cereal rye - grdc · viii ˜˚˛˝˙ˆˇ˘ january 2018 contents contents cereal rye 3.1 seed...
TRANSCRIPT
SOUTHERNSEPTEMBER 2018
CONTENTS
CEREAL RYE
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IntroductionA.1 Crop overview ..........................................................................................................xxii
A.1.1 Comparative notes ................................................................................................ xxii
A.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................... xxii
A.1.3 Rye for human consumption .............................................................................. xxiv
A.1.4 Rye for animal consumption ............................................................................... xxivGrain ..................................................................................................................................................xxiv
Forage ................................................................................................................................................xxv
Pasture ...............................................................................................................................................xxv
A.2 Growing regions ......................................................................................................xxv
A.3 Brief history ............................................................................................................xxvii
1 Planning/Paddock preparationKey messages: .....................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Paddock selection ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Topography ................................................................................................................... 1Topography mediates the influence of cover crops on soil nitrate levels .....................2
1.1.2 Soil .................................................................................................................................3Rye on erosion-prone soils .............................................................................................................4
Soil pH ....................................................................................................................................................5
Managing soil pH ...............................................................................................................................6
1.1.3 Sampling soil quality .................................................................................................6Sampling strategy ..............................................................................................................................7
Sampling equipment .........................................................................................................................8
Sampling depth ...................................................................................................................................8
Sample handling.................................................................................................................................8
1.1.4 Biological inputs .........................................................................................................9Yield constraints in the Southern Region ...................................................................................9
1.2 Paddock rotation and history ................................................................................... 9Allelopathic effects ........................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 Rotation issues ........................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Break cropping ......................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Long-fallow disorder ................................................................................................13
1.3 Fallow weed control ..................................................................................................14Summer fallow weed control and residue management impacts on winter crop yield through soil water and N accumulation in a winter-dominant low rainfall region of southern Australia. .............................................................. 15
1.3.1 The green bridge ..................................................................................................... 16
1.3.2 Management strategies ..........................................................................................17
1.3.3 Benefits of stubble retention .................................................................................17Reducing erosion risk ..................................................................................................................... 18
Increasing soil-water content ....................................................................................................... 18
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Increasing soil carbon .................................................................................................................... 18
Other benefits of stubble retention ............................................................................................ 19
Management practices affecting stubble cover .................................................................... 19
1.4 Fallow chemical plant-back effects ........................................................................19Conditions required for breakdown ........................................................................................... 21
Plant-back periods for fallow herbicides in the Southern Region ................................... 21
1.4.1 Herbicide residues in soil—an Australia-wide study ...................................... 22
1.5 Seedbed requirements ............................................................................................24
1.5.1 Seedbed soil structure decline ........................................................................... 25Background .......................................................................................................................................25
Management to improve seedbed soil structure .................................................................26
1.6 Soil moisture..............................................................................................................26
1.6.1 Dryland ....................................................................................................................... 26Soil-water extraction by dryland crops, annual pastures and lucerne in south-eastern Australia ............................................................................................................ 27
Monitoring soil moisture in dryland areas ............................................................................... 27
1.6.2 Tillage ......................................................................................................................... 28Tillage, microbial biomass and soil biological fertility ........................................................30
1.6.3 Irrigation ..................................................................................................................... 32Dry matter accumulation and changes in forage quality during primary growth and three regrowths of irrigated winter cereals .................................... 33
The future of irrigation ................................................................................................................... 34
1.7 Yield and targets ......................................................................................................34Estimating crop yields .................................................................................................................... 35
Yield Prophet® .................................................................................................................................. 36
1.7.1 Seasonal outlook .................................................................................................... 36CliMate ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Climate analogues .......................................................................................................................... 37
1.7.2 Fallow moisture ....................................................................................................... 38HowWet? ............................................................................................................................................ 38
1.7.3 Water Use Efficiency .............................................................................................. 38Strategies to increase yield ......................................................................................................... 39
The French–Schultz approach ................................................................................................... 39
1.7.4 Nitrogen-use efficiency ......................................................................................... 40Improving NUE .................................................................................................................................40
Optimising N fertiliser use ............................................................................................................. 41
Environment and genotype influence on grain protein concentration of wheat and rye .............................................................................................................................. 41
1.7.5 Double crop options ............................................................................................... 42
1.8 Disease status of paddock .....................................................................................42
1.8.1 Cropping history effects ........................................................................................ 42
1.8.2 Soil testing for disease ...........................................................................................43PreDicta B .......................................................................................................................................... 43
1.8.3 Nematode status of paddock ...............................................................................44Nematode testing of soil ............................................................................................................... 45
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Effects of cropping history on nematode status ................................................................... 45
1.9 Insect status of paddock .........................................................................................45
1.9.1 Sampling of paddocks and soil for insects ...................................................... 46Sampling methods .......................................................................................................................... 46
1.9.2 Identification ..............................................................................................................47Insect ID: The Ute Guide ............................................................................................................... 47
1.9.3 Effect of cropping history ...................................................................................... 48
2 Pre-plantingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Cereal rye as an alternative crop ............................................................................. 1Cereal rye—an alternative grain crop ..........................................................................................1
2.1.1 Dual-purpose cropping.............................................................................................2Importance of variety choice ..........................................................................................................6
2.1.2 Cereal rye for forage ................................................................................................. 7
2.1.3 Break or cover cropping ..........................................................................................8Cover-crop mixtures ..........................................................................................................................9
Break benefits on Mallee soils .................................................................................................... 10
Control of cover crops .................................................................................................................... 14
Control of cereal rye with a roller/crimper as influenced by cover crop phenology 16
Prevention of wind erosion ........................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Varietal performance and ratings ........................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Identifying products for industry ...........................................................................17Low- and high-amylose rye ...........................................................................................................17
Low- and high-pentosan rye .........................................................................................................17
White rye ..............................................................................................................................................17
High-molecular-weight glutenin rye ........................................................................................... 18
Long-season dual-purpose rye ................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Developing products for industry ........................................................................ 18Opportunities ..................................................................................................................................... 19
2.2.3 Varieties ...................................................................................................................... 19Bevy ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Southern Green forage rye ........................................................................................................... 19
Ryesun ................................................................................................................................................. 21
VampireP ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Westwood ..........................................................................................................................................22
2.3 Quality of planting seed ..........................................................................................22
2.3.1 Seed size and coleoptile length.......................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Seed germination and vigour .............................................................................. 24Seed purity ........................................................................................................................................25
2.3.3 Seed storage ............................................................................................................ 26
2.3.4 Safe rates of fertiliser sown with the seed ....................................................... 26
3 PlantingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
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3.1 Seed treatments .......................................................................................................... 1
3.1.1 Emergence problems ................................................................................................2
3.1.2 Fertiliser at seeding ...................................................................................................2
3.2 Time of sowing ............................................................................................................ 3
3.3 Targeted plant population ........................................................................................ 3Effect of seeding rate and planting arrangement on rye cover crop and weed growth. ..............................................................................................................................4
3.4 Calculating seed requirements ................................................................................ 5Agronomic requirements for a semi-dwarf rye variety: phosphorus and sowing rate. 5
3.5 Sowing depth ...............................................................................................................7
3.6 Sowing equipment ..................................................................................................... 8
4 Plant growth and physiologyKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
4.1 Characteristics of the cereal rye plant .................................................................... 1
4.2 Germination and emergence issues ....................................................................... 3
4.2.1 Dormancy .....................................................................................................................3The seedbank dynamics of volunteer rye .................................................................................3
4.2.2 Germination .................................................................................................................4
4.2.3 Emergence ...................................................................................................................5
4.3 Environmental effects on plant growth and physiology ..................................... 5
4.3.1 Photoperiod and temperature ................................................................................5Effect on frost tolerance ...................................................................................................................6
4.3.2 Salinity ...........................................................................................................................6
4.3.3 Soil water ...................................................................................................................... 7Shoot and root dry weight and soil water in wheat, triticale and rye ...............................7
4.4 Plant growth stages ....................................................................................................7
4.4.1 Roots ..............................................................................................................................8
4.4.2 Plant development: photosynthesis and maturation ....................................... 11
4.4.3 Vegetative behaviour ............................................................................................... 11
4.4.4 Flowering and grain formation ............................................................................. 12
5 nutrition and fertiliserKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
5.1 Soil nutrient balance ................................................................................................... 1
5.1.1 Benefits of rye to soil health .................................................................................... 1Winter cover crop effects on soil organic carbon in soil. ......................................................3
5.1.2 Fertiliser application ..................................................................................................3Application considerations .............................................................................................................3
Agronomic requirements of a new semi-dwarf rye variety: N and P ................................4
5.1.3 Fungi and soil health .................................................................................................5Management to optimise AMF population ................................................................................6
5.2 Crop removal rates .................................................................................................... 6
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5.3 Soil testing ....................................................................................................................7
5.3.1 Why test soil? ............................................................................................................. 7
5.3.2 Basic requirements ...................................................................................................8
5.3.3 Types of test ................................................................................................................8
5.4 Plant and/or tissue testing for nutrient levels ....................................................... 8
5.4.1 Why measure nutrients in plant tissues? .............................................................8
5.4.2 What plant-tissue analysis shows ..........................................................................9
5.5 Nitrogen ......................................................................................................................10Accumulation and loss of N during growth and maturation of cereal rye ..................... 11
Nitrate leaching under a cereal rye cover crop. ................................................................... 11
5.5.1 Nitrogen-deficiency symptoms in cereals ......................................................... 12What to look for ................................................................................................................................ 12
What else could it be? .................................................................................................................... 14
5.5.2 Managing nitrogen ...................................................................................................14Timing of application ....................................................................................................................... 14
Budgeting............................................................................................................................................ 14
5.6 Phosphorus.................................................................................................................15Uptake and utilisation of P from iron phosphate—rye shows efficiency ....................... 16
5.6.1 Managing phosphorus .............................................................................................17
5.6.2 Phosphorus-deficiency symptoms .......................................................................17What to look for .................................................................................................................................17
What else could it be? .................................................................................................................... 19
5.6.3 Soil testing ................................................................................................................. 19
5.7 Sulfur ...........................................................................................................................20
5.7.1 Sulfur deficiency symptoms ................................................................................. 20What to look for ...............................................................................................................................20
What else could it be? ...................................................................................................................22
5.8 Potassium ..................................................................................................................22
5.8.1 Potassium deficiency symptoms ......................................................................... 23What to look for ...............................................................................................................................23
What else could it be? ...................................................................................................................25
5.8.2 Assessing potassium requirements ................................................................... 26
5.8.3 Fertiliser types ......................................................................................................... 26
5.8.4 Fertiliser placement and timing ........................................................................... 26
5.9 Micronutrients ........................................................................................................... 27
5.9.1 Zinc ..............................................................................................................................27Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 27
What else could it be? ...................................................................................................................28
Differential response of rye, triticale, bread and durum wheats to zinc deficiency in calcareous soils. ...........................................................................................29
Managing zinc deficiency .............................................................................................................30
Role of rye chromosomes in improvement of zinc efficiency in wheat and triticale.. 31
5.9.2 Manganese .................................................................................................................31
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Tolerance of barley and other cereals to manganese-deficient calcareous soils of South Australia ........................................................................................... 32
Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 32
What else could it be? ................................................................................................................... 34
Managing manganese deficiency ............................................................................................. 34
5.9.3 Copper ....................................................................................................................... 35Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 35
What else could it be? ................................................................................................................... 37
Managing copper deficiency ...................................................................................................... 37
5.9.4 Iron ...............................................................................................................................37Symptoms .......................................................................................................................................... 38
What else could it be? ................................................................................................................... 39
Managing iron deficiency .............................................................................................................40
5.10 Aluminium toxicity ....................................................................................................40
5.11 Nutritional deficiencies ...........................................................................................40Making use of the crop nutrition information available to you ........................................40
6 Weed controlKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
6.1 Cereal rye: a weed suppressor ................................................................................. 1Rye residues contribute weed suppression in no-tillage cropping systems ..................2
6.1.1 Allelopathic effects ....................................................................................................2Managing land classes for better feed utilisation ...................................................................3
Remove cereal rye early to avoid problems from its allelopathic effect .........................5
6.1.2 Volunteer rye ...............................................................................................................5
6.2 Integrated weed management .................................................................................7
6.2.1 Five-point plan ............................................................................................................81. Review past actions .......................................................................................................................8
2. Assess the current weed status ...............................................................................................8
3. Identify weed management opportunities within the cropping system ......................9
4. Fine-tune your list of options .....................................................................................................9
5. Combine and test ideas ..............................................................................................................9
6.2.2 IWM in the Southern Region ................................................................................. 10South Australian Weed Control app ........................................................................................... 11
6.2.3 Cover cropping for weed management ............................................................. 12Overcoming weed management challenges in organic rotational no-till soybean production based on cover cropping.......................................................... 12
6.3 Key weeds in Australia’s cropping systems .........................................................13
6.3.1 Annual ryegrass management in the Southern Region ..................................14South Australian trial ....................................................................................................................... 14
Victorian trial ...................................................................................................................................... 15
6.3.2 Brome grass and barley grass in the Southern Region ................................. 15Brome grass ....................................................................................................................................... 15
Barley grass ........................................................................................................................................17
6.3.3 Emerging flaxleaf fleabane threat.........................................................................17
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Control strategy ................................................................................................................................ 18
6.3.4 Wild radish herbicide resistance .......................................................................... 19
6.4 Herbicides explained ...............................................................................................20
6.4.1 Residual and non-residual .................................................................................... 20
6.4.2 Post-emergent and pre-emergent ...................................................................... 20
6.5 Pre-emergent herbicides .........................................................................................21
6.5.1 Understanding pre-emergent herbicides ......................................................... 22
6.5.2 Behaviour of pre-emergent herbicides in the soil .......................................... 22
6.5.3 Top tips for using pre-emergent herbicides ..................................................... 23
6.5.4 Post-sowing pre-emergent (PSPE) herbicide use ........................................... 23
6.5.5 Incorporation by sowing (IBS) .............................................................................. 24
6.5.6 Control of annual ryegrass and crop safety with use of pre-emergent residual herbicides .............................................................................. 24Key findings ....................................................................................................................................... 24
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................25
6.6 In-crop herbicides: knock-downs and residuals .................................................26
6.6.1 Key points for in-crop herbicide application .................................................... 26
6.6.2 How to get the most out of post-emergent herbicides .................................27
6.7 Conditions for spraying ........................................................................................... 27
6.7.1 Minimising spray drift ............................................................................................. 28Before spraying ...............................................................................................................................28
During spraying ........................................................................................................... 28
6.7.2 Types of drift ............................................................................................................. 29
6.7.3 Factors affecting the risk of spray drift .............................................................. 29Volatility ..............................................................................................................................................30
6.7.4 Equipment and settings for minimising drift .................................................... 30Spray release height ....................................................................................................................... 31
Size of area treated ......................................................................................................................... 31
Capture surface ............................................................................................................................... 32
6.7.5 Weather conditions to avoid ................................................................................ 32Turbulence ......................................................................................................................................... 32
High temperatures .......................................................................................................................... 32
Humidity .............................................................................................................................................. 32
Wind ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
Inversions ........................................................................................................................................... 32
6.8 Herbicide tolerance ratings ....................................................................................33
6.9 Potential herbicide damage effect ........................................................................33
6.9.1 Avoiding crop damage from residual herbicides ............................................33What are the issues? ...................................................................................................................... 33
Which herbicides are residual? .................................................................................................. 34
How to avoid damage from residual herbicides .................................................................. 34
6.9.2 Plant-back intervals ................................................................................................ 35Conditions required for breakdown .......................................................................................... 37
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6.10 Herbicide resistance ................................................................................................38
6.10.1 Understanding herbicide resistance .................................................................. 38Herbicide resistance facts ........................................................................................................... 38
Key messages .................................................................................................................................. 38
How does resistance start? ......................................................................................................... 39
6.10.2 General principles to avoid resistance .............................................................. 39Glyphosate-resistant weeds in australia .................................................................. 41
6.10.3 The 10-point plan to weed out herbicide resistance ..................................... 42If you think you have resistant weeds ...................................................................................... 46
6.11 Monitoring weeds..................................................................................................... 47
6.11.1 Tips for monitoring .................................................................................................. 48
7 Insect controlKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
7.1 Potential insect pests ................................................................................................. 1
7.2 Integrated pest management .................................................................................. 5Key IPM strategies .............................................................................................................................5
Insecticide choices ............................................................................................................................5
Insecticide resistance .......................................................................................................................5
7.2.1 Insect sampling methods .........................................................................................6Factors that contribute to quality monitoring ............................................................................6
Keeping good records ......................................................................................................................6
Sampling methods .............................................................................................................................7
7.3 Russian wheat aphid .................................................................................................10Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 10
7.3.1 Damage caused by RWA ....................................................................................... 12
7.3.2 Where to look and what to look for ....................................................................13Measures to increase the likelihood of RWA detection ...................................................... 14
Where to find the RWA ................................................................................................................... 15
7.3.3 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................. 15
7.3.4 Management of RWA .............................................................................................. 16Control options .................................................................................................................................. 16
Bees ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
General instructions ........................................................................................................................ 16
7.4 Aphids .......................................................................................................................... 17
7.4.1 Oat or wheat aphid ...................................................................................................17
7.4.2 Corn aphid ................................................................................................................. 18
7.4.3 Rose-grain aphid ...................................................................................................... 18
7.4.4 Conditions favouring aphid development ......................................................... 19
7.4.5 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................ 20
7.4.6 Managing aphids ..................................................................................................... 20Biological control .............................................................................................................................20
Cultural control .................................................................................................................................20
Chemical control ............................................................................................................................... 21
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Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................... 21
7.5 Mites ............................................................................................................................21
7.5.1 Redlegged earth mite ............................................................................................. 21Damage caused by RLEM............................................................................................................23
Managing RLEM...............................................................................................................................23
7.5.2 Balaustium mite ....................................................................................................... 26Damage caused by Balaustium mite ....................................................................................... 27
Management..................................................................................................................................... 27
7.5.3 Blue oat mite ............................................................................................................ 28Damage caused by BOM .............................................................................................................30
Managing BOM ................................................................................................................................30
7.5.4 Bryobia mite ............................................................................................................. 32Damage cause by mite ................................................................................................................. 34
Managing Bryobia mites ............................................................................................................... 34
7.6 Lucerne flea ...............................................................................................................34Damage caused by Lucerne flea .............................................................................................. 36
Managing Lucerne flea ................................................................................................................. 36
7.7 Cutworm .....................................................................................................................38
7.7.1 Damage caused by cutworms ...............................................................................41
7.7.2 Thresholds for control ..............................................................................................41
7.7.3 Managing cutworm ...................................................................................................41Biological .......................................................................................................................................... 42
Cultural .............................................................................................................................................. 42
Chemical ........................................................................................................................................... 42
7.8 Armyworm .................................................................................................................42
7.8.1 Damage caused by armyworms ..........................................................................44
7.8.2 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................ 45
7.8.3 Managing armyworms ........................................................................................... 45Sampling and detection ................................................................................................................ 45
Biological control ............................................................................................................................. 46
Cultural control ................................................................................................................................. 46
Chemical control .............................................................................................................................. 46
7.9 Slugs and snails ........................................................................................................46
7.9.1 Managing slugs and snails ................................................................................... 49
7.10 Wireworms and False wireworms .........................................................................53
7.10.1 False wireworms ..................................................................................................... 53Biology ................................................................................................................................................55
Damage caused by false wireworms .......................................................................................55
7.10.2 True wireworm ......................................................................................................... 56Biology ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Damage .............................................................................................................................................. 57
7.10.3 Sampling and detection ........................................................................................ 58
7.10.4 Control ....................................................................................................................... 58
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7.11 Plague locusts ...........................................................................................................59
8 nematode managementKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
Cereal root disease management in Victoria and southern Australia .............................1
8.1 Root-lesion nematode (RLN) .................................................................................... 2Key points .............................................................................................................................................2
8.1.1 Symptoms ....................................................................................................................4Paddock ................................................................................................................................................4
Plant ........................................................................................................................................................5
8.1.2 Soil testing ...................................................................................................................6PreDictaB ..............................................................................................................................................6
8.1.3 Varietal resistance or tolerance ............................................................................. 7
8.1.4 Damage caused by RLN ........................................................................................... 7
8.1.5 Conditions favouring development .......................................................................8How long does it take to reduce Pt in soils? ............................................................................8
8.1.6 Thresholds for control ...............................................................................................9
8.1.7 Management of RLN .................................................................................................9Key points .............................................................................................................................................9
8.2 Cereal Cyst Nematode (CCN) .................................................................................10Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 10
The effect of plant hosts on populations of the cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera a Venae) and on the subsequent yield of wheat ................... 11
8.2.1 Symptoms and detection ....................................................................................... 12
8.2.2 Varietal resistance or tolerance ............................................................................14
8.2.3 Damage caused by CCN.........................................................................................14
8.2.4 Management ..............................................................................................................14
8.3 Nematodes and crown rot .......................................................................................15
8.3.1 Management ............................................................................................................ 16Soil testing .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Varietal choice ...................................................................................................................................17
9 DiseasesKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
9.1.1 Tools for diagnosing cereal disease .....................................................................2Crop Disease Au App .......................................................................................................................2
CropPro..................................................................................................................................................2
9.2 Ergot ............................................................................................................................. 3
9.2.1 Varietal resistance or tolerance .............................................................................4
9.2.2 Damage caused by disease ....................................................................................4Gangrenous ergotism of man and cattle ...................................................................................4
Convulsive ergotism .........................................................................................................................4
9.2.3 Crop symptoms ..........................................................................................................4What to look for ..................................................................................................................................4
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9.2.4 Conditions favouring development .......................................................................5
9.2.5 Management of disease ...........................................................................................6Key points .............................................................................................................................................6
Strategies to reduce the risk of ergot infection ........................................................................7
Marketing options ..............................................................................................................................7
Alkaloids in Australian rye ergot sclerotia: implications for food and stockfeed regulations. .....................................................................................................................8
9.3 Take-all ......................................................................................................................... 8Key points: ............................................................................................................................................8
9.3.1 Symptoms .................................................................................................................. 10What to look for ................................................................................................................................ 10
9.3.2 Conditions favouring development ...................................................................... 11Hosts ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
9.3.3 Managing take-all ..................................................................................................... 12Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Take-all decline ................................................................................................................................. 13
9.4 Rusts ............................................................................................................................13
9.4.1 Symptoms ...................................................................................................................14
9.4.2 Stripe rust (Yellow rust) ............................................................................................14Stripe rust in southern Australia .................................................................................................. 15
9.4.3 Leaf rust (Brown rust) .............................................................................................. 15
9.4.4 Stem rust (Black rust) ...............................................................................................17Stem rust in southern Australia .................................................................................................... 18
9.4.5 Management of Rust ............................................................................................... 18
9.4.6 Integrated disease management of rusts and yellow leaf spot................... 19Key points .......................................................................................................................................... 19
Breeding cereals for rust resistance in Australia .................................................................. 21
9.5 Yellow leaf spot (Tan spot) .......................................................................................21
9.5.1 Varietal resistance or tolerance .......................................................................... 22
9.5.2 Damage caused by disease ................................................................................. 22
9.5.3 Symptoms ................................................................................................................. 22
9.5.4 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 22
9.5.5 Management of disease ........................................................................................ 22Minimising the risk of yellow leaf spot......................................................................................23
In-crop fungicides and timing ......................................................................................................23
9.6 Fusarium: Crown rot and FHB ...............................................................................23Key points ..........................................................................................................................................23
9.6.1 Update on the latest research ............................................................................. 24Take home messages.................................................................................................................... 24
9.6.2 Damage caused by Crown rot ............................................................................. 25
9.6.3 Symptoms ................................................................................................................. 25
9.6.4 FHB symptoms ..........................................................................................................27
9.6.5 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 28
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Crown rot............................................................................................................................................28
FHB .....................................................................................................................................................29
9.6.6 Management ............................................................................................................ 29Crop rotation .....................................................................................................................................29
Variety selection ..............................................................................................................................30
Crop management ..........................................................................................................................30
Cultivation ..........................................................................................................................................30
Stubble burning ................................................................................................................................. 31
Reducing water loss ........................................................................................................................ 31
Grass-weed management ............................................................................................................ 31
Sowing time ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Row placement ................................................................................................................................ 32
Soil type .............................................................................................................................................. 32
Soil testing ......................................................................................................................................... 32
9.7 Common root rot ......................................................................................................33
9.7.1 Damage caused by disease ..................................................................................33
9.7.2 Symptoms ..................................................................................................................33Paddock ............................................................................................................................................. 33
Plant ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
9.7.3 Conditions favouring development .....................................................................34
9.7.4 Management .............................................................................................................34
9.8 Smut ............................................................................................................................35
9.8.1 Bunt or stinking smut ............................................................................................. 35Managing bunt ................................................................................................................................. 35
9.8.2 Loose smut ............................................................................................................... 36Managing smut ................................................................................................................................ 36
9.9 Rhizoctonia root rot ................................................................................................. 37
9.9.1 Symptoms ..................................................................................................................37What to look for ............................................................................................................................... 37
9.9.2 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 40Factors Affecting Rhizoctonia .....................................................................................................40
9.9.3 Managing Rhizoctonia .............................................................................................41
9.10 Cereal fungicides ......................................................................................................41
9.10.1 Fungicide stewardship .......................................................................................... 42
9.11 Disease following extreme weather events ........................................................43
9.11.1 Cereal disease after drought ................................................................................43
9.11.2 Cereal disease after flood .....................................................................................43
10 Plant growth regulators and canopy managementKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
10.1 Plant growth regulators (PGRs) ................................................................................ 1
10.1.1 Considering mixed results .......................................................................................2Conclusions: The value of PGRs ...................................................................................................3
10.1.2 Case study: using Moddus® Evo ............................................................................3
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Contents
Contents cereal rye
Methods .................................................................................................................................................4
Results ....................................................................................................................................................4
10.2 Canopy management ................................................................................................ 4What is canopy management? .....................................................................................................4
Canopy management—Inverleigh ................................................................................................7
10.2.1 Cereal Canopy management in a nutshell ..........................................................8
10.2.2 Setting up the canopy ...............................................................................................9
10.2.3 Soil moisture status ...................................................................................................9
10.2.4 Soil nitrogen ................................................................................................................9
10.2.5 Seeding rate and date ............................................................................................ 10Row spacing ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Yield ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
Plant spacing ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Dry Matter ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Grain quality ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Nitrogen management ................................................................................................................... 12
10.2.6 In-crop nitrogen .........................................................................................................13
10.2.7 Limitations of tactical nitrogen application .......................................................13
11 Crop desiccation/spray out
12 HarvestKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
12.1 Windrowing ................................................................................................................ 2
12.1.1 Timing............................................................................................................................2
12.1.2 Cutting ...........................................................................................................................3
12.1.3 Harvesting the windrow ...........................................................................................3
12.2 Harvest timing ............................................................................................................. 3
12.2.1 Lodging .........................................................................................................................4
12.2.2 Harvesting for silage .................................................................................................4When to cut for silage .......................................................................................................................4
DM levels recommended for ensiling ..........................................................................................5
Mowing ..................................................................................................................................................5
12.2.3 Equipment ....................................................................................................................5Forage harvesters ..............................................................................................................................6
Balers .....................................................................................................................................................7
12.3 Fire prevention ...................................................................................................... 8Harvester fire reduction checklist .................................................................................................8
12.3.1 Harvesting in low-risk conditions ......................................................................... 10
12.4 Receival standards ....................................................................................................10
12.5 Harvest weed seed management ...........................................................................11
12.5.1 HWSC Strategies ....................................................................................................... 11Narrow windrow burning ................................................................................................................ 11
Chaff Carts .......................................................................................................................................... 12
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Bale direct systems ......................................................................................................................... 12
Harrington Seed Destructor ......................................................................................................... 12
13 storageKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
Safe storage guidelines for rye. ....................................................................................................1
GRDC Stored grain information hub ............................................................................................2
13.1 How to store product on-farm.................................................................................. 3On-farm storage—Tasmania...........................................................................................................3
13.1.1 Silos ...............................................................................................................................5Pressure testing ..................................................................................................................................6
The importance of a gas-tight silo ................................................................................................6
13.1.2 Grain bags ....................................................................................................................8
13.1.3 Monitoring stored grain ............................................................................................8
13.1.4 Grain storage: getting the economics right ........................................................9Comparing on-farm grain storage ................................................................................................9
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10
13.2 Stored grain pests .....................................................................................................12Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Prevention is better than cure ...................................................................................................... 12
13.2.1 Common species ..................................................................................................... 12Why identify stored insect grain pests? .................................................................................... 13
13.2.2 Monitoring grain for pests .......................................................................................14
13.2.3 Hygiene .......................................................................................................................14Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Where to clean .................................................................................................................................. 14
When to clean ................................................................................................................................... 15
How to clean ...................................................................................................................................... 15
13.2.4 Aeration cooling for pest control ..........................................................................17
13.2.5 Structural treatments ................................................................................................17Key points ............................................................................................................................................17
Application ...........................................................................................................................................17
Silo application .................................................................................................................................. 18
13.2.6 Fumigation ................................................................................................................. 18Maximum residue limits .................................................................................................................20
Phosphine application .................................................................................................................... 21
Non-chemical treatment options include: ................................................................................ 21
13.3 Aeration during storage ..........................................................................................22
13.3.1 Dealing with high moisture grain ........................................................................ 22Key points ..........................................................................................................................................22
13.3.2 Aeration cooling ...................................................................................................... 23Key points ..........................................................................................................................................23
Blending .............................................................................................................................................23
Seed viability.....................................................................................................................................23
13.3.3 Aeration drying ........................................................................................................ 24
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High airflow for drying ................................................................................................................... 24
Ducting for drying ............................................................................................................................ 24
Venting for drying ............................................................................................................................25
Weather conditions for drying .....................................................................................................25
Phase one of drying .......................................................................................................................25
Phase two of drying ........................................................................................................................25
Supplementary heating .................................................................................................................25
Cooling after drying ........................................................................................................................25
13.3.4 Aeration controllers ................................................................................................ 26
13.4 Grain protectants for storage .................................................................................26
13.4.1 K-Obiol Combi .........................................................................................................27
13.4.2 Conserve On-farm ...................................................................................................27
14 environmental issuesKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
14.1 Frost issues for Cereal Rye ........................................................................................ 1Key points ..............................................................................................................................................1
14.1.1 Diagnosing stem and head frost damage in cereals ........................................3What to look for ..................................................................................................................................5
New insight in frost events and management ..........................................................................7
Guidelines for reducing frost risk and assessing frost damage ....................................... 10
14.1.2 Managing frost risk ................................................................................................... 11Key points ............................................................................................................................................ 11
Farm management planning tactics .......................................................................................... 12
Frost zone management tactics .................................................................................................. 12
Diversity the key to balancing frost and heat stress risks .................................................. 15
Post-frost event management tactics ........................................................................................ 16
Useful tools ......................................................................................................................................... 18
National Frost Initiative ................................................................................................................... 19
14.2 Waterlogging/flooding issues for cereal rye ........................................................19Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Comparison of waterlogging and drought tolerances among winter cereals ...........20
Where does waterlogging occur? .............................................................................................. 21
Crop production in the high rainfall zones of southern Australia—potential, constraints and opportunities ................................................................................... 21
Identifying problem areas ............................................................................................................22
14.2.1 Symptoms and causes ........................................................................................... 22What to look for in the paddock .................................................................................................22
What to look for in plants ............................................................................................................23
How can waterlogging be monitored? .................................................................................... 24
Other impacts of waterlogging and flood events ................................................................ 24
14.2.2 Managing waterlogging ........................................................................................ 25Key points ..........................................................................................................................................25
Drainage problems after flooding .............................................................................................25
Irrigation after waterlogging ........................................................................................................25
Ways to improve drainage ...........................................................................................................25
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Choice of crop species .................................................................................................................26
Seeding rates ...................................................................................................................................26
Nitrogen fertiliser .............................................................................................................................26
14.3 Other environmental issues for cereal rye ..........................................................26
14.3.1 Drought ...................................................................................................................... 26The influence of the autumn and spring drought on the development of winter rye and barley. ................................................................................... 27
Managing drought ..........................................................................................................................28
14.3.2 Heat stress ................................................................................................................ 28Managing heat stress ....................................................................................................................30
14.3.3 Salinity ....................................................................................................................... 30How salinity affects the emergence, growth, yield and quality of rye ........................... 31
Symptoms ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Management strategies ................................................................................................................ 33
15 MarketingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1
15.1 Links to industry boards ............................................................................................. 1
15.1.1 Mackillop Farm Management Group ..................................................................... 1Objectives ..............................................................................................................................................1
15.1.2 Riverine Plains .............................................................................................................2
15.1.3 Southern Farming Systems (SFS)...........................................................................2
15.1.4 Tasmanian Farmers and Graziers Association (TFGA) .....................................2
15.1.5 Mallee Sustainable Farming (MSF) .......................................................................3
15.1.6 Hart Field Site SA ......................................................................................................3
15.1.7 Birchop Cropping Group .........................................................................................3
15.1.8 Victorian No-Till Farming Association .................................................................3
15.1.9 South Australian No Till Farming Association (SANTFA) .................................4
15.2 Selling principles ........................................................................................................ 4
15.2.1 Be prepared.................................................................................................................4Expand the sales window ...............................................................................................................5
When to sell ..........................................................................................................................................5
How to sell? ..........................................................................................................................................5
15.2.2 Establishing the business risk profile—when to sell .........................................5When does a growers sell their grain? ......................................................................................6
15.2.3 Production risk profile of the farm .........................................................................6You can’t sell what you don’t have ...............................................................................................6
15.2.4 Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price) ..................................................................................... 7Don’t lock in a loss .............................................................................................................................7
15.2.5 Income requirements ................................................................................................8Don’t be a forced seller....................................................................................................................8
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10
15.2.6 Managing your price—how to sell ........................................................................ 11
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Methods of price management .................................................................................................... 11
If increasing production risk, take price risk off the table ................................................... 11
Separate the pricing decision from the delivery decision ................................................... 11
Fixed price ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Floor price ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Floating price ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 13
15.2.7 Ensuring access to markets ...................................................................................13Storage and logistics ...................................................................................................................... 14
Harvest is the first priority .............................................................................................................. 14
Storage is all about market access............................................................................................ 14
Cost of carrying grain ..................................................................................................................... 15
Carrying grain is not free ............................................................................................................... 16
Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 16
15.2.8 Executing tonnes into cash ................................................................................... 16Set up the tool box ........................................................................................................................... 16
How to sell for cash ......................................................................................................................... 16
Counterparty risk .............................................................................................................................. 19
Seller beware .................................................................................................................................... 19
Relative values .................................................................................................................................. 19
Sell valued commodities, not undervalued commodities ................................................... 19
Contract allocation .........................................................................................................................20
Don’t leave money on the table. ................................................................................................20
Read market signals .......................................................................................................................20
Sell when there is buyer appetite ..............................................................................................20
Summary ............................................................................................................................................20
Separate the delivery decision from the pricing decision .................................................20
15.3 Other relevant marketing issues ............................................................................21
15.3.1 Improving structures around grain marketing decision making .................. 21Take home messages..................................................................................................................... 21
15.3.2 Making effective grain marketing decisions—Eyre Peninsula ..................... 21Take home messages..................................................................................................................... 21
15.3.3 The grain industry in Tasmania—new and emerging markets .................... 22Take home messages....................................................................................................................22