%) and corundum AI2O3 (i?i = 7.6%) barely allows them to be distinguished from one another. Considerably more favorable conditions are found when examining a hot-pressed ceramic consisting of aluminum oxide and silicon carbide. SiC has a reflectivity Rx of approximately 21%. With R2 = 76%, K assumes a value of 0.64. As shown in Fig. 55, AI2O3 appears black in the image produced under these conditions, while the greater reflectivity of SiC lends it a brighter appearance.

Tables 12-14 present standard values for other properties of oxides, nitrides, and carbides. In addition to the crystal system and melting point, these tables Ust density, hardness, modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, bending strength, fracture toughness, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion.

: •• f i i l f "^Bliiv ' ' x:-.-.;-: - S:<v- ^^ ' ' ' • >..**^i::^'^^K

Figure 55. Al203-SiC ceramic, BF. a-Al203 appears dark, while SiC appears bright.

Table 12. Standard values for the properties of several oxide ceramics

Material Crystal Melting Density Hardness Modul Com- Bending Fracture Thermal Thermal system point (g/cm3) (HV) of pressive strength toughness con- expansion

("c) elasticity strength (MPa) KIc ductivity ( ~ o - ~ / K ) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa . 6) ( ~ m - ' K - I )

a-A1203 Trigonal 2050 4.0 2500-2800 32M10 3500 156350 3.5-6.0 30 7.4-9.0 (rhombo- hedral)

ZTA 4.5 400 - 600 - 20 8 0

Al2O3- 5 b Zr02 Be0 Hexagonal 2520 3.0 1300 360 2400 200 4.8 300 8.7

Cubic 2800 3.5 1130 1400 13.5 2

MgO 270 2.G3.0 25-50 Q Si02 Hexagonal 17 10 2.2-2.65 1000-1250 - 2500 4.8 300 8.7 Zr02 Monoclinic 2690 5.7-6.0 1500-1900 166240 2200 350-800 6 1 1 1.5-2.5 7-1 1 PSZ - - 5.8 200 - 700 - 2.0 10

e ZrOT MgO

g TZP 4.5 400 - 600 - 20 8 Zr02- 4 y 2 0 3

Mullite Orthorhom- 18 10 3.03 - 144 - 140 - 2.0 4 4 % 3AI2o3- bic

0

2Si02 Cr203 Hexagonal 2340 5.12 - - - 140 - - 10

z C s 2

t, Table 13. Standard values for the properties of several nitride ceramics 2 Material Crystal Melting Density Hardness Modul Compressive Bending Fracture Thermal Thermal 9

system point (g/cm3) (HV) of strength strength toughness conductivity expansion c'c) elasticity (MPa) (MPa) Krc ( ~ m - ' K-') ( IO-~/K)

@Pa) (MPa . fi) f s C,

AIN Hexagonal 2300 3.25 1900 310 - 250-350 3-3.5 140-170 5.5 BN Hexagonal 3000 2.25 7000 40-90 2000-3000 250-300 - 25 3.8

G b

Si3N4 Hexagonal 1900 RBa 2.3-2.8 3000 160-200 2100 280 1.5-3 4-1 3 2.6

2 H P ~ 3.163.35 3700 320 3000 800 4.5-8 3 W O 3.4 $ TiN f.c.c. 2950 5.4 2450 260 970 - - 38 9.4 t,

b

ZrN b.c.c 2980 7.3 1990 - - - - 19 6.5

a RB = reaction-bonded. HP = hot-pressed.

Table 14. Standard values for the properties of several carbide ceramics

Material Crystal Melting Density Hardness Modul Compressive Bending Fracture Thermal Thermal system point (g/cm3) (HV) of strength strength toughness conductivity expansion

PC) elasticity (MPa) (MPa) Krc ( ~ m - ' K-') ( I O - ~ / K ) (@a) (MPa . fi) B

k B4C Rhombo- 2450 2.52 3400-3800 390-460 2800 350-500 3-4 30-70 4-5.5

hedral S ic Hexagonall 2300 3.21 280CL3600 300-450 1200-2200 125-700 3-5 30-200 3.7-5.0 A

cubic T i c f.c.c. 3140 4.93 3200 320-460 2400 300 4.8 30 7.4 %

b WC Hexagonal 2780 15.7 2400 720 - - 10-20 120 5.2 ZrC f.c.c. 3420 6.6 2600 390 - - - 19 6.7 Graphite Hexagonal 3800 2.26 - 1000/35a - 30-90 - >400/<8" -15-28.6a

E a Parallel/perpendicular to the c-planes.

4.2 PORES IN CERAMIC MATERIALS 67

4.2 Pores in ceramic materials

Pores are a typical microstructural feature of ceramic materials. Their origins can differ widely (Fig. 57). They can result from incomplete sintering processes - for example, when the firing temperature is too low or the firing time is too short. Pores can also occur when gas develops in a body which is already dense. Degassing pores are the result of incorrect processing. High-temperature stresses also lead to diffusion processes, which in turn promote the formation of creep pores.

Closed and open pores (Fig. 56) are an important feature of ceramic materials. They exert a strong influence on chemical resistance, strength, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, and thermal shock characteristics. In characterizing a ceramic, it is important to determine not only its total porosity, but also the pore types, pore shapes, pore sizes, and pore size distribution that are present.

Accurate porosity data can be obtained by means of quantitative image analysis and microscopy, including electronic methods. However, this requires optimum conditions in the preparation of the pohshed section, in order to prevent or at least minimize common artifacts, such as:

• pull-outs interacting with pores;

• flattened or rounded edges of pores or free-standing grains;

• pull-outs of individual grains or entire clusters of grains;

• cracking damage resulting from surface tension developed during the prepara-tion process or stresses induced by the microstructure.

Avoidance of these artifacts will make it easier to use microscopic methods to dis-tinguish between pores, pull-outs, phases, and smearing. This requires preparation techniques which are well-matched to material in question, especially with respect to its microstructure and manufacture. It is always necessary to perform microscopic examinations of the section after the individual process steps, so that the preparation

Figure 56. Schematic representation of open and closed pores.

68 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECmC PREPARATION

During sintering After sintering - Sintering pores

Tubular pores and occluded pores Gas bubbles caused by thermal decomposition phase boundary

reaction Degassing pores

Cluster of pores at low initial density Lenticular cavities caused by inhomogeneities or combustion of

impurities Processing pores

Figure 57. Schematic representation of characteristic pore formations in ceramic materials.


Figure 58. Imaging of pores in a ZrOi ceramic with included AI2O3 particles. DIG. (a) After polishing with diamond of grain size 3 im on a hard, woven synthetic fiber cloth, the pores are clogged, (b) The pores are exposed by treating the polished section in an ultrasonic bath, (c) A contrast-enhancing surface rehef is developed by additional polishing with a colloidal Si02 suspension on a chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth, (d) Subsurface reflections are sup-pressed by applying a thin film of gold. Zp: clogged pores; P: pores; U: bright reflections from subsurface regions.

Figure 59. Porous Zr02 ceramic, unetched, BF. (a) after preparation procedure I. (b) after preparation procedure II.

70 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECIHC PREPARATION

Table 15. Preparation procedure I for zirconium oxide Zr02

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Lapping Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain

Diamond Diamond Diamond

Colloidal Si02

size (pm)

20 6 3

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk Lapping disk Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic

Hot method,

Lubricant and coolant

Water Oil-based Oil-based

Water-based

epoxy

Load N

30 30 30

30

RPM

300 150 150

150

Zeit min

Until flat 20 40

40

Table 16. Preparation procedure II for zirconium oxide Zr02

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Pohshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain

SiC

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond koUoidales Si02

size

P500

6 |xm

3 |xm

1 [im 0.05 )im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylontuch ChemikaUen-bestandiges Kunstfaser-tuch

Hot method,


Water

Oil-based

Oil-based

Oil-based Water-based

epoxy

Load N

20

20

20

20 15

RPM

150

100

100

100 100

Zeit min

Plan

30

30

10 30

process can be corrected as necessary. For example, Fig. 58(a)-(d) show a polished section of a porous Zr02 ceramic with included AI2O3 particles. The pores are initially clogged (and thus concealed), but are then rendered more clearly visible by means of ultrasonic treatment and additional polishing with a colloidal Si02 suspension.

The problems encountered in preparing porous ceramics are shown in further ex-amples below. Fig. 59(a) shows a zirconium oxide sample which was processed in accordance with preparation procedure I from Table 15. In addition to the pores, the microstructure displays artifacts in the form of cracks at the grain boundaries and pull-outs of entire grains. The development of artifacts is influenced by preparation tech-niques, microstructure, and material properties. In preparation procedure I, the


Figure 60. Aluminum oxide ceramics, BF. (a) sharp-edged pull-outs after brief polishing with diamond of grain size 3 ^m. (b) elimination of pull-outs by prolonged poUshing with diamond of grain size 3 fim.

Figure 61. Aluminum oxide ceramic, BF. Porosity determined by buoyancy method: 3.6% (a) After preparation at 250 rpm. Porosity determined by image analysis: 5.4%. (b) After preparation at 750 rpm. Porosity determined by image analysis: 3.7%.

removal of material during grinding and lapping was apparently accompanied by an excessive amount of stress. This subjected the section surface to high amounts of compressive, tensile, and shearing stresses. The corresponding parameters were mod-ified for preparation procedure II (Table 16). Fig. 59(b) shows the section after being prepared in accordance with procedure II. Pull-outs and cracks detectable by optical microscopy are no longer present. The impact loading was decreased by grinding gently with SiC wet abrasive paper at reduced pressures and rotational speeds, without including a lapping operation. This produced an almost ideal microstructural image.

72 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECIFIC PREPARATION

Another example is provided by an aluminum oxide ceramic that continued to exhibit sharp-edged pull-outs after the preparation process had been completed (Fig. 60(a)). When poUshing progressed too abruptly from a 3 jiim diamond polishing step to final poUshing with colloidal silica, these features were not ehminated. When poUshing with diamond of grain size 3 jam was extended by 15 min or longer and other poUshing conditions remained unchanged, the true pore structure was revealed (Fig. 60(b)).

Fig. 61(a) and (b) shows the influence of the rotational speed of the grinding disk and poUshing platen on the preparation of an aluminum oxide ceramic with relatively Uttle susceptibility to pull-outs. As the contact pressure and the lengths of the grinding and poUshing paths remained constant, the section was processed first at 250 rpm and then at 750 rpm. The microstructural images confirm that the porosity value was higher when the lower rotational speed was used. Quantitative micro-structural analysis indicated a porosity value of 5.4% after preparation at 250 rpm, and 3.7% after preparation at 750 rpm. When the porosity was determined by the buoyancy method, the value obtained was 3.6%. The improved imaging of the pores of this ceramic at higher rotational speeds can be attributed to the shorter dwell time and the increased mobiUty of the abrasive grains. These factors serve to minimize edge rounding and puU-outs.

The determination of porosity is made especially difficult by the presence of sec-ondary phases. One example of this is the distinction between pores and a glass phase. Fig. 62(a) shows a porous aluminum oxide ceramic with a high glass phase propor-tion, in which the pores and the glass phase cannot be distinguished from one another after final poUshing. An FeO coating is then appUed by reactive sputtering, in which

Figure 62. Aluminum oxide ceramic with glass phase and pores, BE. (a) after final poUshing. (b) after final poUshing and coating with FeO.

4.2 PORES IN CERAMIC MATERIALS I'i

the reflectivity values of the glass phase and AI2O3 matrix are equalized. This allows the pores to appear in high contrast (Fig. 62(b)). However, if the sample is chemically etched with strong acidic or basic agents, the glass phase is attacked from the grain boundaries and dissolved away. This makes it impossible to distinguish between the glass phase and the pores (Fig. 63).

Distinguishing between pores, cavities, and pull-outs can be difficult in the prepa-ration of thermally sprayed coatings, as well. Cavities remains between the sohdified particles of the sprayed material. Occluded gases may also be present, and particles that are only partially bonded to one another may be broken apart by thermal stresses. These laminar composites are discussed in Section 4.4. However, it is only possible to make conditional recommendations for the preparation of the sprayed coating being examined in a given case. Success depends on experience and on the execution of the preparation steps in a manner that is appropriate for the given material.

Successful procedures for the artifact-free preparation of porous ceramics can only be developed and appHed when the ceramographic specialist has sufficient knowledge of the microstructure that can be expected, as well as the production, treatment, and mechanical properties of the material at hand. The ceramographic speciahst must also acquire an understanding of the type of surface treatment involved in each of the preparation steps. Basic information on the subject of porosity can be found in Salmong-Scholze. The interaction between pores and pull-outs is treated by Telle et al. (1995). Leistner and others have reported on the preparation of thermally sprayed coatings.

Figure 63. Aluminum oxide ceramic with glass phase and pores, etched. BF. Glass phase dissolved by the aggressive etching effect of hydrofluoric acid.

74 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECmC PREPARATION

4,3 Examples of preparing ceramic materials

a-AliOa (corundum) in single-crystal form

• Single-crystal a-Al203 (corundum) is often called "sapphire".

This preparation procedure serves to create poHshed, plane-parallel section surfaces with a mean roughness (peak-to-valley height) better than 10 nm and a crown of less than 4 |im over a specimen length of 15 mm. The single-crystal wafers with a section surface of 10 x 15 mm^ and a thickness of 1-2 mm are glued to a flat specimen holder plate before grinding (see Tables 17^2 and Figs. 64-100).

Table 17. Recommended preparation of single-crystal a-aluminum oxide

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

With low-speed machine and diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond Diamond Diamond

Grain size (fmi)

20 6 3 1

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Hard silk cloth or Nylon cloth

Not applicable

Lubricant andcoolant

Water Suspension Suspension Suspension

Load N^

20 20 20 20

RPM

250 150 150 150

Time

Until flat 8-12 h 2-3 h 15 min

^Load in N for a specimen with an area of 10 x 15 mm .

Aluminum oxide ceramic: 99.5% a-Al203

Table 18. Recommended preparation of aluminum oxide: a-Al203 (99.5%)

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Lapping

Polishing

Diamond wheel,

Abrasive

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond and colloidal Si02

low speed

Grain size (pm)

30

9

3

1 0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film

Lapping disk with spiral groove Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped Fiber cloth

Cold or hot method

Lubricant Load and coolant N^

Water 20

Suspension 20

Suspension 20

Suspension 18 Water-based

RPM

250

200

150

150

Time min

Until flat 10

15

15

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical: differential interference contrast after reUef poUshing. (2) Chemical: with boiling phosphoric acid for 5-10 min. (3) Thermal: 1400°C 120 min in air.

4.3 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS 75

Figure 64a-<i. Aluminum oxide ceramics with 99.5% a-Al203 after various forms of contrast enhancement, (a) PoUshed section from a tube cross section, etched with boiling phosphoric acid, BF. (b) Microstructure after etching with boiling phosphoric acid. Uneven etching at grain boundaries. Not all grain boundaries have been rendered visible, BF. (c) Microstructure of specimen poUshed with colloidal Si02, DIC. (d) Microstructure after thermal etching, BF. Almost all grain boundaries have been rendered visible by the formation of grooves.

76 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECIFIC PREPARATION

Aliuninum oxide ceramic: 99.7% a-Al203

Table 19. Recommended preparation of aluminum oxide: a-Al203 (99.7%)

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Lapping

Polishing

Diamond wheel. low speed

Abrasive

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond and colloidal SiOs

Grain size (|xm)

30

9

3

1

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film

Lapping disk with spiral groove Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped

Fiber cloth

Cold or hot method


Water

Suspension

Suspension

Suspension

Water-based

Load N^

20

20

20

18

RPM

250

200

150

150

Time min

Until flat 10

15

15

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical: differential interference contrast after rehef poUshing. (2) Chemical: with boiling phosphoric acid for 5-10 min. (3) Thermal: 1300°C/1 h in air.

Figure 65. Aluminum oxide ceramic with 99.7% a-Al203, thermally etched, POL. Light scattering effects in subsurface regions. All grain boundaries have been rendered visible, unlike the results of etching with phosphoric acid.


Figure 66. Aluminum oxide ceramic with 99.7% a-Al203, coated with gold, BF. Light scat-tering effects from subsurface regions are suppressed by the thin film of gold.

Figure 67. Aluminum oxide ceramic with 99.7% a-Al203, thermally etched and coated with gold, Die. The grain boundaries have been made to stand out more cleariy.

Aluminum oxide ceramic: a-AliOa with SiOi and MgO additives

Table 20. Recommended preparation procedure I for aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with Si02 and MgO additives

Sectioning Diamond whee

Step Abrasive

Grinding Diamond Lapping Diamond

Polishing Diamond Diamond

il, low speed

Grain size (|xm)

20 3

6 3

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Composite diske Hard woven Synthetic fiber cloth

Cold method


Water Suspension

Suspension Suspension

Load N^

40 40

40 40

RPM Time

150 150

150 150

min

Until flat 5

60 120

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm.

• The risk of pull-outs with an a-Al203 ceramic is increased by lapping and high contact.

Table 21. Recommended preparation procedure II for aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with Si02 and MgO additives

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

PoUshing

; Diamond wheel, low speed

Abrasive Grain

Diamond

Diamond Diamond Diamond Diamond

size (jim)

20

15 9 6 3

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film

Hard silk or nylon cloth

Cold method


Water

Suspension and alcohoUc lubricant

Load N^

20

20 20 20 20

RPM

150

150 150 150 150

Zeitmin

Until flat 10 20 10 40

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 nmi.

4,3 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS 79

Aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with glass phase

Table 22. Recommended preparation of aluminum oxide ceramic: a-Al203 with an abundant glass phase

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

Final polishing

Diamond wheel, high or low

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Colloidal Si02 or alumina and Murakami*' solution

speed

Grain size ( im)

20 9

3

1

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Cold or hot method depending on


Wasser Suspension

Suspension

Suspension

Water-based

I the etching method used

Load N^

20 20

20

18

15

RPM

200 200

200

150

120

Time min

Until flat 10

15

10

30

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Atzen: (1) Etch-poUshing: alumina/Murakami's solution 10:1. ** Murakami's solution: 3 g KOH, 30 g potassium hexacyanoferrate, 60 ml H2O. (2) With concentrated hydrofluoric acid. The glass phase is dissolved away. (3) With boihng phosphoric acid. The glass phase is dissolved away. (4) Thermal: in air at 1400°C, for 20-30 min. The glass phase melts and covers the AI2O3-phase. MgO-spinel phases evaporate.

Figure 68. a-Al203 ceramic containing MgO and Si02, BF. Preparation B. The phase con-taining the MgO is hght gray. The phase containing the Si02 is medium gray, while pores and pull-outs are dark.

CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECIFIC PREPARATION

BF. Unetched.

BREtched with boiling phosphoric acid.

Figure 69. a-Al203 grains. The Si02-glass phase appears gray between the grains. The glass phase is dissolved away by etching with phosphoric acid.

Aluminum nitride AIN sintered

Table 23. Recommended preparation of aluminum nitride AIN, sintered

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond


Colloidal Si02

Grain size (^im)

30

9 3 1

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk

Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped cloth

Hot method,


Water

Suspension Suspension Suspension

Water

epoxy

Load N^

18

18 18 18

18

RPM

150

150 150 150

150

Time mm

Until flat 20 12 10

8

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical Contrast enhancement with DIC. (2) Chemical: 1 part H2O, 1 part glacial acetic acid, 1 part nitric acid at 100°C for 50 min.

4.3 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS

Figure 70. Sintered aluminum nitride ceramic, (a) DIG. By finishing with a reUef poUshing step using colloidal Si02, the grain structure is made visible. The white components consist of iron and silicon, (b) BF. Grain boundary etching by a chemical method. The phases consisting of iron and silicon have been dissolved away.

Boron carbide B4C, high density

Table 24. Recommended preparation of boron carbide B4C

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain

Diamond Diamond

Diamond

Colloidal Si02

size (|im)

45 9

3

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

Hot method,


Water Oil-based

Oil-based

Water-based

epoxy

Load N^

22 22

16

RPM

120 120

90

Time min

2 8

6

5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: Electrolytic: 1% KOH, 5 V, 15 s.


Figure 71. BF, Sintered boron carbide after etching. Uniform grain structure.

Figure 72. DIG, Sintered and isostatically hot-pressed boron carbide after etching. Shows coarse and fine grains, twinning, and pores.


Boron nitride BN, sintered

Table 25. Recommended preparation of sintered boron nitride BN

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond disk

Abrasive

SiC

SiC

Diamond Diamond

Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P400

P800

3 |im 1 |xm

0.05 im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Nylon Nylon

Short -napped fiber cloth

Hot mounting


Water

Water

Suspension Water-based Water-based

in BakeUte

Load N^

15

15

15 15

12

RPM

120

120

120 120

100

Time min

Until flat

2

10 6

15

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: optical contrast enhancement with POL.

Figure 73. Sintered boron nitride, POL. Grains are made visible by their different orientations.

84 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECIFIC PREPARATION

Calcium carbonate CaCOa, white marble

Table 26. Recommended preparation of calcium carbonate CaCOs, white marble

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel low speed

Abrasive

Diamond

SiC

SiC

SiC

Diamond

Colloidal Si02

Grain size

30 ^m

P500

P600

P800

3 ^m

0.05 \im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant short-napped, synthetic fiber cloth

Cold mounting in epoxy


Water

Water

Water

Water

Suspension

Suspension

Load N^

20

20

20

20

18

18

RPM

200

200

200

200

150

150

Time min

Plan

1

1

1

6

6

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical with POL. (2) POL and contrast enhancement by reactive sputtering with Fe cathode and oxygen gas.

Figure 74. White marble CaCOs, POL.


Cerium oxide Ce02

Table 27. Recommended preparation of cerium oxide Ce02

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond Diamond Colloidal Si02

Grain Size

(m) 20 9

3 1 0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Nylon cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

Hot mounting


Water Suspension

Suspension Suspension Water-based

; in Bakelite

Load N"

20 20

20 20 15

RPM

250 250

250 250 150

Timemin

Until flat 10

15 10 8

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: 50 ml H2O, 45 ml HNO3 (65%), 5 ml HF (40%) for 10-20 min.

Figure 75. Grain structure and pores of a cerium oxide ceramic sintered at 1400°C. Etched in an HNO3/HF solution, BF.

86 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECmC PREPARATION

Chromite

Table 28. Recommended Preparation of Chromite

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel, high or low speed

Abrasive Grain

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond Diamond

Colloidal Si02

size (|xm)

20

9

3 1

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or fihn Perforated synthetic Fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

Cold or hot method


Water

Suspension

Suspension Suspension

Suspension

Load N^

20

20

20 18

15

RPM

200

200

200 150

120

Time min

Until flat

10

15 10

30


Figure 76. Chromite, unetched, BF. The chromite is brightly colored, the periclase is Ught gray, and the impregnated pores are dark gray.


Refractory ceramics

Table 29. Recommended preparation of refractory ceramics

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Colloidal Si02

Grain size (lim)

30

6

3

0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Perforated synthetic Fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

Hot mounting


Water

Suspension

Suspension

Suspension water-based

in epoxy

Load N"

20

20

20

18

RPM

200

200

200

80

Time min

Until flat

12

12

10


Figure 77. BF, Refractory ceramic, unetched. The a-A^Os is brightly colored, the 3AI2O3 • 2Si02 is medium gray, and pores impregnated with epoxy resin are dark gray.

Glass

Table 30. Recommended manual preparation of glass heavy flint glass and crown glass

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing


Abrasive

SiC

Cerium oxide paste

Grain size

P320 P400 P800 PlOO P4000 2 im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Soft synthetic fiber cloth

Five specimens 10 x 6 an aluminum-


Water Water Water Water Water Ethanol glycol

mm^ in -specimen holder

RPM

200 200 200 200 200 150

Time min

Unit flat 1 1 1 2 4

For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm.

Sa^ftiii

Figure 78. Ground glass surfaces, DIG.

Figure 79. Glass surfaces after additional poUshing with cerium oxide of grain size 2 |im, DIG.


Graphite

Table 31. Recommended preparation of graphite

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel, low speed

Abrasive

SiC

Diamond

Diamond Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P800

3 |im

1 |im 0.05 nm

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Hard perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

Cold mounting and vacuum impregnation


Water

Suspension

Suspension Suspension water-based

with epoxy resii

Load RPM W

15

15

15 15

200

150

150 120

1

Time min

Until flat

8

8 5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical contrast enhancement with POL. (2) Plasma etching: 02-flow 50 cm^cm^/min, Druck 70 Pa, power 200 W, 20-60 min.

iM^^ - «

Figure 80a-c. Graphite found among various filler materials, unetched, POL. (a) natural graphite, (b) graphite from petroleum coke, (c) Graphite from pitch coke. Pores are dark in the images.

90 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECMC PREPARATION

Figure 80. (Contd.)

Coal

Table 32. Recommended preparation of coal

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

SiC

Diamond


Grain size

P800

3 ^mi

1 |im 0.05 im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Hard, perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Short-napped fiber cloth



Water

Suspension


with epoxy resii

Load RPM N^

20

20

20 15

200

150

150 120

Q

Time min

Until flat 8

8 5

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: Opticals contrast enhancement with POL.

4 J EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS 91

POL

Figure 81. Coal. The microstructure displays primary coke grains and pores. Pores have a dark gray appearance in the bright field and are impregnated with epoxy resin. Regions of different orientations become visible in polarized Ught, but pores cannot be detected.

Lanthanum strontium manganese oxide

Table 33. Recommended preparation of La-Sr-Mn oxide

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Pohshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

SiC

SiC

Diamond


Grain size

P500

P800

6 im

1 (xm 0.05 ^m

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Hard perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Short-napped fiber cloth



Water

Water

Suspension


with epoxy resi

Load RPM N^

15

15

18

18 18

200

200

200 200

n

Time min

Until flat

3

10

15 5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Thermal: 1000°C for 30 min in air. (2) Chemical: 20 ml HCl, 80 ml ethanol, 6-10 s.

92 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECIHC PREPARATION

W--^

Figure 82. La-Sr-Mn oxide, thermally etched, BF. The grain structure and the positions of the pores have been revealed.

Silicon carbide SiC, pressureless-sintered

Table 34. Recommended preparation of silicon carbide SiC, pressureless-sintered

Sectioning Diamond wheel Mounting Hot mounting in BakeUte

Step

Grinding Pohshing

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond Diamond Colloidal Si02

Grain size (^m)

30 9 3 0.05

Working Lubricant surface and coolant

Disk or film Water Perforated synthetic Suspension fiber cloth Suspension Synthetic Suspension fiber cloth water-based

Load N^

25 25 25 20

RPM

250 250 250 150

Time min

Until flat 10 15 10

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Atzen: (1) Murakami's solution: 3 g KOH, 30 g potassium hexacyanoferrate, 60 ml H2O, boiUng, 3-30 min. (2) Electrolytic: color etching with 10% oxaUc acid, 10 V, 60 s.

Figure 83. Pressureless-sintered sihcon carbide doped with boron carbide, BF. Etched by the Murakami method. Shown here are pores and elongated SiC grains and twins.

Figure 84. Pressureless-sintered sihcon carbide doped with boron carbide. Electrolytically etched, BF. Grain face etching. Color etching reveals different grain orientations.

Figure 85. Pressureless-sintered sihcon carbide doped with boron carbide. Etched by the Murakami method, DIC. Shown here are pores and elongated SiC grains.

Figure 83.

Figurer 84.

Figure 85.

94 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECMC PREPARATION

Figure 86. Pressureless-sintered silicon carbide doped with boron carbide. Etched by the Murakami method, SEM, higher magnification. Shows a-SiC and pores.

Table 35. Manual preparation of an SiC varistor ceramic

Sectioning At low speed with a metal-bonded diamond wheel

Step

Grinding Polishing

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond

Grain size (nm)

20 6

1

Einbetten

Working surface

Disk or film Hard synthetic fiber cloth Hard silk cloth

In epoxy; impregnate with epoxy resin before sectioning


Water Water-based

Water-based

RPM

150 125

150

Time min

Until flat 2

3

iiC^

Figure 87. SiC varistor ceramic, DIG. The a-SiC appears white, the Si02 is gray, the binder and mounting medium are dark gray and roughened, and cavities are dark.


Silicon carbide varistor ceramic

Table 36. Automated preparation of a SiC varistor ceramic

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain

Diamond

Diamond


size (|im)

20 10 6

3 0.25

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film

Hard, woven, synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Chemically resistant syn-thetic fiber cloth

In BakeUte or polyester resin


Water 20 Water Suspension 40

Suspension 40 Water-based 15 alkaline

RPM

300 300 150

150 150

Time min

Unit flat 20 20

15 5

^ For a specimen with a diameter of 25 mm. Etching: (1) Modified Murakami's solution: 3.5 g NaOH, 20-30 g K3[Fe(CN)6], 30 ml water, 15 min, boiUng. (2) Reactive sputtering with Pt cathode or Fe-cathode in oxygen gas.

Figure 88. SiC varistor ceramic. Contrast enhanced by Fe/02, BF. Detail from Fig. 87 contrast inversion between a-SiC and Si02.

96 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAl^SPECIHC PREPARATION

Figure 89. SiC varistor ceramic etched with modified Murakami's solution, BF. The a-SiC has a bright appearance. Twins in the a-SiC have been rendered visible. The Si02 phase is gray.

Silicon nitride Si3N4, hot-pressed

Table 37. Recommended preparation of hot-pressed sihcon nitride Si3N4

Sectioning

Step

Grinding PoUshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain size (jim)

Diamond 30 Diamond 9

Diamond 3 Colloidal 0.05

Si02

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth Chemically resistant short-napped fiber cloth

In Bakehte or


Water Suspension


polyester resin

Load N^

20 20

20 15

L

RPM Time min

200 200

200 150

Until flat 8

8 5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Molten NaOH at 400-500°C for 20 s-2 min. (2) Thermal etching in vacuum at 1250°C for 15 min. (3) Thermal etching in nitrogen at 1600°C and 5 h.


Si-SiC-C ceramic

Table 38. Recommended preparation of an Si-SiC-C ceramic

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond Diamond Colloidal

Si02

Grain size (nm)

30 9

3 1 0.05

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or fihn Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Nylon cloth

Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Hot mounting


Wasser Suspension

Suspension Suspension Suspension

in Bakehte

Load RPM N^

22 22

22 22 18

200 150

150 150 125

Time min

plan 10

10 5 5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) On Si with 38 parts HNO3, 12 parts HF, 42 parts CH3COOH, and 0.1 parts iodine (all parts by volume). (2) On SiC electrolytically with 10% oxalic acid at 15 V; reactive sputtering with an iron cathode in oxygen.

Zinc oxide ZnO

Table 39. Reconmiendec

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Pohshing

Low speed

I procedure for manual preparation

saw, metal bonded diamond wheel

Abrasive

SiC SiC SiC SiC Diamond

Alumina

Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P500 PIOOO P1200 P4000 1 [mi

1 \\m

0.05 fim

Mounting

Working surface

Paper Paper Paper Paper Hard synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth Chemically resis-tant synthetic cloth

of ZnO sampl( es

Polyester resin, section impregnated


Water Water Water Water Alcohol-based Water-based Water

with ep

RPM

150 150 150 150 150

150

150

oxy resin

Time min

Until flat 1 1 1 1

2

2

Etching time: 30 sec.



Figure 90.

Figure 91a,b.

43 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS 99

Figure 90. (Top) Scanning electron micrographs of a sample of a hot-pressed silicon nitride ceramic after etching in molten NaOH at 480°C for various lengths of time. Figure 91(a) and (b), (Base) Si-SiC-C ceramic, (a) Unetched BF. White silicon is surrounded by gray SiC. Carbon appears black, (b) Unetched DIC. SiUcon stands out with a three-di-mensional appearance

Figure 91(c>-{e). (c) Contrast enhanced with Fe/02, BF. (d) Chemically etched on siUcon, BF. Twins in siUcon. (e) Electrolytically etched on SiC, BF. Twins in SiC and silicon.

100 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECMC PREPARATION

Table 40. Recommended procedure for automatic preparation of ZnO samples

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel, low speed

Abrasive

SiC SiC SiC SiC Diamond


Grain size

P220 P500 P1200 P2400 6 jim

3 |im 0.05 im

Mounting

Working surface

Paper Paper Paper Paper Hard synthetic fiber cloth Hard nylon cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Polyester resin, section impregnated with epoxy re

Lubricant Load RPM and coolant N^

Water 30 Water 30 Water 30 Water 30 Suspension 30

Suspension 20 Water 20

150 150 150 150 150

150 150

:sin

Time min

Until flat 1 1 1 6

4 2

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Atzem (1) Murakami's solution: 100 ml H2O, 10 g NaOH, 10 g K3[Fe(CN)6], room tempera-ture, 10 s. (2) 5% citric acid, 30 s-4 min. (3) 0.5% alcoholic hydrochloric acid, 6 s. (4) Coating with a thin gold fihn to prevent subsurface reflections.

Zirconium oxide ZrOi

Table 41. Recommended preparation procedure I for zirconium oxide Zr02

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Polishing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond and colloidal Si02 Colloidal Si02

Grain (^m)

30 9

1 im 0.05 0.05

size

I und im

^m

Mounting

Working surface

Disk Perforated syn thetic fiber cloth

Short-napped fiber cloth

Hot method epoxy

Lubricant Load and coolant N*

Water 22 I Oil-based 22

Water-based

Water-based 16

RPM Time

150 150

150

90

min

Until flat 15

10

8

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 nun. Etching: Chemical: 90 ml H2O, 90 ml HNO3, 18 ml HP.

43 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC MATERIALS 101

Die. Zn-Sb spinels stand out from the ZnO matrix.

DF. Pyrochlore phase appears white at triple points of grains.

Etched in Murakami's solution. BR No twin boundaries are visible in the ZnO grains.

Etched with citric acid. Au coating. REM. SEM. Good contrast between ZnO, Zn-Sb spinel, and pyrochlore phase.

Etch in alcoholic HCl. Au coating BE Twin boundaries are visible.

Etch in alcoholic HCl. Au coating DIC. Twin boundaries are visible.

Figure 92. ZnO varistor ceramic. Etched and unetched specimens.

102 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAl^SPECmC PREPARATION

Figure 93. Cubic stabilized Zr02 ceramic, unetched, BF. Preparation procedure I. Grain structure and pores at grain boundaries and within the grains. Not all grain boundaries are visible. Subsurface pores have a bright appearance.

Figure 94. Cubic stabilized Zr02 ceramic, etched, BF. Preparation procedure I. Almost all grain boundaries are visible.

Table 42. Recommended preparation procedure II for zirconium oxide Zr02

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Lapping

PoUshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain size (mn)


Diamond 6

Diamond 3

Einbetten

Working surface

Disk Composite lapping disk Hard synthetic fiber cloth Woven nylon cloth

Warm, Epoxid


Water 20 Suspension 20

Suspension 20

20

RPM

150 150

150

150

Time min

Until flat 5

10

10

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm.


w #

Figure 95. Cubic stabilized Zr02 prepared with composite lapping disk, unetched, DIC. Preparation procedure II. Pores have a dark appearance. Grain boundaries have already be-come barely visible.

Zirconiimi oxide with aluminuin oxide inclusions

Table 43. Manual preparation procedure III for zirconium oxide Zr02

Trennen

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Final poUshing

At low speed with diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain s

Diamond 75 Diamond 30 Diamond 6 Diamond 3 Colloidal 0.05 Si02

Atzen: Thermal: 1400°C for up

Mounting

ize Working surface

Disk Disk or film Hard synthetic fiber cloth Hard silk cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

to 2 h in air.

Cold method, epoxy

Lubricant RPM and coolant

Water 150

Water-based 150 Water-based 150 Water 100

Time min

Until flat 5 3 6 5

— ^

Figure 96. Zr02 ceramic with AI2O3 inclusions, which have a dark appearance, BF. Prepara-tion procedure III.

Figure 97. Zr02 ceramic with AI2O3 inclusions, etched by thermal method at 1400°C for 10 min SEM. The aluminum oxide has a dark appearance.

Figure 98. Partially stabilized Zr02 ceramic, etched by thermal method at 1400* C for 2 h in air, DIC. The MgSiOs phase appears gray, while the pores are dark. The grain boundaries are grooved.

Figure 96.

Figure 97.

u:^^\-

Figure 98.

4.4 PREPARATION OF CERAMIC COMPOSITES 105

Zirconium oxide, partially stabilized with MgO and Si02:

Prepared in accordance with recommend procedure III for zirconium oxide (see Table 43).

Figure 99. Partially stabilized Zr02 ceramic, etched by thermal method at 1400°C for 2 h in air, SEM. The MgSiOa phase and the pores are dark.

Figure 100. Partially stabilized Zr02 ceramic, etched by thermal method at 1500°C for 1 h in air, SEM. Artifacts shown here are caused by thermal etching at excessive temperatures.

4.4 Preparation of ceramic composites

These composite materials are formed by combining ceramics with metals and certain plastics. These composites combine the most favorable properties of the various component materials. The ceramic components (consisting of oxides, nitrides, and

106 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECIHC PREPARATION

carbides) contribute properties such as hardness, resistance to wear and corrosion, and electrical and thermal resistance. The metal and plastic component materials contribute favorable properties of their own to the composite.

The following ceramic composites are used most often in industrial technology: • metal-ceramic composites, e.g., ceramic fibers or particles embedded in a metal

matrix;

• composites of metals and ceramics used in electronics, semiconductor technol-ogy, and as soUd-body fuel elements;

• active-brazed or diffusion-welded combinations of metals and ceramics, e.g., for use in hnplants;

• carbide metals, such as tungsten carbide/cobalt for cutting tools;

• ceramic or metal-ceramic coatings on metaUic substrates, e.g., thermally sprayed coatings, PVD and CVD coatings;

• plastics reinforced by ceramics or carbon fibers, e.g., for sporting goods, or for structural components in aviation.

When brittle materials or phases are combined with materials or phases displaying ductility and some degree of wear resistance, certain special factors must be consid-ered in the preparation of the poUshed section. This is especially important when the ceramic component also exhibits a certain degree of porosity and/or when the ceramic material has been applied as a coating on a metaUic substrate.

The individual preparation steps must be matched to the composition of the composite material being studied. If the hard components predominate and the bond between the ceramic and the metal is adequate (as in the case of WC/Co carbide metals or siUcon carbide in an aluminum alloy), it is preferable to section the samples with metal-bonded diamond or boron carbide cut-off wheels. Planar grinding should then be performed with diamond grinding disks, followed by additional preparation with diamond abrasives on hard cloths. If the embedded ceramic components are very brittle and susceptible to pull-outs (as with fiber-reinforced materials, for example), sectioning must be performed very carefully with thin diamond cut-off wheels, which are usually resin-bonded. Grinding must also be performed in a gentle manner, or it may be preferable to perform lapping and poUshing on hard platens. It is essential to prevent the fibers from being pulled out during sectioning and planar grinding, in order to avoid excessive scratching in the matrix and artifacts that would create a misleading image of the microstructure.

Abrasives can become embedded in very soft matrices (e.g., plastics). This is espe-cially Ukely to happen at high contact pressures. It is therefore advisable to prepare the sample at low contact pressures and to use oil-based (rather than water-based or al-cohol-based) diamond suspensions. When grinding with automated devices, comple-mentary rotation should be used to reduce the relative speed of motion of the sample. Abrasives can also easily accumulate and become embedded in regions of transition

4,5 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC COMPOSITES 107

between hard and soft phases. This makes it especially important to clean the samples in an ultrasonic bath between the individual preparation steps for ceramic composites.

Ceramographic methods have proven indispensable in the characterization of thermally sprayed coatings, in which non-destructive testing methods for purposes of quahty assurance have only limited appUcability. Characteristic properties of a coating, such as its thickness, structure, porosity, and adhesion to the base material, as well as the hardness of individual phases or the overall composite, can be accu-rately evaluated by applying these ceramographic methods to the polished section.

Extremely brittle and thin coatings are provided with an additional coating of a synthetic resin (see Fig. 3) or a layer of nickel appUed by electrodeposition. Low-speed sectioning machines with rotational speeds less than or equal to 500 rpm have proven effective in these cases. It has also proven advantageous to restrict the dia-mond cut-off wheel to a cutting speed less than 15 m/s. The grain size of the abrasive layer of a thin diamond cut-off wheel should be as fine as possible. This will help reduce the time required for subsequent preparation steps with diamond grain sizes less than 15 |Lim. Planar grinding of hard ceramic coatings should be performed with diamond grinding disks or hard lapping disks. The use of SiC abrasive paper for grinding is only practical for coatings with high metallic proportions or for ceramics of low hardness. Excessively coarse grinding disks, excessive contact pressure, and excessive rotational speeds should be avoided. Subsequent polishing steps should be performed with diamond polish on hard cloths. In many cases, final polishing can be performed successfully with a colloidal siUca with a high pH value (i.e., extremely alkahne).

Automated preparation of samples of ceramic composites is preferable to manual preparation, as it ensures the reproducibility of the results and the flatness of the sections. Sections of ceramic composites should first be examined in the unetched state, in which it is easier to recognize material separations, porosity, transitions between coatings and substrates, and coating thickness. As a rule, chemical etching is only effective for portions of the composite. It is advisable to increase the contrast by applying interference layers.

Coatings with a thickness greater than 5 jam can be examined by cutting the section perpendicular to the coating. The obUque sectioning technique (Section 5.1.1) can be applied to thinner coatings. For purposes of determining the thickness of thin, hard coatings, the instrumented indentation technique (Section 5.1.2) is an alternative method that complements the obUque sectioning technique.

4.5 Examples of preparing ceramic composites

Active-brazed joint between graphite and a TZM molybdenum alloy (see Tables 44-60 and Figs. 101-134).


Table 44. Recommended preparation of graphite/AgCuTi active braze/TZM

Sectioning Diamond wheel

Step

Grinding

Polishing

(0.6 mm) and low-speed machine

Abrasive

SiC SiC Diamond

Diamond

Intermediate etching with Murakami diamond Intermediate etching with Murakami colloidal Si02 with H2O2 additive

Grain size

P400 P800 6 |im

1 rni

1 mi

0.05 |im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Lapping disk with spiral groove Perforated synthetic fiber cloth

Perforiertes Kunstfasertuch

Short-napped fiber cloth

Cold mounting in impregnate

epoxy resin with epoxy resin

because of graphite pore

Lubricant Load RPM and coolant N^

Water Water Suspention

; Suspension

Suspension

Suspension

15 15 15

15

10

10

150 150 150

150

250

250

>sity

Time min

Until flat 2 6

6

4 s

3 4 s

4

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) For TZM: Murakami's etching solution, consisting of 5 g KOH, 5 g K3Fe(CN)6, 100 ml H2O, 6 s. (2) For the braze: contrast enhancement by reactive sputtering with Fe cathode, O2 gas, 30 Pa, 4 min. (3) For the graphite (optical etching): polarized light.

f^ . - - j ; tj graphite and Ag Cu Ti active braze :

-> :• braze '^x -^.^t/'^^•::>^' %:.^ ' -^-^^ :^ #^*^

H--f

Figure 101. Laminar composite of graphite/AgCuTi braze/TZM, unetched, BF. Active braze with 70% silver, 27% copper, and 3% titanium. The braze has penetrated deeply into the porous graphite.

4.5 EXAMPLES OF PREPARING CERAMIC COMPOSITES 109

Unetched, POL Etched with Murakami's solution, HF

Etched with Murakami's solution and subjected to reactive sputtering with Fe

cathode in oxygen gas, BE.

Figure 102. Laminar composite of graphite/AgCuTi braze/TZM molybdenum alloy. Micro-structural imaging by various methods of contrast enhancement.

no CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECinC PREPARATION

Aluminum alloy reinforced with boron fibers

Table 45. Recommended preparation of an aluminum alloy reinforced with boron fibers

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Lapping

Polishing


Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Grain size (^tm)

20 6

6

3

1

Mounting

Working surface

Disk or film Composite lapping disk Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth

In epoxy resin


Water Suspension water-based Suspension

Suspension

Suspension

Load N^

20 20

20

20

20

RPM

150 150

150

150

150

Time min

Until flat 60

5

5

5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Contrast enhancement by vapor deposition of ZnTe coatings or by reactive sputtering with a Fe cathode and oxygen gas. (2) Electrolytic: with 10% oxahc acid at 8 V for 20 s. Surface layer is then removed with 10% HF-solution at room temperature for up to 10 s.

Figure 103. Boron fibers in an aluminum alloy, electrolytically etched, BF. The boron fibers have a bright tungsten core.


Flame-sprayed aluminuin oxide coating on steel

Table 46. Recommended preparation of a flame-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel

Mounting 1 With cold mounting medium before sectioning, with impregnation of porous ceramic layers

Trennen Diamond wheel Mounting 2 (0, 6 mm), low speed, sectioning proceeds from the coating into the substrate

In epoxy resin

Step Abrasive Grain size Working surface


Load RPM Time N^ min

Grinding SiC P220

SiC P500

Lapping Diamond 6 jim

Polishing Diamond 6 im

Colloidal 0.05 im Si02

Wet abrasive Water paper Wet abrasive Water paper Composite Water-based 80 300 lapping disk Hard synthetic Suspension 120 150 fiber cloth Chemically Water-based 30 150 resistant synthetic fiber cloth

120 300 Until flat

120 300 2

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Atzen: Contrast enhancement by reactive sputtering with Pt electrode and oxygen gas.

20 pm

Figure 104. Flame-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel, DIC. The sample was mounted in epoxy resin before sectioning. Arrows indicate cavities, which have a gray tone that differs only sUghtly from the aluminum oxide.


20|JIT1

Figure 105. Flame-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel with Ti02 inclusions, BF. The sample was not mounted before sectioning. Improper sectioning with a high-speed machine has caused the coating to detach from the substrate (as indicated by arrows). The Ti02 and the steel substrate have a bright appearance.

2Qym

Figure 106. Flame-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel, with contrast enhanced by Pt/02, BF. The sample was impregnated with epoxy resin before sectioning and then mounted in epoxy resin. The gap at the boundary between the ceramic and the metal (see arrows) is filled with resin, which indicates that this defect was already present before sectioning. The im-pregnated cavities are dark, the aluminum oxide is gray, and the steel substrate is bright.


Glass fiber reinforced plastic

Table 47. Recommended preparation of glass fiber reinforced plastic

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing


Abrasive

SiC

SiC

Diamond Diamond Diamond Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P320

P600

9 |im 3 |im 1 iim 0.06 mi

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Hard nylon cloth Hard nylon cloth Hard nylon cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Cold mounting with epoxy resin


Water

Water

Water-based Water-based Water-based Water-based

Load N^

20

20

20 20 20 20

RPM

200

200

150 100 100 80

Time min

Until flat

1

4 4 4 3

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: Contrast enhanced by reactive sputtering with iron cathode and oxygen gas.

Figure 107. Glass fiber reinforced plastic, BF. The glass fibers do not show clearly in the plastic.

114 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECIHC PREPARATION

Figure 108. Glass fiber reinforced plastic, contrast enhanced, BF. The glass fibers are bright, while the plastic is dark. The glass fibers are arranged in bundles at right angles to one another.

Solder glass/stainless steel joint

Table 48. Recommended preparation of a solder glass/stainless steel joint

Trennen Diamond disk low speed

Mounting In bakehte or polyester resin

Step Abrasive Grain size Working surface Lubricant Load RPM Time and coolant N^ min

Grinding SiC P400 P800

Wet abrasive paper Water 20 200 Wet abrasive paper Water 20 200

200 Until flat

PoUshing Diamond 6 pm

Diamond 1 mi

Colloidal Si02

0.05 ^m

Hard synthetic fiber cloth Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant short-napped synthetic fiber cloth

Suspension 20 150 8

Suspension 20 150 6

Suspension 18 150 4

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Solder glass: contrast enhanced with Fe cathode and oxygen gas. (2) Chromium steel: etching by Vilella method, 45 ml glycerol (87%), 30 ml hydrochloric acid (32%), 15 ml nitric acid (65%).


Figure 109. Joint between chromium steel/solder glass/chromium steel, etched by the Vilella method, BF. The solder glass (dark) consists of Si02, MgO, AI2O3, and B2O3.

Ceramic/cermet composite

Table 49. Recommended preparation of a ceramic/cermet composite

Sectioning Diamond disk low speed

Mounting Cold mounting in epoxy resin

Step Abrasive Grain Working surface Lubricant Load RPM Time size and coolant N^ min

Grinding SiC P320 P400 P800

Pohshing Diamond 6 ima

Wet abrasive paper Water 16 Wet abrasive paper Water 16 Wet abrasive paper Water 16 Grooved Suspension 16 lapping disk

Diamond 3 ^m Perforated synthetic Suspension 16 fiber cloth

Colloidal 0.05 pm Chemically resistant Suspension 14 Si02 short-napped

synthetic fiber cloth

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: Contrast enhanced by reactive sputtering with Fe cathode and oxygen gas.

150 150 150 150

Until flat 1 1

10

150 20

150 15

116 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL^SPECMC PREPARATION

P+YSZ perovskite , | , YSZ

YSZ+Ni

cathode electrolyte anode

Figure 110. Ceramic/cermet composite from a high-temperature fuel cell. The section has been subjected to contrast enhancement, BF. The composite was produced by shp casting and a coat mix process. P = perovskite Lao.84Sro.i6Mn03; YSZ = Y203-stabihzed zirconium oxide.

Carbon fiber reinforced carbons

Table 50. Recommended preparation of carbon fiber reinforced carbons

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Pohshing

Diamond disk low speed

Abrasive

SiC Diamond


Grain size

P800 3 |xm

1 ^m 0.05 im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Hard nylon cloth Short-napped chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Cold mounting epoxy resin



Suspension 15 Water-based 15

RPM

250 250

250 150

Time min

Until flat 5

5 3

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Optical: with polarized hght and a coatue TiX aie. (2) Electrolytic: with 20 g K2Cr207, 500 ml phosphoric acid at 8 V for 15 s. Remove reaction products with 10% HF solution. (3) Plasma etching at an oxygen flow rate of 50 cm^/cm^/min, O2 pressure: 50 Pa, power: 200 watts, etching time: 20 min.


Figure 111(a) and (b). PAN (polyacrylonitrile) fibers in an anisotropic pyrocarbon matrix, POL. (a) fibers sectioned longitudinally, (b) fibers sectioned transversely. Cavities are dark.

Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Table 51. Recommended preparation of carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Polishing

Diamond wheel. low speed

Abrasive

SiC SiC Diamond Diamond Diamond Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P320 P600 9 |im 3 ^m 1 |im 0.06 |im

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Hard nylon cloth Hard nylon cloth Hard nylon cloth Short-napped chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

In cold mounting medium


Water 20 Water 20 Water-based 20 Water-based 20 Water-based 20 Water-based 20

RPM

200 200 150 100 100 80

Time min

Until flat 1 4 4 4 3

*For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 nun. Etching: Optical: with polarized fight and a wave plate.

118 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL-SPECIFJC PREPARATION

Electrolytically etched, DIC. fibers sectioned longitudinally fibers sectioned transversely

Plasma-etched, SEM. fibers sectioned transversely higher maginification


Figure 112(a)-(d). Pyrocarbon matrix with laminar structure surrounding the PAN fibers. The core of each PAN fiber is a thread-Hke carbon fiber of high crystallinity.

Figure 113. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic, BF. The carbon fibers have a bright appearance.

Figure 114. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic, POL. Even the subsurface carbon fibers appear in the image. Some fibers are bright, while others are dark, depending on their orientation.


Spherical Nuclear Fuel

Table 52. Recommended preparation of spherical nuclear fuels (coated particles). Nuclear fuel: UO2 - pyrocarbon - silicon carbide SiC

Sectioning

Step

Grinding

Lapping

Polishing

Not applicable

Abrasive

SiC

Diamond

Diamond and colloidal Si02 Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P800

9 |im

3 |im 0.05 ^m

0.05 ^m

Mounting

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Metall/Kunstsoff-Scheibe gerillt Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant short-napped fiber cloth

Cold mounting in epoxy resin


water 18

Suspension 18

Suspension 18 water-based

Water-based 18

RPM Time min

150 ^

120 10

120 8

120 8

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. ^ Grind with grain size P800 down to the equatorial plane of the fuel. Etching: (1) SiC: grain face etching and electrolytic etching to reveal the grain orientation, using 4 g K2Cr207, 100 ml H2O, 100 ml H3PO4 at 30 V, for 30 s. (2) SiC: electrolytic etching to reveal grain boundaries and growth processes, using 10% oxalic acid at 10-15 V for 30-40 s. Remove surface layers with 10% HF solution.

Figure 115. Cut-away view of coated particle sphere, SEM. The layered structure and inner UO2 sphere are revealed here.


Figure 116. Polished section of a coated particle sphere, BF. Shown here are the UO2 core and the sequence of layers of pyrocarbon - sihcon carbide (bright) - pyrocarbon.

dense pyrocarbon

sihcon carbide

dense pyrocarbon

porous pyrocarbon

Figure 117. Detailed image of the pyrocarbon/SiC composite, BF.

deposition temperature 1500°C deposition temperature 1700°C

Figure 118. Electrolytic grain face etching with K2Cr207 reveals the grain orientation of the SiC layers, BF. Layers with coarser grains at a higher deposition temperature.


deposition temperature 1300°C

deposition temperature deposition temperature 1500°C 1700°C

Figure 119. After removing the etch coatings with 10% hydrofluoric acid solution, growth phenomena in the sihcon carbide layers are revealed by electrolytic grain boundary etching with 10% oxalic acid, BF.

Copper coating on an aluminum nitride ceramic

Table 53. Reconmiended preparation of a copper coating on an aluminum nitride ceramic

Coating: Nickel applied by electroless method, or TiN apphed by PVD method

Sectioning: Diamond wheel Mounting: In a cold mounting medium (0.6 mm), low speed

Step

Grinding

PoUshing

Abrasive

SiC

SiC

SiC

SiC

Diamond

Colloidal

Si02

Grain size

P220

P500

P800

PIOOO

3 ^m

0.05 ^m

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Hard synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth


Water

Water

Water

Water

Suspension

Suspension

Load N^

40

40

40

40

50

10

RPM

300

300

300

300

300

150

Time min

Until flat

2

2

2

3

3



Figure 120. Copper coating on an AIN ceramic containing Y2O3, BF. The sample was coated with titanium nitride before sectioning and mounting, in order to provide accurate imaging of the copper coating. The preparation of the copper coating has resulted in a high degree of edge definition in the image.

For coatings with poor adhesion, see the recommendations for flame-sprayed coatings on Table 46.

^^^^tt^. *:^fPfi^^if

50 |jm

Figure 121. Plasma-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel. Contrast enhanced with Fe/02, BF. The mounting medium and pores in the coating have a dark appearance. The coating is gray, while the steel substrate is bright.

124 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL^SPECIHC PREPARATION

Plasma-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel

Table 54. Recommended preparation of a plasma-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel

Sectioning Diamond wheel (0.6 mm), low speed, sectioning proceeds from the coating into the substrate

Mounting In cold mounting medium

Step

Grinding

Lapping

Polishing

Abrasive

SiC SiC SiC Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Diamond

Colloidal Si02

Grain size

P220 P400 P600 6 ^m

6 ^m

3 im

1 ^m

0.05 ^m

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Composite lapping disk Hard synthetic fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth Short-napped fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth


Water Water Water Water-based

Suspension

Suspension

Suspension

Water-based

Load

90 120 80 80

120

120

120

120

RPM

300 300 300 300

150

150

150

150

Time min

Until flat 3 3 5

8

5

3

1

^ For 6 specimens, each with a diameter of 25 nmi. Etching: Contrast enhancement by reactive sputtering with Fe electrode and oxygen gas.

Figure 122. Plasma-sprayed aluminum oxide coating on steel, DIC. The AI2O3 grains and pores in the coating are more apparent.


Figure 123. Plasma-sprayed Al203/Ti02 coating on steel, BF. The aluminum oxide is gray. The titanium dioxide inclusions and steel substrate have a bright appearance, while the pores are dark.

Plasma-sprayed chromium oxide coating with Ni-20%Cr interlayer on steel

Table 55. Recommended preparation of a plasma-sprayed chromium oxide coating with Ni-20%Cr interlayer on steel

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Lapping

Pohshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain size (Mm)


Diamond 6

Diamond 3

Diamond 1

Mounting

Working surface

Disk Composite lapping disk Hard synthetic fiber cloth Woven nylon cloth Woven nylon cloth

Hot method, epoxy


Water 20 Water-based 20

Suspension 20

Suspension 20

Suspension 20

RPM

150 150

150

150

150

Time min

Until flat 5

10

10

5

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Contrast enhanced by reactive sputtering with iron cathode and oxygen gas. (2) For steel: 1 % alcohohc nitric acid.

Figure 124. Plasma-sprayed chromium oxide coating with Ni-20%Cr interlayer on steel, etched, BF. The steel displays ferrite and pearUte. A thin, dark oxide layer lies between the Ni-20%Cr and the steel.

Plasma-sprayed zirconium oxide coating on a niclcel super alloy

Table 56. Recommended preparation of a plasma-sprayed Zr02 coating

Sectioning Diamond wheel, low speed sectioning or feed motion proceed toward the coating

Einbetten Cold method with epoxy resin of low shrinkage; sample may also be impregnated before sectioning in cases of high porosity

Step

Grinding

Pohshing

Abrasive

SiC

Diamond


Grain size

P320

P500

P800

6 im

3 \im 1 ^m and 0.05 im

Working surface

Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Wet abrasive paper Hard perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth


Water

Water

Water

Suspension

Suspension Water-based

Load N^

20

20

20

20

20 15

RPM

250

250

250

200

200 150

Time min

Until flat

1

1

20

10 10

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Atzen: (1) Vapor deposition of a ZnSe coating or reactive sputtering with Fe/02. (2) Contrast increased by coating with a thin film of gold. (3) Optical: by DIC.

Figure 125(a) and (b). Plasma-sprayed zirconium oxide coating on a nickel super alloy, (a) Direct bonding without bond coat, low porosity, BF. (b) With bond coat and intentionally high porosity, no pull-outs, BF.

SiC/C fibers in an aluminium alloy

Table 57. Recommended preparation of SiC/C fibers in an aluminum alloy

Sectioning Diamond wheel low speed

Mounting In Bakehte or polyester resin

Step Abrasive Grain size Working surface Lubricant Load RPM Time and coolant N^ min

Grinding SiC P320 P500 P800

Lapping Diamond 6 \nn

PoUshing Diamond 3 un

Wet abrasive paper Water 20 Wet abrasive paper Water 20 150 Wet abrasive paper Water 20 150

150 Until flat

Colloidal Si02

0.05 im

Grooved metal/ plastic composite lapping disk Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Suspension water-based Suspension water-based Suspension

20

20

20

150

150

150

10

15

30

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 nun. Etching: (1) Contrast enhanced by vapor deposition of ZnTe coatings or by reactive sputtering with an Fe cathode and oxygen gas. (2) Electrolytic: with 10% oxaUc acid at 8 V und 20 s. Then remove surface layer with 10% HF solution at room temperature for up to 10 s.


Figure 126. SiC fibers in an aluminum alloy, unetched, BF. Each fiber displays a carbon core, which appears black in the image. The aluminum alloy is white. The fibers are arranged with fine-grained SiC (gray) on the inside and coarse-grained SiC on the outside.

Figure 127. SiC fibers in an aluminum matrix. Contrast enhanced with Fe/02, BF.


Figure 128. SiC fibers in an aluminum matrix. Electrolytically etched, surface layer removed, BF. The layer of fibers consisting of substoichiometric SiC and carbon protects the matrix.

Titanium carbide coating on graphite

Table 58. Recommended preparation of a titanium carbide coating on graphite

Sectioning Diamond disk, low speed, sectioning or feed motion proceed toward the coating

Mounting Cold method with an epoxy resin

Step

Grinding Lapping

Polishing

Abrasive

Diamond Diamond

Diamond


Grain size

20 |im 9 pm

3 |im

1 im and 0.05 iim

Working Lubricant surface and coolant

Disk Water Composite disk Suspension with grooves Hard perforated Suspension synthetic fiber cloth Chemically Water-based resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Load

20 20

20

15

RPM

150 150

150

150

Time min

Until flat 12

30

45

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: 30 ml HF, 15 ml HNO3, 15 ml glacial acetic acid, 15 ml H2O, 5-20 min.

130 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALrSPECIFIC PREPARATION

Figure 129(a) and (b). Titanium carbide coating on fine-grained graphite, POL. (a) Unetched sample. The titanium carbide has a bright appearance, but its structure is not apparent, (b) Etched sample. Grain boundaries are visible in the titanium carbide coating.

Titanium nitride coating on an Inconel alloy

Table 59. Recommended preparation of a titanium nitride coating on an inconel alloy

Trennen Diamond wheel (0.6 nmi), low speed, sectioning proceeds from the coating into the substrate

Mounting In a cold mounting medium, epoxy resin

Step

Grinding Lapping Pohshing

Abrasive


Diamond and colloidal Si02 (0.05 nm)

Grain size (|im)

30 9 3

1

Working surface

Disk or film Composite disk Hard synthetic fiber cloth, perforated Short-napped fiber cloth


Water Water-based Water-based

Water-based

Load N^

22 20 20

20

RPM

200 120 120

120

Time min

Until flat 30 40

20

* For 6 specimens, each with a diameter of 25 mm. Etching: (1) Nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and water in a ratio of 1:1:1. Etching time: from seconds to minutes. (2) Glycerol, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid in a ratio of 1:1:1. Etching time: from seconds to minutes.


«st:i lnconeli 2S

tSdym^.

Figure 130. Titanium nitride coating on Inconel 625, etched, BF. The grain structure of the TiN coating is rendered visible by etching in a solution of glycerol, nitric acid, and hydrofluoric acid in a ratio of 1:1:1 for an etching time of 25 min.

WC-Co carbide metal

Table 60. Recommended preparation of WC-Co carbide metal

Sectioning

Step

Grinding Lapping

PoHshing

Diamond wheel

Abrasive Grain size jxm


Diamond 3

Diamond 1 + colloidal + 0.05 SiOs

Mounting

Working surface

Film Grooved composite disk Perforated synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth Chemically resistant synthetic fiber cloth

Hot mounting in Bakehte



Suspension 20

Suspension 15

RPM Time

120 150

150

150

min

3 until flat 8

8

4

^For a specimen with a diameter of 31.8 mm. Etching: (1) Temper etching at 400°C for 30-60 min. Phases can be identified. (2) Color contrast enhanced by vapor deposition of ZnSe or ZnTe-coatings or by reactive sputtering with an Fe-cathode and oxygen gas. (3) Elektrolytic: 100 ml H2O, 10 g KOH, 2 g NasCOs at 3 V for 10 s. (4) Chemical: 100 ml H2O, 10 g KOH, 10 g K3[Fe(CN)6] at room temperature for 20 s.

132 CHAPTER 4 MATERIAI^SPECIHC PREPARATION

Figure 131. WC-Co carbide metal, BF. Reactive sputtering with Fe/02. Monochromatic light X = 520 ^m. The WC phase has a bright appearance, while the Co is dark gray and the Ti(Ta)C is dark.

Figure 132. WC-Co carbide metal, BF. Etching method was the same as in Fig. 131. Mono-chromatic hght X = 480 im. The Ti(Ta)C phase has a bright appearance.


Figure 133. WC-Co carbide metal, POL. The Ti(Ta)C and Co are dark. Grains of the WC phase with different orientations have become visible in the polarized light.

Figure 134. WC-Co carbide metal, BF. Etched by chemical method (see Table 60). Grain boundaries have been rendered visible

Chapter 5

Preparing polished sections for examination

Materials being examined for purposes of quantitative microstructural analysis must be prepared with semiautomatic equipment, in order to ensure that the results will be reproducible. Pull-outs, enlarged pores, scratches, uneven polishing, and high relief must be prevented by checking the section surface after each individual processing step and then modifying the preparation parameters and times accordingly, taking into account the unique properties of the given material. Information on the quahty of the section can be obtained by comparing the porosity determined from density measurements to the proportion of pores determined from test measurements. For precise determinations of porosity and pore size distribution, unetched sections are preferable to etched sections. This also applies to the determination of phase pro-portions in cases where the contrast between the phases in the optical microscope or scanning electron microscope is adequate.

To avoid measurement errors when determining microhardness, sections of ce-ramic materials must be of high quality and free of relief. The quality of the section can be monitored by the use of an interference microscope or an optical microscope with Die optics.

Sections of ceramic samples are often subjected to microprobe analyses or SEM examinations with an accessory device for energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. It is essential to avoid the introduction of any elements which are intended to be measured in these examinations or which may have a disruptive influence on them. It is therefore essential to pay special attention to swarf from metal-bonded diamond wheels, composite disks, or disks made of cast iron, lead, copper, or tin, as this swarf may accumulate in pores or in the form of thin surface films. This also applies to swarf from the sample and polish residue, which may remain on the sample after final polishing with alumina, for example.

134

5.7 POLISHED SECTIONS 135

5.1 Polished sections

5.1.1 Oblique sections

Some coating parameters and microstructural parameters vary along the length of the specimen. When preparing the sample surface or a thin near-surface region of a composite or a coating-substrate system for examination and measurement of such parameters, the use of an obUque section can be very practical. In addition to coatings applied by electrochemical deposition (ECD), physical vapor deposition (PVD), and chemical vapor deposition (CVD), this method is also appHed to many surface-treated material samples and samples that have been produced by joining techniques and exhibit film growth caused by diffusion, reaction, or corrosion.

In the case of an obUque section (Fig. 135), the sample is mounted at an angle a to the section plane. As a result, the coating thickness being examined (symbolized by d) is increased to:

sma Table 61 presents the factor for the increase in the apparent thickness of the coating as a function of the section angle. It is preferable for the section angle a to be less than 8° in order to achieve the highest possible ratio of similitude. However, even slight deviations of ±2° resulting from the preparation process lead to considerable dif-ferences in the ratio of simiUtude. Therefore, even the use of a wedge with a prede-fined angle a does not always ensure a precise section angle on the sample. Fig. 136 shows a 30° oblique section through the coating of a Ni-Zr02 anode on a soHd Zr02 electrolyte serving as the substrate. In this example, the coating is enlarged by a factor

mounting compcHincI

d »D-sina

Figure 135. Schematic representation of the oblique section technique. D is the apparent coating thickness; d is the true coating thickness, and a is the section angle.

136 CHAPTER 5 PREPARING POLISHED SECTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

Table 61. Apparent widening of coating as a function of section angle

Section angle a sin a Ratio of similitude

2° 40

6° 8° 10° 15° 30° 45°

0.0349 0.0698 0.1045 0.1392 0.1736 0.2588 0.5000 0.7071

• ^ * • :JI ^ ^m i f

' 0 - ^^ : * % . * " • % : * :••: * ,;;|f

•;rt-- ::::ilj iSlWi;:,.:.: : ^ ^ l i i l i i i l l ^

28.6 14.3 9.6 7.2 5.8 3.9 2.0 1.4

mounting medium

j^N I (white)

1 anode coating : consisting of \ nici(el and i zirconium 1 dioxide

1 — pores (black) L^ zirconium 1 dioxide (gray)

1 zirconium 1 dioxide doped

with 1 yttrium oxide

Figure 136. 30° oblique section of a joint between the anode coating and the soHd electrolyte of a high-temperature fuel cell.

of 2 from top to bottom. An additional protective layer - e.g., nickel deposited by galvanic or wet chemical methods - should always be appHed to especially sensitive samples with very thin coatings. This will help prevent edge rounding and other artifacts.

5.1.2 Controlled removal

In some cases, it is desirable to perform a "targeted" preparation procedure, i.e., to grind the sample in a precisely defined plane. For example, this may be essential for


the microscopic examination of material transitions, phase boundaries, or diffusion zones, which in turn can be indicative of the quality of a component. It may also be desirable to examine coatings or composites at predefined depths below the sample surface. At the present time, predefined amounts of material can only be removed by the use of semiautomatic grinding, lapping, and poUshing systems with the following methods:

• Working with stops made of diamond or boron carbide: in this method, the maximum limit for the removal of material from the sample is the reference plane formed by mechanically adjustable diamond (or boron carbide) stops. These stops are built into a sample holder that has been manufactured to a high degree of precision.

• In some semiautomatic preparation systems, an accessory device (measuring device with digital readout) is coupled directly to the cyUnder stroke of the machine head. This accessory makes it possible to remove a predefined amount of material from the sample as it is held securely in the sample holder.

These two methods offer only a limited degree of precision in the controlled removal of material. It may be possible to remove between 10 and 50 im, depending on the stabiHty of the machine. The determination of removal depth is fraught with an error of 25%.

"Ball cratering" represents an entirely different method of removing a controlled amount of material for purposes of determining the thickness of thin ceramic coatings (0.1-30 |jm). This method has proven extremely useful in practical application, especially in quaUty control of hard coatings apphed by PVD and CVD (see VDI Guideline 3198). Ball cratering can also be apphed successfully to other thin, ex-tremely hard coatings, e.g., nitride coatings on steel, anodic coatings, or hard galvanic coatings of nickel or gold on ceramic substrates.

The ball cratering method offers a genuine alternative to transverse and oblique sectioning techniques, because it can be performed with great simphcity, speed, and accuracy. In this method, a concave depression is ground into the sample surface by means of a steel ball rotating on a precisely centered spindle. An abrasive is intro-duced to the process in the form of a diamond suspension.

When the appropriate spindle speed, abrasive, and grinding ball (usually made of hardened steel) are selected, it is possible for the ball to penetrate the hard coating to the required depth within 20-30 s in practical apphcations. A concave depression with a circular or elUptical shape and a depth of 5-20 jim is produced in the test surface. The functional principle is represented schematically in Fig. 137.

The following formula for the coating thickness s at an accuracy of <1% can be derived from the schematic representation in Fig. 137.

2R

138 CHAPTER 5 PREPARING POLISHED SECTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

X and y can be measured diractiy under the microscope

Figure 137. Functional principle of the ball cratering method.

The dimensions x and y and the ball radius R are presented in Fig. 137.

Both flat and curved (convex or concave) surfaces - e.g., the shank of a drill bit -can be measured by this technique. If it is impossible to produce a section on the component itself testing can be performed on a reference surface or reference sample. The small grinding angle produces a very large apparent widening of the coating region, which in turn provides information on the structure and quaUty of the various layers, in addition to the coating thickness.

The various layers appear as rings, the diameters of which can be measured by the use of an optical microscope at a magnification of 50-1 OOx. When the surface being studied is cylindrical, these rings will take the shape of eUipses, and the measurement of their major semiaxes takes the place of the diameter measurement. Using a highly precise sectioning system (e.g., the Kaloprap ball cratering system shown in Fig. 138) and either a suitable measuring microscope or a measurement system employing a

Figure 138. Kaloprap ball cratering system.


Table 62. Examples of preparation parameters used in the ball cratering technique

Coating(s) TiN and Ti(C,N) TiAlN

Substrate Abrasive Grinding ball Grinding time Rotational speed Coating thickness

HSS, 60 HRC Diamond, 1 jim Steel, diameter 20 mm 60s 6000 rpm 2-5 ^m

HSS, 60 HRC Diamond, 0.25 ^m Steel, diameter 20 mm 20 s 3600 rpm <1 ^m

video analysis system and specialized software, it is possible to determine the coating thickness in about 1-2 min with an error of less than ±5%.

The practical procedure can be described as follows. A coated workpiece is fixed in the clamping device of the ball cratering system, and the drive shaft is moved into a horizontal position. When studying PVD or CVD coatings, a standard steel ball with a diameter of 20 mm is mounted on the grinder spindle. The distance is adjusted so that the angle between the surface of the ball and the surface to be ground is approximately 30-45°. One or two drops of a diamond suspension (grain size 1 jim) are then appHed to the ball. A rotational speed of approximately 6000 rpm is set at the control unit. The grinding operation lasts for about a minute. The specimen is cleaned thoroughly, first with water and then with alcohol. The coating or layers can then be evaluated under the microscope. The parameters presented here (and in Table 62) apply to hard coatings between 2 and 5 \xm. The parameters must be modified sUghtly for thicker or thinner coatings.

Fig. 139 shows an example of ball cratering used to determine the thickness of a two-layer system of TiClTiN on a steel substrate. The test conditions included a

Figure 139. Ball cratering of a two-layer system of TiC and TiN on steel.

140 CHAPTERS PREPARING POLISHED SECTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

spindle speed of 40 rpm, use of a water-based diamond suspension of grain size 1 jxm for a grinding time of 45 s, and a hardened steel ball of diameter 10 mm.

5.2 Thin sections

The goal of every ceramographic preparation process is to create contrasts that make it possible to distinguish crystalline phases, glass phases, grains, inclusions, and pores. It is often difficult to examine polished ceramic sections by optical microscopy at high levels of magnification, because the phases found in the ceramic are usually trans-parent and not reflective enough. This produces indistinct, diffuse images.

The application of a highly reflective gold film (see Section 3.1) by vapor deposi-tion or sputtering can help alleviate this problem in optical microscopy. When used with certain materials, however, this causes the loss of valuable information that would normally be conveyed by gray tones or other colors of the material's phases. Most oxide and non-oxide ceramics can be examined by optical microscopy without requiring color. However, this is not true for the microscopic examination of classic ceramic materials, e.g., stoneware, porcelain, refractory materials, or cement clinker. In these cases, thin sections are used to exploit the material's transparency, which allows it to be examined by transmission microscopy.

5.2.1 Preparation of thin sections

The suppUes needed for creating thin sections (such as lapping disks, sample holders, lapping abrasives, coolants, adhesives, and cloths) can be obtained from the pro-ducers of metallographic and petrographic equipment. The standard thin section has a thickness of 20-35 im. The process of creating a thin section involves seven or eight steps (see Fig. 140).

The following details are important to consider:

Sectioning. When cutting the sample from a piece of material, it is important to prevent material damage caused by excessive mechanical stresses. Sectioning can be performed with a diamond blade featuring a continuous rim. Another proven method is the use of a diamond wire saw. The sectioning cut should be made at low speed, with even pressure, and with effective cooUng of the blade and sample, so that the resulting cut surface is as flat as possible. Coolants may include water or emulsions of water and oil. The sample should be cut to a size of approximately 20 x 40 mm , in order to correspond to the slide size of 26 x 28 mm .

Impregnation. Porous samples and deUcate materials should be impregnated. This is performed with the same media which will be used to cement the sample to the sUde in a later step. The impregnating medium, consisting of epoxy resin or Canada bal-sam, should have a suitable index of refraction (close to 1.535), allowing the phases to be distinguished from one another by optical methods. In many cases, it is sufficient to simply lay the sample in the mounting medium and then allow capillary forces to

5.2 THIN SECTIONS 141

1. SECTIONING, i.e. separating the sample from the larger piece of material

2. IMPREGNATION of porous and brittle samples, when necessary

3. ROUGH LAPPING of the surface to be cemented

4. CEMENTING the sample to the slide

5. THINNING the sample by cutting it after it has been cemented to the slide

6. LAPPING the sample down to the desired thin-section thickness

7. CEMENTING a cover slip to protect the thin section

8. POUSHING the sample for further examination, e.g., SEM (without cover slip)

Figure 140. Schematic representation of thin section preparation, Buehler Ltd.

impregnate the pores and cracks. If this method does not produce satisfactory results, it is also possible to perform vacuum impregnation in a desiccator or a conventional impregnation apparatus (see Section 2.3.4). The impregnating medium can be colored to enhance the contrast.

142 CHAPTERS PREPARING POLISHED SECTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

Rough lapping or rough grinding of the surface to be cemented. After sectioning is complete, lapping or grinding must be performed to create a flat, artifact-free refer-ence surface for the subsequent cementing to the sUde. This operation is performed with corundum or siUcon carbide powder in water, kerosene, alcohol, or an ethylene glycol slurry on a glass or cast iron lapping disk. The grain size of the lapping abrasive should not exceed 35 |im. The processed surface will exhibit a dull finish. It is also possible to use a diamond lapping disk, which is especially useful for accelerating the planar grinding of hard materials.

Cementing to the slide. The lapped side of the sample is cemented to the shde, using a suitable colorless, quick-setting resin of low viscosity and an index of refraction of 1.535. A strip of resin measuring 4 x 5 mm^ is created at the edge of the sample to prevent the section from breaking out to the side when it is lapped to the desired thin-section thickness. The lapped side of the sample must be dried before cementing. One or two drops of resin are then appUed to this side, and it is pressed against the slide with even pressure, squeezing out any air bubbles that may be present. The resulting layer of adhesive should be very thin (1-4 |xm). The adhesive strength between the sample and the sUde can be further improved by grinding the glass with an abrasive of a grain size between 10 and 15 |im.

Thinning the cemented sample. After cementing is complete, the sample is still too thick to be lapped down to the desired thin-section thickness. Therefore, the cemented sample must be thinned to a thickness of 300-500 ^m by making a second sectioning cut.

Lapping the sample down to the desired thin-section thickness. In the first stage of this operation, the cemented, thinned sample is lapped on a cast iron disk at a rotational speed of approximately 90 rpm until it reaches an object thickness of 120 nm. The lapping abrasive used in this lapping stage has a grain size of 30-60 im. In the second stage, the grain size of the lapping abrasive is reduced to a range of 9-30 |xm, and the speed is reduced to 60 rpm. This lapping stage continues until a final thickness of approximately 30 ^m is attained. This final thickness can be determined by interferometric methods under the microscope.

Cementing the cover slip. After the sample has been lapped down to the desired thin-section thickness, the cover sUp is applied. To this end, the sample is washed thoroughly in water and then dried. A drop of cold-setting adhesive is then appUed to the section and spread across the section surface with a cover shp. The thickness of the cover sUp is 0.15 nmi. Recommended adhesives include Canada balsam thinned with xylene, or a suitable epoxy resin. It is important for the indices of refraction to correspond.

Polishing the thin section. In special cases, the sample is poUshed. This is most Hkely to occur when the sample is intended for examination in transmitted and incident Ught, by scanning electron microscopy, or in a microprobe. Rough poUshing is first performed on a nylon cloth or hard fiber cloth, using a diamond paste with a grain size of 6 jjm. This is followed by final polishing with alumina. Only a small amount of pressure may be appUed during this operation.

5.2 THIN SECTIONS 143

Possible errors and limitations. It is often impossible to lap oxide ceramics or non-oxide ceramics (e.g., silicon carbide or silicon nitride) to a sufficiently low thickness. As a result, certain microstructural components and grains that are smaller than the section thickness can overlap, rendering them impossible to detect with certainty.

5.2.2 Microscopic examination of thin sections

Optical examination of thin ceramic sections is generally performed by methods of transmission microscopy. The primary methods of examination include bright field, polarization, phase-contrast, and interference microscopy.

In the bright field method, the amplitude of the transmitted Ught is changed by the differences in optical absorptivity between the microstructural components. This results in the creation of darker and brighter regions (i.e., high-contrast object structures) in the image.

Polarization is appHed to anisotropic objects. The non-cubic components exhibit optical birefringence between two crossed polarizers. In other words, there is a pe-riodic cycle of cancellation (destructive interference) and intensification (constructive interference). This effect can be measured and is used to identify the various com-ponents.

Phases can also be identified by means of interference microscopy combined with a precise determination of the indices of refraction.

Figs. 141 and 142 show two examples of thin-section images from the field of rocks and minerals. More detailed and extensive information can be obtained from publi-cations by Rigby (1953), Beyer (1977), Freund, Gugel, and Wilhnann (1978) (see Uterature references).

Figure 141. Diopside. Transmission micro-graph of structure, POL. Buehler Ltd.

Figure 142. Tourmaline. Transmission micro-graph of structure, POL. Buehler Ltd.

Chapter 6

Analysis of hardness testing indentations

6.1 Hardness testing of ceramic materials

Hardness is the resistance that a body offers to penetration by a harder body. Polished sections of ceramic materials are primarily tested by the Yickers or Knoop methods, both of which can be described as indentation hardness testing methods (Fig. 143). The indenter used in Vickers hardness testing is a four-sided diamond pyramid with an included apical angle of 136°. The diamond indenter used in the Knoop method is also a four-sided pyramid, but this indenter has two different included apical angles, measuring 130° and 172°30'. This causes an elongated indentation in the material being tested.

The Vickers hardness is calculated from the load P in kgf (1 kgf = 9.81 N) and the mean d of the two diagonals di and 2 of the indentation, expressed as load per unit area of the indentation:

Vickers

Knoop

Figure 143. Geometry of indenters used in the Vickers and Knoop hardness testing method and shapes of resulting indentations.

144

6.1 HARDNESS TESTING OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 145

The Vickers hardness is specified with the calculated numerical value, followed by the abbreviation "HV" and the load P in kgf. Decimal values are omitted from hardness values greater than 100. Because the Vickers hardness is dependent on the load, the load should always be specified along with the hardness value.

Examples: A ceramic macrohardness of 1600 HVIO has a value of 1600 tested under a load of 10 kgf (98.1 N).

A ceramic microhardness of 1900 HVO.l has a value of 1900 tested under a load of 0.1 kgf (0.981 N).

The Knoop hardness is calculated from the load P in kgf (1 kgf = 9.81 N) and the length d of the longer diagonal of the indentation, expressed as load per unit of projected area of the indentation:

14.229 P HK= J . (2)

As in the case of Vickers hardness, the Knoop hardness is specified by the numerical hardness value, followed by the abbreviation "HK"" and the load Pin kgf. A hardness specification of 1200 HKO.l represents a Knoop microhardness value of 1200 tested under a load of 100 gf = 0.1 kgf (0.981 N).

Hardness testing of ceramic materials by the Vickers and Knoop indentation methods is often fraught with problems (Mott, 1957) that do not occur in the testing of metallic materials. For example, the deformation characteristics of these brittle ma-terials produce cracks and spalling under high loads, which may even result in the complete destruction of the specimen (Fig. 144). However, it is generally possible to produce hardness testing indentations which display only local cracks at the corners of the indentation (Fig. 145) or are completely free of cracks, depending on the test load.

Figure 144. Vickers hardness testing indentation in SiSiC containing 20% Si by volume. Load: 100 N. The indentation has caused severe spalling.

146 CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS OF HARDNESS TESTING INDENTATIONS

Figure 145. Vickers hardness testing indentations in a sintered SiC ceramic. Loads (from left to right): 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1 kgf.

" ^ ^ " ^ ^ deformation zone

initial cracking

crack propagation to the surface

crack propagatk)n along the surface

2c specimen surfece

Figure 146. Development of Vickers cracks according to Binner and Stevens (1984). P = indentation load, 2a = diagonal of indentation, 2c = length of surface crack.

When the hardness testing indentation is being made in the ceramic material and the elastic limit (i.e., the limit of elastic deformability) is exceeded, a zone of plastic deformation develops beneath the pyramidal indenter. The indenter acts as a wedge and induces tensile stresses in the surrounding material. During the loading phase, these tensile stresses overlap with compressive stresses caused by the appUed inden-


:'^''^MM.€h7i S^ii^*20iii«;;

-61 pm

-78 pm

Figure 147. Layer-by-layer removal of a hardness testing indentation produced in a Si3N4 ceramic under 200 N according to Kurth et al. (1996).

tation load P. By the time the maximum load is attained, cracks have usually begun to develop. When the load is removed from the diamond pyramid, the compressive stress field - which has been restricting the cracks until now - ceases to exist, and the cracks assume their final length. In this process, the cracks grow to a point at which the stress intensity is in equilibrium with the toughness of the material. (Anstis et al., 1981;


Krause, 1988). Fig. 146 shows the development of cracks in a schematic representa-tion.

Fig. 147 shows the layer-by-layer ceramographic removal of a Vickers hardness indentation in fine-grained Si3N4.

This series of micrographs produced after each individual stage of removal show that a crack-free zone has formed below the hardness testing indentation. The images make it clear that polishing causes an enlargement of the cracks in the initial stages. This can be attributed to the rounding of the crack edges. The crack lengths are evaluated after each stage of removal, making it possible to determine the crack contour and depth profile (Fig. 148). The crack-free zone is also marked.

Fig. 149 plots the crack depth a and surface crack length c as a function of the indentation load on an Si3N4 specimen.

^ - 1 0 0 -

3: « -200H

-300-

/ ^ crack'UfM 2on6

• • ••^^"""^-—crack frqnl

-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

c{|im]

Figure 148. Crack profile of a 200 N indentation in a Si3N4 ceramic determined experimentally by Kurth et al. (1996) by removal of material by layers. Shown in mirror symmetry.

D O

0

8 DC O a, layer-by-layer removal

# a, transverse section

0 50 100 150 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0 3 5 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 P[N1

Figure 149. Crack depth a and surface crack length c in a Si3N4 ceramic as a function of indentation load, according to Kurth et al. (1996).


I I

Figure 150. Palmqvist crack system. L = crack length, c = a + L.

A semicircular crack profile appears up to a load of 100 N. As the load increases beyond 200 N, the crack depth is approximately 20% less than the surface crack length. Large lateral cracks are clearly masking crack growth at greater depths. Other crack paths develop in relatively tough materials (for example, carbide metals such as WC-Co) at relatively low loads. This crack system, known as "Palmqvist cracks", is shown in Fig. 150. The surface exhibits radial cracks that do not extend deep into the material.

When hardness testing indentations are made with a Knoop diamond, the char-acteristics shown in Fig. 151 develop:

2c

r/LL.fJ.'-

T fx

\ /

y

Figure 151. Dimensions of a Knoop crack. Crack profile: a = crack depth, 2c = crack length, ZQ = zone of deformation.

Fig. 152 shows the crack depth of Knoop indentations as a function of the in-dentation load for the materials AI2O3 and Si3N4.

According to studies by Palmqvist (1962), as well as those by Dawihl and Altmeyer (1964), the sum of the crack lengths depends not only on the test load and the magnitude of the residual stress state existing in the surface zones, but also on the sign


1.0

0.8

HP: hot pressed RS: reaction-sintered y^

" SijNjHP)

100 200 300 AOO 500 hardness testing load [N]

Figure 152. Crack depth as a function of indentation load for materials AI2O3 and Si3N4, according to Ziegler and Munz (1981).

of the residual stresses to a great extent. Crack formation is hindered by residual compressive stresses but promoted by tensile stresses. Similar effects are displayed in the ceramographic surface preparation of carbide metals by lapping and poUshing. All other conditions being equal, lapping on a gray cast iron disk produces a con-siderably shorter crack length than polishing on a felt cloth. The images in Fig. 153 show portions of Vickers indentations in a polished carbide metal specimen that had been subjected to pretreatment with disks of (a) diamond and (b) silicon carbide. From this it can be concluded that fine grinding with a diamond disk has an unde-sirable effect.

This effect can be attributed to the following conditions:

(i) Any existing residual compressive stresses are reduced or converted to tensile stresses by lapping and polishing.

Figure 153. Vickers indentation with crack formation after preparation with (a) diamond disk and (b) silicon carbide disk.

6.2 DETERMINING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 151

(ii) When the initial state is free of residual stress, residual tensile stresses will be present after processing.

(iii) Any existing residual tensile stresses will be increased.

Calculated hardness values are not affected to any significant degree by the presence of cracks. Large variations in hardness values may be caused by the presence of pores, inclusions of other ceramic phases, or by the crystallographic orientation. Indenta-tions in transparent materials are difficult to measure. In these cases, it is advisable to apply a thin, highly reflective film of gold by means of sputtering or to use the differential interference contrast (DIC) method.

Under low indentation loads, which result in short indentation diagonals, inac-curacies in measurement must be minimized by the use of a suitable high-resolution optical measurement device. The scanning electron microscope is well suited to the evaluation of hardness testing indentations at high resolution.

Despite the above-mentioned problems, hardness testing is a recognized method for evaluating components made of multiphase ceramics (Fig. 154) and making rough assessments of a material's mechanical properties.

Standard hardness values for ceramic materials are Usted in Table 63.

6.2 Determining fracture toughness by indentation hardness testing

Rough assessment of the brittleness of ceramic components is facilitated by obtaining fracture toughness data. AppHcation of the Vickers and Knoop methods of inden-

Figure 154. Light micrographs of microhardness testing indentations (load: 2 N) made in both phases of the composite material SiSiC, which contained 20% Si by volume.


Table 63. Standard values for the Vickers hardness and Knoop hardness of ceramic materials, according to Morell. HVO.l = Vickers hardness under load of 0.981 N. HKO.l = Knoop hardness under load of 0.981 N

Material

Porcelain containing AI2O3 Low-voltage steatite Forsterite Aluminum oxide, > 99% AI2O3 Aluminum oxide, 95% AI2O3 Aluminum oxide, 90% AI2O3 Aluminum oxide, 85% AI2O3 Silicon nitride, reaction-bonded Sihcon nitride, hot-pressed Boron carbide SiSiC ceramic Sihcon nitride, hot-pressed Sihcon carbide, dense sintered Diamond Carbide metal WC with 6% Co Soda-lime glass Single-crystal a-quartz Single-crystal a-Al203 (sapphire)

HVO.l

800 650 (HV0.5) 800-900 (HV0.5)

1900 1600 1400 1250 750

1600-1800 3200 2000 2400-2800 2500

-8000 1300-1600 450 900

1800 bis 2400

HKO.l

1930 1590 1400 1250

2500 bis 2700 2800 2500

460 700

tation hardness testing has revealed that when the load appUed by the indenter is suflSciently high, cracks will be produced. The length of these cracks will be deter-mined by the relationship between indentation load, residual stresses in the inden-tation, and the fracture toughness of the ceramic. These discoveries have led to the use of this method in determining fracture toughness.

In these methods, which are based on the works of Evans and Charles (1976), Niihara et al. (1982), Anstis et al. (1981) and Lawn et al. (1980) the fracture tough-ness is calculated from the load and the length of the surface cracks. The significance of the fracture toughness values for purposes of evaluation is largely dependent on the type of hardness indentation. The calculations are based on the assumption that the ceramic is free of residual stresses before the indentation is created. Residual stresses introduced by manufacturing processes or mechanical processing are disregarded.

By relating residual stress intensity, indentation load P, and crack length C, Lawn et al. (1980) have developed the following formula for calculating fracture toughness:

^ic = xPC-^/'. (3)

The indentation load P and crack length C are obtained directly from testing. To determine the residual stress factor x, it is necessary to adopt certain models of plastic deformation as caused by the indentation. % can be determined by cahbrating the fracture toughness in experiments with long cracks. According to Antis et al. (1981) the residual stress factor is determined by the following equation:

6.3 DETERMINING FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 153

X - 0 . 0 1 6 W - . (4) V ^

The modulus of elasticity E and hardness H are related to the elastic and plastic characteristics of the given material. A % value of 4.8 MPaVm was calculated by means of Eq. (4) for the Si3N4 material shown in Figs. 147 and 148. Various formulas for calculating fracture toughness have been pubUshed by Binner and Stevens (1984), Evans and Charles (1976), Langier (1985), Evans (1979), Smith and Alavi (1985), and Munz and Fett (1989). All of these formulas maintain the fundamental dependence on

The above-mentioned formulas are recommended for practical apphcation, be-cause they are well-founded and supported by a wealth of data. One reason why this technique for determining fracture toughness is being appUed to new ceramics cur-rently under development is that small amounts of material are sufficient for the study of brittle fracture mechanisms related to failure. Other discoveries on performing measurements and methods of determining fracture toughness can be derived from the works of Kurth et al. (1996) and Munz and Fett (1989). Table 64 contains standard values for several ceramics.

Table 64. Standard values for fracture toughness of several materials (Munz, 1989)

Material Fracture toughness in MPaVm

AI2O3 3.5-6.0 Al203-Zr02 5.0-8.0 AbOs-TiC 3.5-5.5 MgO 2.0-3.0 MgO-Zr02 2.0-3.7 Si02 0.8 Zr02 6-11 BeO 4.8 SiC 3-5 B4C 3 ^ TiC 4.8 AIN 3-3.5 Si3N4 4.5-8 Hot-pressed silicon nitride

1.5-3 Reaction-bonded silicon nitride ZnS 0.6 WC-Co 10-20 MgAl204 1.2-1.9 Mullite 2.0


6.3 Application of hardness testing to composite layers and surface layers

Hardness testing by the Vickers and Knoop methods is important to the study of thin layers (especially surface layers) within the larger context of determining the char-acteristics of composite materials.

Modem coating and joining technologies produce layers or zones with thicknesses ranging from micrometers to milUmeters and hardness values up to 4000 HV. If multiple phases are contained in the layer structure, large differences in hardness can occur across short distances. The dimensioning of the material regions being tested leads to the apphcation of low-load testing or microhardness testing. It is important to take into account the famiUar Umitations (Buckle, 1961) of these types of testing with regard to:

• execution of method;

• measurement of indentation;

• dependence of hardness values on test load;

• influences of preparation process;

• influences of material.

At very low layer thicknesses, the evaluation of the indentations is fraught with a high degree of uncertainty. For the sake of improved resolution, the scanning electron microscope is sometimes used to measured the diagonals (Westrich, 1986). Fig. 155 shows examples of hardness measurements on TiN and HfN surface layers with evaluation by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and corrected op-tical microscopy. For purposes of special studies, testing devices integrated into the scanning electron microscope make it possible to perform "in situ" tests in the ul-tramicrohardness range at loads greater than 10"^ N (Bangert et al., 1981, 1983).

Serious changes in hardness values can be expected when there is a high proportion of elastic recovery in the indentation. For example, hardness measurements on carbon layers yield higher values than measurements on other materials, despite the fact that carbons are regarded as soft materials. This can be explained by the high degree of elastic deformation caused by penetration, resulting in a very small indentation after recovery has occurred. This can be remedied by applying very thin coatings (lUgen and Findeisen, 1966) of metals with low hardness values of their own and favorable adhesion properties. Examples of such metals include silver and copper. The apph-cation of nitrocellulose lacquers is another proven method.

It is well known that hardness values are higher within low ranges of test loads. Fig. 156 shows Vickers hardness indentations in a transparent single-crystal a-alu-minum oxide under various loads. Fig. 157 shows the measured hardness values as a function of load.

6,3 APPLICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING 155

7000

S 6000H

c 5000

ffi ^000-

{2 3000^ £ I •§ 2000H

lOOOH

microhardness

TiN coating on VC-2 thickness: 9.5 \im

7000-j

! 600oJ

•g SOOOH CO CO

JC AOOO 3000^

20004

1000-1 0

« Optical o SEM o optical, corrected

2 3 4 5

load[^q

HfN layer on polished VC-2

thickness: 25.4 \im

0.25 0.5 1 2 3 k)ad[N]

Figure 155. Microhardness measurements on hard coatings of TiN and HfN. Comparison between optical measurement methods with and without correction and SEM method (ac-cording to Westrich, 1986).

Possible reasons for the increase in hardness under reduced test loads include:

• work hardening of the surface occurring during the sectioning operation and the preparation of the material specimen

Figure 156. Vickers hardness indentations in the (0001) face of single-crystal a-Al203 under loads of 50, 100, 200, and 500 gf. 1000 gf = 9.81 N.


2600

2400 H 10

1 2200^ ID

JC

e i^ 2000

I 1800

1600

\ a-alumina single crystal (0001) plane

2 3 load [kp] (1 kp = 9.81 N)

—r-4

Figure 157. Vickers hardness of single-crystal a-aluminum oxide as a function of load. In-dentation face (0001). 1000 gf = 9.81 N.

• states of stress in the surface region

• elastic springback, which develops as the hardness of the material increases

• increase in deformation resistance attributable to multiaxial states of stress around the edges and tip of the indenter

It has been possible to reduce the dependence of the hardness value on the test load by using an indenter with a iflattened tip (Dengel and Kroeske, 1978).

An alternative method of measurement is to determine the hardness under load by measuring the penetration depth. In this method, the hardness indentation area is recorded as a function of the indentation depth. The advantage of this method consists in the accuracy of measurement, the abihty to adapt to layer thickness conditions, and the possibilities for automating the process.

For normal Vickers testing, the layer thicknesses should be at least 5-10 ^m. Better conditions are obtained with Knoop pyramids, which feature a more favorable ratio of diagonal length to penetration depth. One particular problem is the diflSculty in recognizing the features of the indentations, which can be severely exacerbated by the roughness and morphology of the surface (Fig. 158). The individual hardness testing technique to be applied will depend on the types of layers involved and their di-mensions.

6.3.1 Indentations in the layer surface

In this method, the indentations are made in the layer from above. Here the volume of the compressed region is considerably larger than the volume of the indentation itself (Fig. 159). In order to prevent the hardness of the substrate from influencing the

6.3 APPLICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING 157

Figure 158. Section of a Zr02 coating on Inconel 617. A wide scattering of measured values can be expected, due to the surface finish of the coating and the growth structure.

Figure 159. Schematic representation of an indentation with the expected region of influence.

measured value, the size of the indentation must be matched to the layer thickness by selecting an appropriate test load. According to DIN 50133 Tl (T2), the layer thickness should be at least 10 times the indentation depth.

6.3.2 Measuring the layer hardness in the section

Hardness measurements are often performed on a transverse or oblique section. This requires that the specimen be prepared without artifacts and that the indentation size be matched to the layer thickness. According to DIN 50133 Tl (T2), the lateral


Figure 160. Schematic representation of hardness measurements on an obhque section, h indentation depth, t — layer thickness.

distance between the center of the indentation and the edge of the layer should be at least 2.5 times the length of a diagonal. According to Berdikov et al. (1978, 1980) hardness indentations can also be made in a transverse section for purposes of testing adhesive strength. The obhque section provides a larger measurement area and makes it possible to create hardness profiles. As shown in Fig. 160, indentations can be produced at increasing distances from the layer surface or substrate surface as the indentation load is held constant.

When the section angle is known, the hardness values can be plotted over the depth. However, it is important to give careful consideration to the influence of the substrate on the hardness value E. Matthei (1987) has conducted a thorough inves-tigation of layer hardness measurements.

1

7 Literature

The following list contains publications on preparing polished sections of ceramic materials. It is intended to supplement the information presented herein by providing an overview of the processes and methods of practical ceramography. The publica-tions are presented in alphabetical order by the names of the authors. This is not intended to be a complete Ust.

Alberts, F., 1975. A new etching procedure for alumina. Prakt. Metallogr. 12, 207.

Angelides, P., 1961. Relief poUshing of high-alumina ceramics for metallographic study. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 44, 145.

Anstis, G.R., Chantikul, P., Lawn, B.R., Marschall, D.B. 1981. A critical evaluation of indentation techniques for measuring fracture toughness I, direct crack measurements. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 64, 533.

Asakura, H., Takahara, M., 1983. Feuerfeste Werkstoffe. Structure Nr. 6, 3.

Babu, N.S., Ramesh Narayanan, P., Natarajan, A., 1995. Metallographic charac-terisation of sihcide coatings on niobium alloys. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 260.

Baden, M., Dengel, D., 1985. Vickershartepriifung im Kleinlast- und Mikrobereich mittels Eindringtiefenmessung. HTM 40, 107.

Bangert, H. et al., 1983. Ultramikrohartemessung an diinnen Schichten und fein-strukturierten Oberflachen. Vakuum-Technik 31, 200.

Bangert, H. et al., 1981. Ultramikrohardness tester for use in a SEM. Colloid Polym. Sci. 259, 238.

Bartosiewiez, L., 1976. Chemical dissolution of unreacted free siUcon in nitride. Prakt. Metallogr. 13, 379.

Bauer, J., PoUtis, C , 1982. Preparation and conductivity of the carbon-rich lantha-num borocarbide La5B2C6. J. Less-Conunon Met. 88, 11.

Beck, U., Reiners, G., Mann, M., Netzband, O., 1995. Determining the thickness of layers in cross and angled cross sections of coating systems using embeddet test bodies and reference measures. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 388.

Belous, K.P., 1973. Processing ceramics by cutting. Glass Ceram. 30, 396.

Bennet, W.J., 1975. Fluorescent dye technique for the study of porosity in castings. Prakt. Metallogr. 12, 25.

159

160 CHAPTER 7 LITERATURE

Berdikov, V.F. et al., 1978. Measurement of the adhesion strength of coatings to substrates by microindentation method. Ind. Lab., USA, 44, 1734.

Berdikov, V.F. et al, 1980. Microhardness tester with automatic recording of in-dentation or stratching diagramm. Ind. Lab., USA, 46(5), 508.

Bernal, E., Koepke, G., Koepke, B.G., 1973. Residual stresses in machines MgO crystals. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 56, 634.

Beyer, H., 1977. Handbuch der Mikroskopie in der Technik, VEB-Verlag Technik.

Bierlein, T.K., Newkirk, H.W., Jr., Mastel, B., 1958. Etching of refractories and cermets by ion bombardment. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 41, 196.

Binner, J.P., Stevens, R., 1984. The measurement of toughness by indentation. British Ceramic 83, 168.

Bocaccini, A. R., 1998. Study of the sintering of glass and ceramics under constant heating rate conditions using the leica heating microscope. Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 80.

Bomer, G., Gorgentyi, T., Huschka, H., Schinzer, F., 1965. Metallographische Praparation von Kembrennstoff-Partikeln. Prakt. Metallogr. 2, 171.

Bomer, G., Gorgenyi, T., Venet, P., 1972. Metallographische und rontgenogra-phische Charakterisierung von Samariumcarbiden. Prakt. Metallogr. 9, 931.

Bousfield, B., 1992. Nicht-empirische SchUffpraparation. Prakt. Metallogr. 29, 7.

Bousfield, B., 1992. Surface Preparation and Microscopy of Materials, Wiley, Chichester.

Brindley, W.J., Leonhardt, T.A., 1990. Metallographic techniques for evaluation of thermal barrier coatings. Mater. Charact. 24, 93.

Buchmeyer, P., Vaupel, H., 1970. Erfahrungen bei der Herstellung keramographischer Anschliffe. Tonind. Ztg. 94, 142.

Buckle, H., 1965. Mikrohartepriifung und ihre Anwendung, Berliner Union Verlag Stuttgart.

Buckle, H., Gehrke, R., 1967. Verfahren zur Verbesserung der mikroskopischen Sichtbarkeit kleinster Harteprufeindriicke nach Vickers in transparenten We-rkstoffen. VDI-Bericht Nr. 100, 107-109.

Buckle, H., 1961. Spezifische Schwierigkeiten bei der Durchfuhrung der Kleinlast-und der Mikrohartepriifung nach Vickers. VDI-Ber-41, 21-28.

Biihler, H.-E., Hougardy, H.P., 1980. Atlas der Interferenzschichten-Metallographie, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Metallkunde Oberursel.

Busch, D.M., Prins, J.F., 1972. A basic study of diamond grinding of alumina, NBS spec. Pubis. Nr. 348, 73.

LITERATURE 161

Cain, F.M., Jr., 1974. Practical applications of cathodic vacuum etching. In: McCall, J.L., Mueller, W.M. (Eds.), Metallographic Specimen Preparation. Plenum Press, New York, p. 207.

Carle, V., Trippel, B., Taffner, U., Schafer, U., Predel, F., Telle, R., Petzow, G., 1995. Ceramography of high performance ceramics - description of materials, prepa-ration, etching techniques and description of microstructures. Part VIII: Alumin-ium oxide. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 54.

Carle, V., Schafer, U., Tripple, B., Eschner, Th., 1998. Ceramography of high per-formance ceramics materials, preparation, etching and microstructures. Part X: The microstructures of mixed ceramics. Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 529.

Carle, V., Schafer, U., Taffner, U., Predel, F., Telle, R., Petzow, G., The ceramo-graphy of high performance ceramics - description of materials, preparation, etching techniques and description of Microstructures. Part I, 1991. Ceramographic etching, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 359. Part II, 1991. Silicon carbide, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 420. Part III, 1991. Zirconium dioxide, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 468. Part IV, 1991. Aluminium nitride, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 542. Part V, 1991. Silicon nitride, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 592. Part VI, 1991. High temperature-super conductor YBa2Cu307, Prakt. Metallogr. 28, 359. Part VII, 1994. Boron carbide, Prakt. Metallogr. 31, 218. Part VIII, 1995. Aluminium oxide, Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 55. Part DC, 1995. Pores and pull-out, Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 440. Part X, 1998. The microstructure of mixed ceramics, Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 529. Part XI, 1998. Beta-aluminates, Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 646.

Champagne, B., Beauvy, M., Angers, R., 1976. Metallography of Boron Carbide, Metallography 9, 357.

Chatfield, C, Norstrom, H., 1983. Plasma etching of sialon. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 66, C-168.

Cochran, F.L., Knipping, J.E., 1968. Metallography of metal carbide/carbon-coated fuel particles. Prakt. Metallogr. 5, 18.

Correns, C.W., 1942. Die Messung der Durchlassigkeit der Gesteine. Oel und Kohle 38, 1247.

Covanough, R.J., Knutson, C.F., 1960. Laboratory technique for plastic saturation of porous rocks. Bull. Am. Assoc. Geol. 628.

DaiB, S., Bischoff, E., Griinenwald, B., 1996. Metallographic characterisation of stelUte/WC composite layers produced by laser cladding. Prakt. Metallogr. 33, 99.

Dalgleish, B.J., Pratt, P.L., 1973. The microstructure of reaction-bonded siUcon nit-ride. Proc. British Ceram. Soc. 22, 923.


Davis, C.E., 1974. Untersuchung der EinfluBgroBen beim Flachlappen mit Diamant-Mikrokomungen. Diamant-Information M 27.

Dawihl, W., Altmeyer, G., 1964. Verfahren zur Bestimmung des Forai-anderungswiderstandes durch die RiBbildungsarbeit. Z. Metallkunde 55, 453.

Dengel, D., Kroeske, E., 1984. Uber Ursache und Unterdriickung der Prufkraftab-hangigkeit der Vickersharte. HTM 39, 194.

Dengel, D., Kroske, E., 1978. Vorlastfreie digitale Hartemessung mit dem Vickers-Eindringkorper zur Eraiittlung der Hartekennzahl unter Last. VDI-Bericht 308, 63.

Dillinger, L., 1983. Metallographic preparation of ceramic and cermet materials, Leco Corp., St. Joseph, Mich. 8 p.

Dow Whitney, E., Shepler, R.E., 1974. Ceramics in abrasive processes. Materials Science Research 167.

Gugel, E., 1975. Mikroskopie keramischer WerkstoflFe fur die chemische Technik. In: Handbuch der Mikroskopie in der Technik, Bd. 7, Umschau-Verlag.

Ehman, M.F., Medellin, D., Forrest, F.F., 1976. Mechanical preparation of sapphire single-crystal surfaces by vibratory techniques. Metallography 9, 333.

Ehman, M.F., 1974. Surface preparation of ceramic oxide crystals, work damage and microhardness. J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 1240.

Elssner, G., Kiessler, G., Hoven, H., Kopp, W.U., 1992. Praparation eines hart-geloteten Metall/Graphit-Verbunds. Prakt. Metallogr. 29, 494.

Elssner, G., Petzow, G., 1990. Metall/ceramic joining. ISIJ International 30, 1011.

Elssner, G., Petzow, G., 1978. Metallographic von keramischen Werkstoffen und Metall/KeramikVerbundsystemen, Sonderband 9 der Prakt. Metallogr. 207.

Elssner, G., Petzow, G., 1981. Modern ceramographic preparation and etching methods for incident Ught and scanning electron microscopy. Microstructural Science Vol. 9, Elsevier, Nort-HoUand, p. 83.

Elssner, G., Honecker, H., 1979. Anschhifpraparation barter und sproder MateriaUen mit dem Technotron-Schleif- und Poliersystem. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 205.

Elssner, G., Honecker, H., 1981. Anschliffpraparation von Keramiken mit Diamantschleifscheiben bei erhohter Umdrehungsgeschwindigkeit. Sonderband 12 der Prakt. Metallogr. 283.

Elssner, G., Hoven, H., Hxibner, G., Kohler, P.J., Koppe, P., Wellner, P., 1985. Methoden zur Anschliffpraparation keramischer Werkstoffe, Deutsche Kera-mische Gesellschaft, Bad Honnef.

Elssner, G., Kunkel, K., Dieser, K., Weber, S., Kopp, W.U., 1990. Praparation von Keramikspritzschichten auf Metallsubstraten. Prakt. Metallogr. 27, 211.

LITERATURE 163

Elssner, G., 1989. Keramographie und Metallographie von Ubergangsbereichen zwischen Keramik und Metall. Prakt. Metallogr. 26, 202.

Elssner, G., Pabst, R., Aldinger, S., 1976. Gefugeausbildung bei Keramik-Metall-Verbindungen. Sonderband 6 der Prakt. Metallogr. 274.

Elssner, G., Aldinger, S., Kiilinemann, S., 1979. Probleme bei der Anschliffprapa-ration sproder Materialien. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 361.

Elssner, G., Riedel, S., Pabst, R., 1975. Fraktographie und Bruchverlauf in Keramik-Metall-Verbindungen. Prakt. Metallogr. 12, 234.

Elssner, G., Kopp, W.U., 1984. Anschliffpraparation keramischer und metallkera-mischer Werkstoffe, eine Litaraturzusammenstellung. Prakt. Metallogr. 21, 633.

Elyard, C.A., 1962. Discussion of robinson and gardner note on preparation of highly dense AI2O3 for microscopic examination. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 45, 47.

Enderlein, H., Hellriegel, W., Pejsa, R., 1971. Metallographische Praparation von hochaktiven keramischen Kembrennstoffen. KFK-Nachrichten 3, 26.

Engelhardt, G., Kalb, S., 1974. Atzverfahren zum anatzen von Versetzungen in polykristallinem Aluminiumoxid. Ber. Dt. Keram. Ges. 51, 231.

Esper, F.J., Heimke, G., 1976. Gefiige und Eigenschaften keramischer Werkstoffe. Prakt. Metallogr. 13, 122.

Esper, F.J., Friese, K.H., Singer, E., 1978. Gemeinschaftsversuche zur Messung der Rauheit kesamischer Oberfiachen. DKG-Fachausschussbericht Nr. 21.

Evans, A.G., Davidge, A.W., 1969. The strength and fracture of fully dense poly-crystalline magnesium oxide. Phil. Mag. 20, 373.

Evans, A.G., Charles, E.A., 1976. Fracture toughness determinations by indentation. J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 59, 413.

Evans, A.G., 1979. Fracture toughness: The role of indentation techniques. In: Fracture Mechanics Applied to Brittle Materials. ASTM STP No. 678, p. 112.

Evans, P.E., Wildsmith, G., 1961. Evidence of phase changes in zirconia from thermal etching. Nature 189, 569.

Exner, H.E., Roth, J., 1980. Erfahrungen beim metallographischen Kontrastieren mit reaktiv gesputterten Schichten. Prakt. Metallogr. 17, 365.

Forejt, M., Krejcova, J., Smutna, S., Krejci, J., 1995. Metallography and quaUty control of dies made from WC-Co cemented carbides. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 248.

Frechette, V.D., 1964. Experimental techniques for microstructure investigation, microstructure of ceramic materials. National Bureau of Standards, Miscell. Publ., Publ. 251, Washington.


Freund, H., Handbuch der Mikroskopie in der Technik, Umschau-Verlag, Frankfurt, Bd. 4, Teil 1.

Fryer, G.M., Roberts, J.P., 1963. Some techniques for microscopical examination of ceramic materials. Trans. Brit. Ceram. Soc. 62, 537.

Galopin, R., Henry, N.F.M., 1976. Microscopic Study of Opaque Minerals, W. Heffer and Sons Cambridge Hier auch: Specimen Preparation 227.

Gardner, R.E., Robinson, G.W., Jr., 1962. Improved method for poUshing ultrahigh-density MgO. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 45, 46.

Gendron, N.J., 1959. Mounting of geological specimens in clear cold setting Plastic. Econ. Geol. 54, 308.

Gendron, N.J., 1974. Mounting, lapping and polishing large sizes and quantities of metallographic specimens. In: McCall, J.L., Mueller, W.M. (Eds.), Metallographic Specimen Preparation, Plenum Press, New York, p. 121.

Gidikova, N., Kovacheva, R., 1996. Titanium- and molybdenum-boride composite coatings on steel. Prakt. Metallogr. 33, 154.

Glahn, L.-R., 1967. Die Glasscheiben-Poliertechnik und ihre Anwendung. Prakt. Metallogr. 4, 120.

Graf, I., 1998. Ion etching - state of the art and perspectives for the microstructure of ceramic and metalUc materials. Part 1: Development and physics in ion etching. Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 235.

Grasenick, F., Warbichler, P., 1979. Auswirkungen verschiedener Bearbeitungs-methoden auf die Oberflachenwiedergabe poroser MateriaUen. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 537.

Gyarmati, E., Hoven, H., 1970. Verfahren zum elektrolytischen Atzen von pyroly-tischem Siliziumkarbid. Prakt. Metallogr. 7, 117.

Hagemann-Liebl, I., 1977. Anschliffpraparation von keramischen Werkstoffen mit Pedepin. Prakt. Metallogr. 14, 483.

Haupt, D., Zimmermann, P., 1978. Praparation und Auswertung von Anschliffen extrem barter heterogener Materialien. SiUkattechnik 29, 211.

Hausser, C, Ondracek, G., 1966. Metallographische Untersuchungen an Metall-Keramik-Schichten. Prakt. Metallogr. 3, 112.

Haussonne, J.M., Sanzedde, Ch., 1971. Quelques methodes de preparation des ceramiques pour examen en microscopic optique par reflexion. L' Industrie Ceramique Heft 639, 296.

Hennicke, H.W., Kohler, P.J., 1983. Gefiigeentwicklung an Al203-Keraniiken. Prakt. Metallogr. 20, 159.

LITERATURE 165

Herold, H.C., Tassone, G., Hausner, H., 1972. Electrolytic etching of SiC in PyC-SiC-PyC Coated particles. Prakt. Metallogr. 9, 674.

Herrmann, E., 1977. Metallographische Untersuchung an Bauteilen mit thermisch gespritzten VerschleiBschutzschichten. Prakt. Metallogr. 14, 462.

Hockey, B.J., 1972, Observations on mechanically abraded aluminium oxide crystals by transmission electron microscopy. NBS Spec. Publ. Nr. 348, p. 333.

Holzberg, A., Simmchen, E., Blank, Ch., 1996. The metallographic preparation of laser processed, protective wear resistant coatings with hard metal-Hke micro-structures. Prakt. Metallogr. 33, 400.

Honecker, H,, Elssner, G., 1980. Schleifen keramischer Werkstoffe mit Diamant-schleifscheiben bei erhohter Umdrehungsgeschwindigkeit. Prakt. Metallogr. 17, 294.

Homer, G., Gorgenyi, T., 1969. Metallographische Praparation von umhiillten Kembrennstoff-Partikeln. Prakt. Metallogr. 6, 172.

Houle, M.C., Coble, R.L., 1962. Ceramographic techniques, I. Single phase polycrystaUine hard materials. Bull. Am. Ceram. Soc. 41, 378.

Hiibner, G., Jungnick-Endl, E., Hausner, H., 1979. Quantitative Kontrolle und Optimierung von Schleif- und Poherverfahren. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 393.

Hiibner, G., Jungnick, E., Hausner, H., 1978. Praparation von Al203-Sinterk6rpern fiir Gefiigeuntersuchungen. Sonderband 9 der Prakt. Metallogr. 265.

Hiibner, G., Hausner, H., 1981. Werkstoftspezifische Anschliffpraparation von keramischen Sinterkorpem. Sonderband 13 der Prakt. Metallogr. 18, 172.

Hiinlich, A., 1967. Methoden zur Schliffherstellung von UO2 und U02-Ce02. Prakt, Metallogr. 4, 113.

Ihrenberger, A., Benesovsky, P., 1967. Zur Metallographic von Oxid/Metall-Werkstoflfen, Prakt, Metallogr, 4, 489,

lUgen, L,, Findeisen, B,, 1966, Bemerkungen zur Ermittlung von Mikrohartewerten an hochelastischen Werkstoffen, Prakt, Metallogr, 3, 283,

Imanaka, O,, Okutomi, M., 1979. New Concepts on surface finishing and its appU-cation to ceramics, Proc, 2nd Int, Symp, on Science of Ceramic, Machining and Surface Finishing,

Juchem, H,0,, June 1975, New developments in ceramics and semiconductor ma-chining in Germany, Ind. Diamond Rev, 208,

Kapuri, N,, Rai, K.N., Upadhyaya, G,S,, Warriar, G,K,K,, Satyanarayana, K,G,, 1995, SEM studies of muUite-Zr02 particulate composites, Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 197.


Kesten, M., Paul, G., Ziegler, G., 1978. KoragroBenauswertung an Aluminiumoxid unterschiedlicher Porositat. Sonderband 9, Prakt. Metallogr. p. 277.

Kiessler, G., Rapp, H., Elssner, G., 1983. Untersuchungen zum Optimieren des Trennens bei der metallographischen Probenpraparation. Sonderband 13, Prakt. Metallogr. 113.

Kingery, W.D., 1976. Microstructure of Ceramics, In: W.D. Kingery, H.K. Bowen, D.R. Uhlmann. Introduction to Ceramics. Wiley, New York, p. 516.

Knoch, H., Leucht, R., Ziegler, G., 1978. Untersuchungsmethoden zur Ge-fugecharakterisierung von heissgepreBtem Siliciumnitrid. Sonderband 9 der Prakt. Metallogr. 255.

Koepke, B.G., 1972. An assessment of surface and subsurface damage introduced in ceramics by semifinish grinding operations. NBS Spec. Publ, Nr. 348, p. 317.

Kopp, W.-U., 1979. Anschliffpraparation von Kohle und technischer Kohle fiir die quantitative Bildanalyse. Microscopica Acta, Supplement 3, 13.

Kopp, W.-U., 1980. Anschlifftechnik bei Keramikproben. Prakt. Metallogr. 17, 353.

Kopp, W.-U., Weidmann, E., 1977. Anschliffpraparation von Halogenidglasem fur die Infrarot-Spektroskopie. Prakt. Metallogr. 14, 263.

Kopp, W.-U., Linke, U., 1979, Praparation und Gefiige von gesinterten Karbiden. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 257.

Kopp, W.-U., Linke, U., 1980. Zur Metallographie von Verbundwerkstoffen. Son-derband 11 der Prakt. Metallogr. 193.

Kopp, W.-U., Miiller, G., 1985. Praparation von porosen Werkstoffen. Prakt. Met-allogr. 22, 490.

Koppe, P., Schricker, K., 1979. Zeitsparende Praparationsmethode fiir keramische WerkstoflFe. Prakt. Metallogr. 16, 381.

Kovacheva, R., Davinova, R., Stanimirova, M., 1996. Metallographie investigation of transition metals nitrides. Prakt. Metallogr. 33, 247.

Krause, R.F., 1988. Rising fracture toughness from bending strength of indented alumina beams. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 71, 338.

Krisch, A., Gaselin, V.V., Kuchenko, V.V., 1982. Bestimmung der Mikroharte aus Eindringtiefenmessungen mit mehreren Diamantformen. Materialpriifung 24, 130.

Kristen, D., 1971. Eine Praparationsmethode zur Darstellung und quantitativen Erfassung von Poren in Gesteinsoberflachen mit dem Leitz-Classimat. Leitz-Mitt. f. Wiss. u. Technik 5, 148.

Kurth, R., Steinbrech, R.W., Kleist, G., Nickel, H., 1996. Stabile Ausbreitung von kurzen und langen Rissen in SiSiC und Si3N4 Strukturkeramik zur Ermittlung der RiBzahigkeit, KFA-Bericht, Jul-3188 ISSN 0944-2952.

LITERATURE 167

Landi, E., Casagrande, A., 1997. Production and characterisation of nicalon fiber/ aluminium alloy composites. Prakt. Metallogr. 34, 456.

Landi, E., Cammarota, G.P., 1996. Reaction interfaces in NaBH4-pretreated nicalon fiber/Cu-Al alloy. Composite, Prakt. Metallogr. 33, 350.

Langier, M.T., 1985. The elastic/plastic indentation of ceramics. J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 4, 1539.

Lawn, B.R., Evans, A.G., Marshall, D.B., 1980. Elastic plastic indentation damage in ceramics: The median/radial crack system. J. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 63, 574.

Lockwood, W.H., 1950. Impregnating sandstone specimens with thermosetting plastics for studies of oil bearing formations. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 34, 2061.

Lugscheider, E., Eschnauer, H., Hauser, B., Agethen, R., 1987. Coating morpholo-gies of supersonic plasma-sprayed stabiUzed zirconium oxides. Surface and Coatings Technology 30, 29.

Lugscheider, E., Krappitz, H., Peters, R., 1987. Methods for preparing brazed ce-ramic-metal joints in order to determine the phase composition and joint-structure. Prakt. Metallogr. 24, 195.

MacDonald, W.A., Wheat, T.A., Quon, H.H., 1978. A method for the rapid mounting and polishing of ceramic materials for microstructural examinations. J. Mat. Sc. 13, 905.

Manasevitch, H.M., 1974. Gas-phase etching of sapphire. J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 293.

Marshall, D.B., Lawn, B.R., 1986. Indentation of brittle materials. In: P. Plan, B.R. Lawn (Eds.), Microindentation Techniques in Material Science and Engineering. ASTM STP 889, ASTM, p. 26.

Matthei, E., 1987. Harteprufungen mit kleinen Prufkraften und ihre Anwendung bei Randschichten, DGM-Informationsgesellschaft Verlag ISBN 3-88355-127.

Mizell, M., 1982. Flame spray coated materials. Automatic Preparation, Structure 3, 66.

Mott, B.W., 1957. Die Mikrohartepriifung, Verlag: Berliner Union Stuttgart.

Miicke, U., Rabe, T., Goebbels, J., 1998. The investigation of porosity distribution in a SiC-ceramic using 3D X-Ray tomography and optical Ught microscopy. Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 665.

MuUer, G., Kopp, W.-U., 1989. Preparation technology for composites and coatings for microscopic quahty evaluation. Sprechsaal Int. Ceram. Glass Mag. 122, 643.

Munz, D., Fett, T., 1989. Mechanisches Verhalten Keramischer Werkstoffe, Springer Verlag, BerUn-Heidelberg.


N.N., 1982. How to obtain planeness and edge retention. Structure 5, 17.

N.N., 1982. Impragnieren von porosen Werkstoffen. Structure 3 (Struers Metal-lograpbische Neuheiten) 14.

N.N., 1981. Priifung von Aluminiumoxidkeramik, Keramographie-Vergleich von Atzverfahren und Empfehlungen, Richtlinien der Deutschen Keramischen Ge-sellschaft Nr. 5, DKG-FachausschuBbericht Nr. 22, 13.

N.N., 1987. Petrographic Sample Preparation for Microstructural Analysis, Buehler Digest 24 No. 1.

Nelson, J.A., Slepian, R.M., 1970. Die Anwendung der Vakuumimpragnierung auf fiinf metallographische Einbettprobleme. Prakt. Metallogr. 7, 510.

Neukater, E., 1977. Diamond tools for the machining of glass-ceramic and refractory materials. Sprechsaal 110, 418.

Niihara, K., Morena, R., Hassehnann, D.P.H., 1982. Evaluation of Kjc of brittle solids by the indentation method with low crack-to-indent ratios. J. Mater. Sci. Lett. 1, 13.

Nitzsche, H.G., 1981. Einsatz des Rasterelektronenmikroskopes in der Keramog-raphie. Prakt. Metallogr. 18, 172.

O'Meara, C, Nilsson, P., Dunlo, G.L., 1986. The evaluation of p-Si3N4 micro-structures using plasma-etching as a preparative technique. J. de Physique 17, 1.

Oberlander, B., Strutz, E.O., 1978. Praparation keramischer Proben mit der Pede-max-Planopol-Schleif-und Polierautomatik. Prakt. Metallogr. 15, 547.

Oberlander, B., Kvernes, I., 1983. Metallographic studies of plasma-sprayed duplex coating system. Metallography 16, 117.

Ondracek, G., 1964. Anwendung metallographischer Methoden auf Keramiken, Cermets and Sintermetalle. Prakt. Metallogr. 1, 113 and 152.

Ondracek, G., Leder, B., Politis, C, 1968. Quantitative Schliffpraparation bei Metall-Keramik-Kombinationen. Prakt. Metallogr. 5, 71.

Ondracek, G., Spieler, H., 1973. Gasatzen, ein neues Kontrastierungsverfahren in der Gefugepraparation, Teil 1: Oxide, Oxidcermets und andere Verbundwerbstoffe. Prakt. Metallogr. 324.

Ondracek, G., Ludwig, U., 1968. Veranderungen im Oberflachenbereich metal-lographiseh praparierter Proben. Prakt. Metallogr. 5, 369.

Palmqvist, S., 1962. RiBbildungsarbeit bei Vickerseindriicken als MaB fiir die Za-higkeit von Hartmetallen. Archiv fiir Eisenhiittenwesen 33, 77.

Payer, B., Jahn, S., 1977. Neue metallographische Anschliffpraparationsmethode fiir Keramiken. Prakt. Metallogr. 14, 630.

LITERATURE 169

Petzow, G., 1964. Das Vibrationsverfahren als metallographische Praparations-technik. Berg.- und Huttenm. Monatsh. 109, 66.

Petzow, G., 1994. Metallographisches, keramographisches, plastographisches Atzen, 6. xiberarbeitete Auflage. Gebr. Bomtrager Berlin, Stuttgart.

Petzow, G., Claussen, N., Roser, K., 1976. Gefuge und Eigenschaften metallkera-mischer Werkstoffe mit keramischer Matrix. Sonderband 6 der Prakt. Metallogr. 225.

Politis, C, Ohtani, S., 1967. Moglichlichkeiten zur chemischen Atzung keramischer StoflFe. Prakt. Metallogr. 4, 401.

Porz, F., Martin, E., 1981. Beitrag zur Charakterisierung von reaktionsgesintertem Siliciumnitrid. Prakt. Metallogr. 19, 66.

Porz, F., Stahl, R., Thiimmler, F., 1979. Characterization of the microstructure of reaction sintered silicon nitride. Powder Metallurgy International 11, 133.

Puppel, D., Grellner, W., Wunschmann, M., 1978. Kombiniertes Atzverfahren fiir die KomgroBenbestinunung an Al203-TiC-Sinterprodukten. Prakt. Metallogr. 15, 528.

Ramdohr, P., Rehwald, G., 1960. Die Auswahl der Untersuchungsproben und die Herstellung der Anschliffe, Handbuch der Mikroskopie in der Technik, Hrsg. H. Freund, Band I Teil 2, Frankfurt, 187.

Rat, F., Boberski, C, 1995. The correlation of fracture toughness and crack propa-gation in Si3N4 ceramics. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 297.

Rice, R.W., Spiranello, B.K., 1976. Effect of microstructure on rate of machining of ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 59, 330.

Rice, R.W., 1974. Machining of ceramics. In: J.J. Burk, A.E. Gorum, R.N. Katz (Eds.), Ceramics for High Performance Applications. Brook Hill Publ. Chestnut Hill., p. 287.

Rice, R.W., 1973. Machining, surface work hardening and strength of MgO. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 56, 536.

Rice, R.W., 1972. The Effect of Sputtering on Surface Topography and Strength of Ceramics, NBS Spec. Publ. No. 348, 171.

Richardson, J.M., 1971. Optical Microscopy for the Materials Sciences, Marcel Dek-ker Inc.

Riekers, D., Adler, J., Wendrock, H., Wetzig, K., 1998. An investigation of the microstructures of SiC-ceramic filters as a function of their manufacture by image analysis. Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 480.

Rigby, G.R., Green, A.T., 1953. Thin Section Mineralogy of Ceramic Materials, The British Research Association.


Robertson, W.M., 1981. Thermal etching and grain boundary grooving of silicon ceramics. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 64, 9.

Robinson, G.W., Jr., Gardner, R.E., 1974. Ceramographic preparation of silicon carbide. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 57, 201.

Robinson, G.W., Gardner, R.E., 1961. Preparation of highly dense AI2O3 for microscopic examination. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 44, 418.

Rossi, G., Burke, J.E., 1973. Influence of additives on the microstructure of sintered AI2O3. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 56, 654.

Rutter, F., 1970. The preparation of refractory materials for examination in reflected Ught. J. Brit. Ceram. Soc. 7, 85.

Salmong-Scholze, 1983. Keramik, Teil 1 und 2, Springer-Verlag.

Sangwal, K., Sutaria, J.N., 1976. Etching of MgO crystals in acids: Surface micro-morphology. J. Mater. Sci. 11, 2271.

Sari, C, Bazior, E., Pithan, K., Tebaldi, V., 1968. Ceramography of plutonium oxides. Prakt. Metallogr. 5, 628.

Sari, C, Tebaldi, V., Pithan, K., 1969. Ceramography of uranium-plutonium oxides. Prakt. Metallogr. 5, 556.

Schluter, P., Elssner, G., Riihle, M., 1981. Durchstrahlungsmikroskopische Untersuchung der Schadigungsstiefe mechanisch polierter Anschliffe einer Alu-miniumoxid-Keramik. Sonderband 12, Prakt. Metallogr. 302.

Schluter, P., Wallace, J.S., Elssner, G., 1980. Gefugeentwicklung bei keramischen Werkstoffen mit der ionenstrahlatzmethode. Sonderband 11, Prakt. Metallogr. 291.

Schluter, P., Aldinger, S., Elssner, G., 1978. Vergleich der Kontrastierung von Phasen in Nichteisenmetallen und Verbundsystemen durch Gasionenbeschichten und durch chemisches Atzen. Sonderband 9, Prakt. Metallogr. 57.

Schneiderhohn, H., 1952. Die Anfertigung von ErzanschUffen, Erzmikroskopisches Praktikum. Stuttgart Kap. 2, 56.

Schreiner, M., Wruss, W., Lux, B., 1983. Moglichkeiten der Gefiigecharakterisierung von AlaOs-TiC-Sinterkeramiken. Sonderband 14, Prakt. Metallogr. 101.

Schumann, H., 1991. Metallographie, Deutscher Verlag fur Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig.

Schwarz, M., 1983. Metallographische Methoden zur Darstellung und Analyse von Emailschichten. Prakt. Metallogr. 20, 267.

Sedlacek, R., Halden, F.A., Jorgensen, P.J., 1972. On the strength of ceramics as a function of microstructure, grinding parameters, surface finish and environmental conditions. NBS Spec. Publ. Nr. 34B, 99.

LITERATURE 171

Singh, G.D., Narasimhan, M.D., 1975. Study of ceramic microstructures with reflected light technique. Indian Ceram. 18, 239.

Smith, F.W., Alavi, M.J., 1985. Stress intensity factors for a penny shaped crack in a half plane. Eng. Fract. Mech. Sci. 20, 403.

Smith, R.G., 1978. High quaUty surfaces on difficult specimens. Prakt. Metallogr. 15, 23.

Snow, R.B., 1960. Techniques for controlUng surface pitting in poUshing ceramic materials. ASTM Spec. Techn. Publ. No. 285, 103.

Spieler, K., 1972. Der Einfluss verschiedener Diamantpoliermittel auf die Schlifigiite von Cermets. Prakt. Metallogr. 9, 27.

Stokes, R.J., 1972. Effects of surface finishing on mechanical and other physical properties of ceramics. NBS Spec. Publ. Nr. 348, 343.

Sundahl, R.C., Benin, L., 1972. Analysis and characterization of ceramic surfaces for electronic appUcation. NBS Spec. Publ. Nr. 348, 271.

Swain, M.V. (Herausgeber), 1994. Structure and Properties of Ceramics, Vol. 11 in Materials Science and Technology, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft Weinheim.

Taffher, U., Hoffmann, M.J., Kramer, M., 1990. Ein Vergleich zwischen verschiedenen physikalischchemischen Atzverfahren fur SiUciumnitrid-Keramiken. Prakt. Metallogr. 27, 385.

Taylor, H.D., 1963. Microscopy technique for alumina ceramics. Bull. Am. Ceram. Soc. 42, 104.

Telle, R., Carle, V., Predel, F., Schafer, U., Taffner, U., Petzow, G., 1995. Ceramography of high performance ceramics. Part IX: Pores and chips. Prakt. Metallogr. 32, 440.

Telle, R., Carle, V., Predel, F., Schafer, U., Taffner, U., Petzow, G., 1994. Keramographie von Hochleistungskeramiken: Poren und Ausbriiche. Sonderband 25 der Prakt. Metallogr. 147.

Thiel, N.W., 1972. Das Schleifen von Keramik mit Diamantscheiben. Industrie-Diamanten Rundschau 6, 6.

Timmler, A., Verworner, D., 1974. Herstellung von Anschliffen feuerfester Erzeugnisse mit dem Schleif- und PoUergerat Montasupal 111. Silikattechnik 25, 59.

Timmler, A., 1974. Schleiftechnologie fiir Anschliffe von extrem hartem Material mit dem Schleifgerat Montasupal 111. Silikattechnik 25, 86.

Treibs, N.A., 1977. Porosity characterization of ceramic nuclear fuel. Prakt. Metal-logr. 14, 583.

Trippel, A., Schafer, U., Hachtel, A., Schafer, G., Eschner, T., 1998. The ceramo-graphy of high performance ceramics. Part XI: Beta-aluminates - description of


materials, preparation, etching techniques and description of microstructures, Prakt. Metallogr. 35, 646.

Trojer, F., 1982. Die Herstellung relieffreier AnschUffe. Karithin 19, 150.

Triick, B., Oberlander, B., 1986. Metallographic methods for evaluation of thermal barrier coating. In: Ceramic Coatings for Heat Engines, Les Editions Physique, Les Ulis p. 221.

Turwitt, M., Elssner, G., Kiessler, G., 1987. Metallographische Untersuchungen an Verbunden zwischen-einer Titanlegierung und einer Aluminiumoxid-Keramik. Prakt. Metallogr. 24, 560.

Turwitt, M., Elssner, G., Petzow, G., 1987. Charakterisierung des Materialiibergangs von Metall/Keramik-Verbindungen durch Vickersharteeindriicke. Prakt. Metal-logr. 24, 301.

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Turwitt, M., Miicke, H., Opiolka, S., Elssner, G., 1986. Metallographische Priifung von Metall-Keramik-Ubergangen. Prakt. Metallogr. 23, 325.

Vanderwilt, J.W., 1928. Improvements in the poUshing of ores. Econ Geol. 23, 292.

Volkel, H., 1967. Allgemeines iiber die Anfertigung von Dunnschliffen und Ans-chUffen. Der Praparator 13, 155.

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LITERATURE 173

Werner, L, 1978. Metallographische Praparationstechniken bei der Fehleranalyse von Halbleiterbauelementen. Sonderband 9 der Prakt. Metallogr. 121.

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Willmann, G., 1978. Kontrastierung oxidkeramischer Anschliffe. Sonderband 9 der Prakt. Metallogr. 237.

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Ziegler, G., Munz, D., 1981. Bruchwiderstandsmessungen an AI2O3 und Si3N4 mit der Knoop-Harteeindrucktechnik. Ber. Dt. Keram. Ges. 56, 69.

Ziegler, R., Stierle, B., 1980. Beobachtungen bei der Praparation keramischer We-rkstoffe in Abhangigkeit von Belastung und Umdrehungsgeschwindigkeit. Prakt. Metallogr. 17, 509.

Ziegler, R., Stierle, B., 1980. Praparationsverfahren zur Beurteilung des Gefugeaufbaus keramischer Werkstoffe unterschiedUcher Porositat. Sonderband 11 der Prakt. Metallogr. 257.

Ziegler, R., Stierle-Oehmchen, B., Kopp, W.-U., 1981. Die Praparation keramischer Werkstoffe unterschiedUcher Porositat mit automatischen Schleif-und Poliergera-ten. Sonderband 12 der Prakt. Metallogr. 293

Appendix A

A concentration of CI00 specified for cut-off wheels and grinding disks means that 4.4 carats or 0.88 g of diamond grains are present within a volume of 1 cm^ of the abrasive layer. Because diamond has a density of 3.52 g/cm , the abrasive layer contains 25% diamond grains by volume. Abrasive layers with specifications of C50, C75, and C125 therefore contain diamond particles in concentrations that can be described as 2.2 carats/cm^ 3.3 carats/cm^ and 5.5 carats/cm^ or as 12.5%, 18.8%, and 31.3% by volume, respectively. Diamond concentrations are not always specified by the man-ufacturer of the wheel or disk. Wheels used for sectioning ceramic materials have abrasive layers with diamond concentrations between 1 carat/cm^ and 3 carats/cm^. Higher diamond concentrations result in a longer service life and are preferred in cases where a hard bond and a coarse grain are present (see Tables 65 and 66).

Table 65. Grains for diamond and cubic boron nitride

Diamond

FEPA standard

Narrow range

D 1181 D 1001 D851 D711 D601 D501 D426 D356 D301 D251 D213 D 181 D 151 D 126 D 107 D91 D76 D64 D54 D46

Broad range

D 1182

D852

D602

D427

-D252

---------

Cubic boron nitride DIN 848 March 1980 FEPA standard

Narrow range

B 1181 B 1001 B851 B711 B601 B501 B426 B356 B301 B251 B213 B 181 B 151 B 126 B 107 B91 B76 B64 B54 B46

Broad range

B 1182

B852

B602

B427

-B252

---------

Grain size (^im)

1090 925 780 655 550 463 390 328 275 231 196 165 138 116 98 83 69 58 49 42

ASTM-E-11-70 US standard

Narrow range

16/18 18/20 20/25 25/30 30/35 35/40 40/45 45/50 50/60 60/70 70/80 80/100 100/120 120/140 140/170 170/200 200/230 230/270 270/325 325/400

Broad range

16/20

20/30

30/40

40/50

------------

Nominal mesh size ISO R 565 1972 ( im)

1180/1000 1000/850 850/710 710/600 600/500 500/425 425/355 355/300 300/250 250/212 212/180 180/150 150/125 125/106 106/90 90/75 75/63 63/53 53/45 45/38

174

APPENL

Table 66.

'>IX A

Grains for siUcon carbide,

Synthetic corundum FEPA standards

New standard (Mesh)

— 60 80

100 -

120 -

150 180

220 240 280 320

-400 500 600 800

1000 1200 ----

Average grain size (^im)

325 260 196 154 137 120 110 95 75 71 65 59 52 46

-35 31 26 21.8 18.3 13.8

----

corundum (a-

Silicon carbide DIN 58751 August 1970

Nominal grain size

— OS 230

OS 163 -OS 115

-OS 75

_ -OS 53 OS 45 -OS 37 OS 29 -OS 23 OS 17 OS 13 9 7 5 3

Average grain size

im) — 230

163 -115

-75

_ -

53 44.5

-36.5 29.2

22.8 17.3 12.8 9.3 6.5 4.5 3.0

175

AI2O3) and loos abrasives used in optics

DIN 69101 August 1979

Grain ; code

—

--

--

_ -F230 F240 -F280 F320 -F360 F400 F500 F600 F800 F 1000 F 1200

FEPA 45D-1984/ DIN 69176/ISO 6344

Grain code

-P60 P80 P 100 -P 120 -P 150 P 180

P220 P240 P280 P320 P360 P400 P500 p600 P800 P 1000 P 1200 P 1500 P2000 P2500 -

Average grain size

im) _ 260 196 154 -120 -95 75

65 59 52 46

-35 31 26 21.8 18.3 13.8 11.8 9.8 7.5

-

ceramics and ceramic composites materialographic preparation

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