ch 1 notes physio - welcome to welsh! · tissue level tissues consist of similar types of cells....

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College

C H A P T E R

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

1 The Human Body: An Orientation: Part A


Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of structure

• Subdivisions:

•  Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)

•  Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)

•  Developmental (e.g., embryology)



• Essential tools for the study of anatomy:

•  Mastery of anatomical terminology

•  Observation

•  Manipulation

•  Palpation

•  Auscultation



• Physiology: The study of function at many levels

•  Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)



• Essential tools for the study of physiology:

•  Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular)

•  Basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement)

•  Basic chemical principles


Principle of Complementarity

• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

•  Function always reflects structure

•  What a structure can do depends on its specific form


Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical: atoms and molecules (Chapter 2)

• Cellular: cells and their organelles (Chapter 3)

• Tissue: groups of similar cells (Chapter 4)

• Organ: contains two or more types of tissues

• Organ system: organs that work closely together

• Organismal: all organ systems


Cardiovascular system

Organelle Molecule Atoms

Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.

Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.

Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.

Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.

Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.

Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Smooth muscle cell

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels

Epithelial tissue


1 2

3

4

5 6

Figure 1.1


Molecule Atoms

Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1

Figure 1.1, step 1





Smooth muscle cell

1 2

Figure 1.1, step 2






Smooth muscle cell


1 2

3

Figure 1.1, step 3







Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue

Blood vessel (organ)

Epithelial tissue


1 2

3

4

Figure 1.1, step 4









Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue


Epithelial tissue


1 2

3

4

5

Figure 1.1, step 5









Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Smooth muscle cell


Connective tissue


Epithelial tissue


1 2

3

4

5 6

Figure 1.1, step 6


Overview of Organ Systems

• Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems (Fig. 1.3)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3a

Nails Skin

Hair

(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3b

Bones

Joint

(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3c

Skeletal muscles

(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3d

Brain

Nerves Spinal cord

(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3e

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland Thyroid

gland Thymus

Adrenal gland Pancreas

Testis

Ovary

(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3f

(f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Heart

Blood vessels

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3g

Lymphatic vessels

Red bone marrow

Thoracic duct

Thymus

Spleen

Lymph nodes

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3h

Nasal cavity

Bronchus Pharynx Larynx Trachea

Lung

(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3i

Liver

Oral cavity

Esophagus

Large intestine

Stomach Small intestine

Rectum Anus

(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3j

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary bladder Urethra

(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.3k-l

Prostate gland

Ductus deferens

Penis Testis

Scrotum

Ovary

Uterine tube

Mammary glands (in breasts)

Uterus Vagina

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System


Organ Systems Interrelationships

• All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs

• Organ systems work cooperatively to perform necessary life functions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2

Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)

Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide

Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs

Interstitial fluid

Nutrients

Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions

Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment

Blood

Heart

Feces Urine

CO2 O2


Necessary Life Functions

1.  Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments

•  Plasma membranes

•  Skin

2.  Movement (contractility)

•  Of body parts (skeletal muscle)

•  Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)



3.  Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli

•  Withdrawal reflex

•  Control of breathing rate

4.  Digestion

•  Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

•  Absorption of simple molecules into blood



5.  Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells

•  Catabolism and anabolism

6.  Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

•  Urea, carbon dioxide, feces



7.  Reproduction

•  Cellular division for growth or repair

•  Production of offspring

8.  Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism


Survival Needs

1.  Nutrients

•  Chemicals for energy and cell building

•  Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

2.  Oxygen

•  Essential for energy release (ATP production)


Survival Needs

3.  Water •  Most abundant chemical in the body

•  Site of chemical reactions

4.  Normal body temperature •  Affects rate of chemical reactions

5.  Appropriate atmospheric pressure •  For adequate breathing and gas exchange in

the lungs


Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes

• A dynamic state of equilibrium


Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

•  Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)

• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones


Components of a Control Mechanism

1.  Receptor (sensor)

•  Monitors the environment

•  Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

2.  Control center

•  Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained

•  Receives input from receptor

•  Determines appropriate response


Components of a Control Mechanism

3.  Effector

•  Receives output from control center

•  Provides the means to respond

•  Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)


Stimulus produces change in variable.

Receptor detects change.

Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center.

Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.

Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.

Receptor Effector

Control Center

BALANCE

Afferent pathway

Efferent pathway

1

2

3 4

5

Figure 1.4



BALANCE

1

Figure 1.4, step 1




Receptor

BALANCE

1

2

Figure 1.4, step 2





Receptor

Control Center

BALANCE

Afferent pathway

1

2

3

Figure 1.4, step 3






Receptor Effector

Control Center

BALANCE

Afferent pathway

Efferent pathway

1

2

3 4

Figure 1.4, step 4






Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.

Receptor Effector

Control Center

BALANCE

Afferent pathway

Efferent pathway

1

2

3 4

5

Figure 1.4, step 5


Negative Feedback

• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus

• Examples:

•  Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)

•  Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)


Sweat glands activated

Shivering begins

Stimulus Body temperature rises BALANCE

Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center

Information sent along the afferent pathway to control center

Afferent pathway

Afferent pathway

Efferent pathway

Efferent pathway

Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors

Information sent along the efferent pathway to effectors

Stimulus Body temperature falls

Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain

Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain

Effectors Sweat glands

Effectors Skeletal muscles

Control Center (thermoregulatory

center in brain)

Control Center (thermoregulatory

center in brain)

Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends

Response Body temperature rises; stimulus ends


Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH • Receptors sense decreased blood volume

• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood


Positive Feedback

• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect

• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:

•  Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (Chapter 28)

•  Platelet plug formation and blood clotting


Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.

Positive feedback cycle is initiated.

Positive feedback loop

Break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall.

Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals.

Released chemicals attract more platelets.

Platelet plug forms.

1

2 3

4

Figure 1.6




1

Figure 1.6, step 1





1

2

Figure 1.6, step 2







1

2 3

Figure 1.6, step 3


Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.






Platelet plug forms.

1

2 3

4

Figure 1.6, step 4


Homeostatic Imbalance

•  Disturbance of homeostasis

•  Increases risk of disease

•  Contributes to changes associated with aging

•  May allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)


• Sweating. Body sweats in order to cool the body’s internal body temperature.

Positive or negative feedback?


• Milk Production (in lactating mothers) Milk will be produced until the baby is done breast feeding.



• Contractions during childbirth. Contractions will continue to occur until the birth of the child.



• Shivering. Skeletal muscles contract in order to warm up the body.




• Blood clotting. Will continue to occur until the tear is sealed.


• ADH released into the bloodstream. When blood volume is low, an antidiuretic is released into the bloodstream.



•  Insulin is released into the bloodstream when blood glucose levels are high.



• A spike in estrogen release during the follicular phase of ovulation causes the follicle to rupture and the egg to be released into the fallopian tube.



• Glucagon is released into the bloodstream due to a decrease in blood glucose levels.



• Fever. Body heats until the bacteria or invader is destroyed.


PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College

C H A P T E R


1 The Human Body: An Orientation: Part B


When you are finished…

• Eat your candy!

• Keep your lab write up – this goes in your packet!

• THROW AWAY your trash

• Work on anything in your packet (homeostasis worksheet, unit guide, etc…)


Anatomical Position

• Standard anatomical body position:

•  Body erect

•  Feet slightly apart

•  Palms facing forward


Cervical

(a) Anterior/Ventral

Pubic (genital)

Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental

Thoracic Axillary Mammary Sternal

Abdominal Umbilical

Pelvic Inguinal (groin)

Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)

Manus (hand) Palmar Pollex Digital

Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) Fibular or peroneal

Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Metatarsal Digital Hallux

Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)


Regional Terms

• Two major divisions of body:

•  Axial

• Head, neck, and trunk

•  Appendicular

• Limbs

• Regional terms designate specific areas


Cervical

(a) Anterior/Ventral

Pubic (genital)

Cephalic Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental

Thoracic Axillary Mammary Sternal

Abdominal Umbilical

Pelvic Inguinal (groin)

Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)

Manus (hand) Palmar Pollex Digital

Lower limb Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) Fibular or peroneal

Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Metatarsal Digital Hallux


Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7b

Cervical Back (dorsal)

(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Upper limb Acromial Brachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm) Manus (hand) Metacarpal Digital Lower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal Pedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar

Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)



Body Planes

• Plane: Flat surface along which body or structure is cut for anatomical study


Body Planes

• Sagittal plane

•  Divides body vertically into right and left parts

•  Produces a sagittal section

• Midsagittal (median) plane

•  Lies on midline

• Parasagittal plane

•  Not on midline


Body Planes

• Frontal (coronal) plane •  Divides body vertically into anterior and

posterior parts

• Transverse (horizontal) plane •  Divides body horizontally into superior and

inferior parts

•  Produces a cross section

• Oblique section •  Cuts made diagonally


Transverse plane

Median (midsagittal) plane

Frontal plane

Liver

Spleen

Pancreas

Aorta

Vertebral column

Spinal cord Subcutaneous fat layer Body wall Rectum Intestines Left and

right lungs Liver Heart Stomach Spleen

Arm

(a) Frontal section (through torso)

(b) Transverse section (through torso, inferior view)

(c) Median section (midsagittal)


Anatomical Variability

• Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:

•  Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place

•  Small muscles may be missing


Body Cavities

• Dorsal cavity

•  Protects nervous system

• Two subdivisions:

•  Cranial cavity

• Encases brain

•  Vertebral cavity

• Encases spinal cord


Body Cavities

• Ventral cavity

•  Houses internal organs (viscera)

•  Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b

Cranial cavity (contains brain)

Dorsal body cavity

Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)

Cranial cavity

Superior mediastinum

Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum

Pleural cavity

Vertebral cavity

Abdomino- pelvic cavity

Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)

Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)

Diaphragm

Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity


Ventral Body Cavities

• Thoracic cavity subdivisions: •  Two pleural cavities

• Each houses a lung

•  Mediastinum

• Contains pericardial cavity

• Surrounds thoracic organs

•  Pericardial cavity

• Encloses heart


Ventral Body Cavities

• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

•  Abdominal cavity

• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver

•  Pelvic cavity

• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum


Cranial cavity (contains brain)

Dorsal body cavity

Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)

Cranial cavity

Superior mediastinum

Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum

Pleural cavity

Vertebral cavity

Abdomino- pelvic cavity

Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)

Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)

Diaphragm

Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity


Serous Membrane (Serosa)

• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid

•  Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

•  Visceral serosa covers the internal organs


Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa) Air (comparable to serous cavity)

Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa)

Heart

Parietal pericardium

Pericardial space with serous fluid Visceral pericardium

(b) The serosae associated with the heart.


Abdominopelvic Regions

• Nine divisions used primarily by anatomists


Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)


Abdominopelvic Quadrants

• Divisions used primarily by medical personnel


Epigastric region

Umbilical region

Right lumbar region

Left lumbar region

Right hypochondriac

region

Left hypochondriac

region

Hypogastric (pubic) region

Right iliac (inguinal)

region

Left iliac (inguinal)

region

Liver Gallbladder Ascending colon of large intestine Small intestine

Appendix Cecum

Diaphragm Stomach

Descending colon of large intestine

Transverse colon of large intestine

Initial part of sigmoid colon Urinary bladder

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs


Other Body Cavities

• Oral and digestive cavities

• Nasal cavity

• Orbital cavities

• Middle ear cavities

• Synovial cavities

ch 1 notes physio - welcome to welsh! · tissue level tissues consist of similar types of cells....

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