Ch13:Ch13:LiteracyLiteracy

Teaching In The Content AreaTeaching In The Content AreaApproaches to ReadingApproaches to ReadingTeaching Reading SkillsTeaching Reading SkillsTeaching Reading ComprehensionTeaching Reading ComprehensionTeaching Written ExpressionTeaching Written Expression

Approaches to Reading: StrategiesApproaches to Reading: StrategiesImplementing Approaches To ReadingImplementing Approaches To Reading

Implement And Adapt Basal Textbook ApproachesImplement And Adapt Basal Textbook Approaches-There is a different text (often accompanied by a workbook) assigned for each grade level from-There is a different text (often accompanied by a workbook) assigned for each grade level fromkindergarten through middle school. The focus is on presenting structured activities correspondingkindergarten through middle school. The focus is on presenting structured activities correspondingto grade-level criteria.to grade-level criteria.-These series may also help teachers in student reading assessments: if adequate progress in a particular -These series may also help teachers in student reading assessments: if adequate progress in a particular

series is notseries is notbeing made by one or more students, teachers might review the particular basal series to assure that it is being made by one or more students, teachers might review the particular basal series to assure that it is

providing providing clear skill sequences and continual skill reviews. Some basal series provide more balanced approaches to clear skill sequences and continual skill reviews. Some basal series provide more balanced approaches to

phonics and phonics and literature instruction in order to address the needs of students who have difficulty in decoding.literature instruction in order to address the needs of students who have difficulty in decoding.

Implement And Adapt Whole-Language ApproachesImplement And Adapt Whole-Language Approaches-Emphasis is on meaning, and all literacy tasks fall within reading instruction (Routman, 1991).-Emphasis is on meaning, and all literacy tasks fall within reading instruction (Routman, 1991).Authentic literature is promoted, in order to develop all skills within the context of meaning.Authentic literature is promoted, in order to develop all skills within the context of meaning.-Up to 25% of students require explicit instruction in developing sound-symbol relationships (Snider, 19997), -Up to 25% of students require explicit instruction in developing sound-symbol relationships (Snider, 19997), therefore this approach may often require additional instructional support options for studentstherefore this approach may often require additional instructional support options for studentswith serious reading difficulties. with serious reading difficulties. -Assessment methods can include collecting audiotapes of student oral reading practices, and collecting reading-Assessment methods can include collecting audiotapes of student oral reading practices, and collecting readingperformance data through the use of curriculum-based measurement.performance data through the use of curriculum-based measurement.

Implement Reading Recovery For Struggling ReadersImplement Reading Recovery For Struggling Readers-Identifies primary-age students who are not learning to read and provides one-to-one tutorial instruction for 30 -Identifies primary-age students who are not learning to read and provides one-to-one tutorial instruction for 30

minutesminutesdaily. Multiple emphasis approach: reading from familiar books, letter-identification strategies, reading and daily. Multiple emphasis approach: reading from familiar books, letter-identification strategies, reading and

writing writing sentences and stories, assembling cut-up stories and learning the process of reading new books.sentences and stories, assembling cut-up stories and learning the process of reading new books.-Although often effective for struggling readers, it may be less effective for students with moderate to severe -Although often effective for struggling readers, it may be less effective for students with moderate to severe

reading reading difficulties.difficulties.

Approaches to Reading: StrategiesApproaches to Reading: StrategiesContinued…Continued…

Implement And Adapt Direct Instruction And Code-Emphasis ApproachesImplement And Adapt Direct Instruction And Code-Emphasis Approaches -This a a systematic, teacher-led approach, with increased emphasis on teaching sound-symbol relationships among letters -This a a systematic, teacher-led approach, with increased emphasis on teaching sound-symbol relationships among letters and allowing for sufficient practice in and allowing for sufficient practice in decoding specific words patterns before being presented with unfamiliar material.decoding specific words patterns before being presented with unfamiliar material.-Individual sounds and words are introduced systematically and practiced in isolation and in word lists, sentences, paragraphs, -Individual sounds and words are introduced systematically and practiced in isolation and in word lists, sentences, paragraphs, short stories and workbook activities.short stories and workbook activities.Students with serious reading difficulties often benefit from this structured approach.Students with serious reading difficulties often benefit from this structured approach.-Curriculum materials that promote a code-emphasis approach often focus on word-attack skills. As students with disabilities -Curriculum materials that promote a code-emphasis approach often focus on word-attack skills. As students with disabilities often rely too much on context clues, this material encourages them to read the words and not look at pictures (or provide often rely too much on context clues, this material encourages them to read the words and not look at pictures (or provide photos on different pages).photos on different pages).

a) Consideration and Adaptations: 3 Questionsa) Consideration and Adaptations: 3 Questions1. Can students who are taught using this approach transfer these reading 1. Can students who are taught using this approach transfer these reading skills to other less-structured reading materials?skills to other less-structured reading materials?2. Will students lose motivation from all the structure?2. Will students lose motivation from all the structure?3. Will students learn comprehension skills?3. Will students learn comprehension skills?

Make Adaptations To Promote Access To TextMake Adaptations To Promote Access To Text-Some students have physical and/or motor restraints that can inhibit learning to read. Attention must be paid to-Some students have physical and/or motor restraints that can inhibit learning to read. Attention must be paid topositioning of the student and the reading material for maximum attention. Teachers should be aware of classroompositioning of the student and the reading material for maximum attention. Teachers should be aware of classroomneeds and be willing to provide necessary materials, such as rubber finger tabs, color paper for contrast, needs and be willing to provide necessary materials, such as rubber finger tabs, color paper for contrast, transparencies with colored lines, magnifying devices, audio-formats, etc.transparencies with colored lines, magnifying devices, audio-formats, etc.

Teaching Reading Skills:Teaching Reading Skills:StrategiesStrategies

Promoting Word IdentificationPromoting Word Identification

Provide Phonemic Awareness TrainingProvide Phonemic Awareness Training-Some students don’t develop an understanding that words are composed of individual sounds as quickly as others. -Some students don’t develop an understanding that words are composed of individual sounds as quickly as others.

The The purpose of this training is to show students that words are composed of individual sounds that can be combined and purpose of this training is to show students that words are composed of individual sounds that can be combined and separated to form new words. Activities include discriminating sounds, sound blending, segmenting words into separated to form new words. Activities include discriminating sounds, sound blending, segmenting words into

individual individual phonemes, and rhyming sounds.phonemes, and rhyming sounds.

Provide Phonics InstructionProvide Phonics Instruction-This is the next step in phonemic awareness training: instruction in the sound-symbol association among letters and-This is the next step in phonemic awareness training: instruction in the sound-symbol association among letters andsymbols. This proceeds systematically; practice with familiar words takes place before the introduction of new words.symbols. This proceeds systematically; practice with familiar words takes place before the introduction of new words.Regular words are introduced before irregular words, and plenty of practice in reading and spelling is provided beforeRegular words are introduced before irregular words, and plenty of practice in reading and spelling is provided beforeintroducing new vocabulary.introducing new vocabulary.

Teach Structural Analysis as Phonic Skills are AcquiredTeach Structural Analysis as Phonic Skills are Acquired-Structural analysis refers to the ability to examine the structures of words and break them into pronounceable -Structural analysis refers to the ability to examine the structures of words and break them into pronounceable

syllables.syllables.This involves examining a word by it’s familiar word parts, such as prefix, suffix, syllables, or root. The structural This involves examining a word by it’s familiar word parts, such as prefix, suffix, syllables, or root. The structural

analysisanalysisprocess also provides opportunity for developing valuable problem-solving strategies, such as the use of context clues process also provides opportunity for developing valuable problem-solving strategies, such as the use of context clues

in in deciphering meaning.deciphering meaning.

Use Strategies for Promoting Basic Sight VocabularyUse Strategies for Promoting Basic Sight Vocabulary-Basic sight words are difficult to decode using phonics skills although they are commonly used at various grade -Basic sight words are difficult to decode using phonics skills although they are commonly used at various grade

levels, levels, and therefore must be learned by students in order to enhance standard communication skills. Memorization through and therefore must be learned by students in order to enhance standard communication skills. Memorization through repetition and reinforcement is the common practice, with teachers encouraging students to prepare flashcards for repetition and reinforcement is the common practice, with teachers encouraging students to prepare flashcards for

drills, drills, and checklists to practice both at school and at home with families. As words are mastered, new ones are added. and checklists to practice both at school and at home with families. As words are mastered, new ones are added.

Wall Wall charts are another common and effective way to encourage students to learn basic sight vocabulary.charts are another common and effective way to encourage students to learn basic sight vocabulary.

Teaching Reading Skills: StrategiesTeaching Reading Skills: StrategiesContinued…Continued…

Promoting Reading FluencyPromoting Reading Fluency

Use Repeated ReadingsUse Repeated Readings-As familiarity with a passage increases, fluency and comprehension should also increase. Research has suggested -As familiarity with a passage increases, fluency and comprehension should also increase. Research has suggested that repeated readings can improve fluency for individual passages as well as overall fluency and comprehension that repeated readings can improve fluency for individual passages as well as overall fluency and comprehension

(Staubitz (Staubitz et al., 2005, Therrien, 2004).et al., 2005, Therrien, 2004).

Use Curriculum-Based MeasurementsUse Curriculum-Based Measurements--By monitoring student progress in a variety of ways, teachers can remain aware of who may require additionalBy monitoring student progress in a variety of ways, teachers can remain aware of who may require additionalassistance in the classroom. In addition, tactics such as timing student oral reading rates and then visually graphingassistance in the classroom. In addition, tactics such as timing student oral reading rates and then visually graphingthe results can help to keep students aware of and involved in their own progress at tasks.the results can help to keep students aware of and involved in their own progress at tasks.

Use Classwide Peer TutoringUse Classwide Peer Tutoring--Pairing up students to work together at reading aloud to each other can increase the amount of time spent at Pairing up students to work together at reading aloud to each other can increase the amount of time spent at developing fluency. In peer tutoring configurations, students can develop fluency through sustained or repeated developing fluency. In peer tutoring configurations, students can develop fluency through sustained or repeated readings, 1-2 minute timings, and extra time for practicing difficult parts.readings, 1-2 minute timings, and extra time for practicing difficult parts.

Use Software ProgramsUse Software Programs--Students enjoy working with computers and technology, and using specifically-designed reading softwareStudents enjoy working with computers and technology, and using specifically-designed reading softwarecan provide an alternative means for using activities as literacy-building tools.can provide an alternative means for using activities as literacy-building tools.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: Teaching Reading Comprehension: StrategiesStrategies

Teaching Reading ComprehensionTeaching Reading Comprehension

Use Basic Skills And Reinforcement StrategiesUse Basic Skills And Reinforcement Strategies-The use of strategies such as reinforcement (rewards and positive encouragement), specific vocabulary -The use of strategies such as reinforcement (rewards and positive encouragement), specific vocabulary

instruction, and instruction, and corrective (immediate) feedback may be effective for teaching reading comprehension when coupled with self-corrective (immediate) feedback may be effective for teaching reading comprehension when coupled with self-questioning strategies and text questioning strategies and text enhancements. Repeated readings and direct instruction may also help enhancements. Repeated readings and direct instruction may also help

increase reading increase reading comprehension in the classroom.comprehension in the classroom.

Create Text EnhancementsCreate Text Enhancements

-Illustrations, maps and diagrams, mnemonic pictures and visual spatial displays can all help to -Illustrations, maps and diagrams, mnemonic pictures and visual spatial displays can all help to increase text comprehension and promote memory. Adjunct aids such as study guides, outlines, increase text comprehension and promote memory. Adjunct aids such as study guides, outlines, guided notes, and partial outlines are also useful tools in enhancing text comprehension.guided notes, and partial outlines are also useful tools in enhancing text comprehension.

Teach Specific Questioning StrategiesTeach Specific Questioning Strategies-Asking students questions, and teaching them to ask themselves questions about reading, helps-Asking students questions, and teaching them to ask themselves questions about reading, helpspromote reading comprehension (Graham & Bellert, 2004). Many of the following strategies can promote reading comprehension (Graham & Bellert, 2004). Many of the following strategies can be applicable to students with learning disabilities as well as other students with reading comprehension be applicable to students with learning disabilities as well as other students with reading comprehension

difficulties:difficulties:

a) a) Activate Prior KnowledgeActivate Prior Knowledge -Brainstorming, TELLS fact or fiction and K-W-L strategies help to get students actively thinking-Brainstorming, TELLS fact or fiction and K-W-L strategies help to get students actively thinking about the material and engaging with it.about the material and engaging with it.

b) b) Promote Self-Generated QuestionsPromote Self-Generated Questions -Self-questioning promotes metacognition, which many students with disabilities can benefit from. -Self-questioning promotes metacognition, which many students with disabilities can benefit from. Asking questions about the material helps promote thinking about the information, Asking questions about the material helps promote thinking about the information,

which can facilitate which can facilitate recall and comprehension (Graham & Bellert, 2004). recall and comprehension (Graham & Bellert, 2004).

c) c) Summarize and ParaphraseSummarize and Paraphrase -Students should be encouraged to pay attention to text structure, in order to aid in their understanding -Students should be encouraged to pay attention to text structure, in order to aid in their understanding of how main points are presented. This will help them to learn the process of of how main points are presented. This will help them to learn the process of

summarization; see also RAP summarization; see also RAP strategies. strategies.

d) d) Story MapsStory Maps --These strategies can demonstrate that stories often follow particular patterns, or story grammars, These strategies can demonstrate that stories often follow particular patterns, or story grammars, which include setting, problem, goals, actions and outcomes. Familiarity with story map processes which include setting, problem, goals, actions and outcomes. Familiarity with story map processes

can can increase recall and comprehension.increase recall and comprehension.

e) e) Reciprocal TeachingReciprocal Teaching

-This reading comprehension strategy incorporates 4 comprehension-fostering strategies: -This reading comprehension strategy incorporates 4 comprehension-fostering strategies: summarizing, summarizing, predicting, questioning and clarifying (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Students take the predicting, questioning and clarifying (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Students take the lead in instruction and lead in instruction and questioning. questioning.

Teaching Reading Comprehension: StrategiesTeaching Reading Comprehension: StrategiesContinued…Continued…

Adapt Formats of Reading Comprehension InstructionAdapt Formats of Reading Comprehension Instruction-Adaptation may be necessary if students have limited writing abilities, cannot see the material or need extra-Adaptation may be necessary if students have limited writing abilities, cannot see the material or need extrawork time. The use of highlighters, magnifiers, tape recorders, alternative text supplements, etc may be encouragedwork time. The use of highlighters, magnifiers, tape recorders, alternative text supplements, etc may be encouragedin the classroom.in the classroom.

Adapt Instruction for Secondary StudentsAdapt Instruction for Secondary Students-Reading instruction as part of the general curriculum ceases at secondary school levels, and often students with -Reading instruction as part of the general curriculum ceases at secondary school levels, and often students with disabilities and/or special needs advance to higher grade levels without mastering important reading skills. Teachers candisabilities and/or special needs advance to higher grade levels without mastering important reading skills. Teachers cansupport intensive reading instruction at secondary levels by promoting use of resource rooms, study periods, teaching and support intensive reading instruction at secondary levels by promoting use of resource rooms, study periods, teaching and encouraging word-recognition strategies and other comprehension strategies previously mentioned. In addition, assistive encouraging word-recognition strategies and other comprehension strategies previously mentioned. In addition, assistive technology use may be encouraged: hi-tech options include word-recognition software, while lo-tech options may include post-it technology use may be encouraged: hi-tech options include word-recognition software, while lo-tech options may include post-it summaries over long text passages, erasable highlighters to monitor learning progress, etc.summaries over long text passages, erasable highlighters to monitor learning progress, etc.

Implementing Multi-Tiered Reading Instruction With RTIImplementing Multi-Tiered Reading Instruction With RTI

Strategies for Implementation:Strategies for Implementation:Primary (Tier 1) Interventions:Primary (Tier 1) Interventions: These are usually considered evidence-based (or research-supported)These are usually considered evidence-based (or research-supported)instruction in the general education classroom (Foorman, 2007). Approaches would include systematic instruction in instruction in the general education classroom (Foorman, 2007). Approaches would include systematic instruction in reading skills, practice in fluency building, relevant vocabulary instruction, etc (Pressley, 2006). Also included would bereading skills, practice in fluency building, relevant vocabulary instruction, etc (Pressley, 2006). Also included would bescreening measures for detecting students having difficulties in reading acquisition.screening measures for detecting students having difficulties in reading acquisition.

Secondary (Tier 2) Interventions:Secondary (Tier 2) Interventions: These are targeted at students who are considered to be at risk forThese are targeted at students who are considered to be at risk foracademic problems, and for whom additional and more specific instruction is given in order to lessen the differenceacademic problems, and for whom additional and more specific instruction is given in order to lessen the differencebetween where they between where they areare performing academically and where they performing academically and where they should beshould be performing academically (Vaughn & performing academically (Vaughn &Roberts, 2007). These interventions often take place in smaller groups, and with more intensive and focused attentionRoberts, 2007). These interventions often take place in smaller groups, and with more intensive and focused attentionthan that provided in Tier 1. Instruction may focus on phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency development, vocabularythan that provided in Tier 1. Instruction may focus on phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency development, vocabularyinstruction, or comprehension enhancement. The goal is to help students “catch up” to other classmates, and this can instruction, or comprehension enhancement. The goal is to help students “catch up” to other classmates, and this can

bebeaccomplished either through a common group instruction, or personalized/individual instruction.accomplished either through a common group instruction, or personalized/individual instruction.

Tertiary (Tier 3) Interventions:Tertiary (Tier 3) Interventions: If a student doesn’t respond to Tier 1 or Tier 2 interventions, he or she may If a student doesn’t respond to Tier 1 or Tier 2 interventions, he or she maybe referred to special education treatments. Tier 3 interventions are considered to be the most intensive, and focus on be referred to special education treatments. Tier 3 interventions are considered to be the most intensive, and focus on individual student needs (Stecker, 2007). Many of the strategies mentioned above are utilized in this phase, along with individual student needs (Stecker, 2007). Many of the strategies mentioned above are utilized in this phase, along with other assessment strategies. Services include the development of measurable annual goals, the use of formative data other assessment strategies. Services include the development of measurable annual goals, the use of formative data

to to monitor progress and inform instruction, as well as the use of special eduators serving as intervention agents (Stecker, monitor progress and inform instruction, as well as the use of special eduators serving as intervention agents (Stecker, 2007).2007).

Written Expression:Written Expression:Teaching StrategiesTeaching Strategies

Written language refers to handwriting, spelling and composition. Many strategies and adaptations may be utilized to enhance student Written language refers to handwriting, spelling and composition. Many strategies and adaptations may be utilized to enhance student performance in the field of written expression, and many of them are described below.performance in the field of written expression, and many of them are described below.

Improving HandwritingImproving Handwriting-The inability to write well can often be attributed to more than a lack of fine motor skills. Students may exhibit dysgraphia, or -The inability to write well can often be attributed to more than a lack of fine motor skills. Students may exhibit dysgraphia, or extreme difficulty with writing. They may also exhibit problems with either near-point or far-point copying. Forming letters from memoryextreme difficulty with writing. They may also exhibit problems with either near-point or far-point copying. Forming letters from memorymay also present problems for some students (Hallahan et al., 2005). Multiple approaches to the teaching of handwriting have been may also present problems for some students (Hallahan et al., 2005). Multiple approaches to the teaching of handwriting have been utilized, and some of the more helpful techniques include using paper with wider lines during practice, the use of models showing utilized, and some of the more helpful techniques include using paper with wider lines during practice, the use of models showing appropriate orders, numbers and directions of strokes per letter, and practice tracing, copying and writing from memory (Graham and appropriate orders, numbers and directions of strokes per letter, and practice tracing, copying and writing from memory (Graham and Weintraub, 1996).Weintraub, 1996).

Incorporate Self-Regulation And Self-Instruction StrategiesIncorporate Self-Regulation And Self-Instruction Strategies -Teachers should be willing to model all steps of procedures and provide practice opportunities for students in using-Teachers should be willing to model all steps of procedures and provide practice opportunities for students in using self-regulation and self-instruction procedures. Some basic self-instructions include defining tasks to be self-regulation and self-instruction procedures. Some basic self-instructions include defining tasks to be

undertaken, undertaken, focusing attention on tasks, reviewing necessary steps, self-evaluating and self-correcting, self-control and self-focusing attention on tasks, reviewing necessary steps, self-evaluating and self-correcting, self-control and self-

reinforcementreinforcement..

Use Materials To Develop Manuscript And Cursive WritingUse Materials To Develop Manuscript And Cursive Writing --There is much debate over whether manuscript or cursive systems are more appropriate for instructing students, There is much debate over whether manuscript or cursive systems are more appropriate for instructing students,

howeverhowever there is nothere is no convincing evidence to show one style is better than the other. The choice over which system to use convincing evidence to show one style is better than the other. The choice over which system to use

mustmust be based on individuals in the classroom. There are programs that have been developed to teach handwriting skills be based on individuals in the classroom. There are programs that have been developed to teach handwriting skills

very very systematically, with a more natural development from one style into another. There are many ways to evaluate systematically, with a more natural development from one style into another. There are many ways to evaluate

students students quality of writing regardless of script, such as legibility, size/shape, slant, line quality, etc. quality of writing regardless of script, such as legibility, size/shape, slant, line quality, etc.

Make Technological AdaptationsMake Technological Adaptations --For students with fine motor problems and other students with writing difficulties, typewriters and keyboards present For students with fine motor problems and other students with writing difficulties, typewriters and keyboards present

an an alternative to handwriting. These alternatives still require knowledge of letters and word formations, and typing skills alternative to handwriting. These alternatives still require knowledge of letters and word formations, and typing skills need to need to mastered as well. Advantages of word processors can include neatness and legibility, increased fluency, mastered as well. Advantages of word processors can include neatness and legibility, increased fluency, spelling/grammar spelling/grammar checks and increased speed. There Is uneven access to computer resources however, so basic checks and increased speed. There Is uneven access to computer resources however, so basic skills must be taught to all skills must be taught to all students with sufficient motor capability. For those without the motor skills, voice-input devices can students with sufficient motor capability. For those without the motor skills, voice-input devices can be attached to computers be attached to computers to assist in creating written assignments. to assist in creating written assignments.

Written Expression: Teaching StrategiesWritten Expression: Teaching StrategiesContinued…Continued…

Teaching SpellingTeaching Spelling -Spelling can be a very difficult task for students with reading and writing difficulties. Successful spelling relies on good memory, -Spelling can be a very difficult task for students with reading and writing difficulties. Successful spelling relies on good memory,

phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics skills, as well as self-checking skills. These can be problem areas for many phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics skills, as well as self-checking skills. These can be problem areas for many students with disabilities, and so effective alternative strategies must be set in place. Teachers must ensure that students can read all the students with disabilities, and so effective alternative strategies must be set in place. Teachers must ensure that students can read all the words on the spelling list, and consider providing shorter lists with increased practice times for students with difficulties inwords on the spelling list, and consider providing shorter lists with increased practice times for students with difficulties inreading or writing.reading or writing.

Select Words From Reading and Writing ActivitiesSelect Words From Reading and Writing Activities --Words that are relevant to current activities can be easier to learn, and students are more likely to see the importance of Words that are relevant to current activities can be easier to learn, and students are more likely to see the importance of learning them.learning them.

Provide Distributed Practice SessionsProvide Distributed Practice Sessions -Shorter and more frequent practice sessions as opposed to fewer and longer periods may be beneficial for-Shorter and more frequent practice sessions as opposed to fewer and longer periods may be beneficial for students with disabilities (Gettinger et al, 1982). Learning can be reinforced through repetitious activities.students with disabilities (Gettinger et al, 1982). Learning can be reinforced through repetitious activities.

Use Peer TutoringUse Peer Tutoring

--The use of student-paired drills with the use of flashcards or simple word lists is an effective strategy for spelling The use of student-paired drills with the use of flashcards or simple word lists is an effective strategy for spelling instruction. Using tutoring for spelling can increase time-on-task, including increasing opportunities for responding and instruction. Using tutoring for spelling can increase time-on-task, including increasing opportunities for responding and increasing feedback on spelling performanceincreasing feedback on spelling performance..

Modify Instruction Based Upon Analysis Of Spelling ErrorModify Instruction Based Upon Analysis Of Spelling Error --Instruction should be adapted to focus on correcting mistakes and preventing future misunderstandings. Directing Instruction should be adapted to focus on correcting mistakes and preventing future misunderstandings. Directing instruction to individual error patterns is an efficient way of promoting good spelling (Berninger & Amtmann, 2003).instruction to individual error patterns is an efficient way of promoting good spelling (Berninger & Amtmann, 2003).

Teach Mnemonic Strategies For SpellingTeach Mnemonic Strategies For Spelling --Some words can be difficult or unpredictable for students, especially if they don’t conform to common spelling orSome words can be difficult or unpredictable for students, especially if they don’t conform to common spelling or grammar rules. Constructing mnemonic devices for students can provide them with alternative strategies for grammar rules. Constructing mnemonic devices for students can provide them with alternative strategies for remembering particularities. Constructing sentences with the difficult word as well as a particularly difficult portion of that word remembering particularities. Constructing sentences with the difficult word as well as a particularly difficult portion of that word is a common activity (Mastropieri and Scruggs, 1991). is a common activity (Mastropieri and Scruggs, 1991).

Written Expression: Teaching StrategiesWritten Expression: Teaching StrategiesContinued…Continued…

Teach The Cover – Copy-Compare StrategiesTeach The Cover – Copy-Compare Strategies --This strategy focuses on the practice of saying the word, looking at the model and studying the spelling. Then the model This strategy focuses on the practice of saying the word, looking at the model and studying the spelling. Then the model

is is covered while students try to copy it down from memory. Finally the model is uncovered and a comparison is made of covered while students try to copy it down from memory. Finally the model is uncovered and a comparison is made of the the model’s spelling and the students’ spelling attempt. In this way, the students can monitor their own progress as they model’s spelling and the students’ spelling attempt. In this way, the students can monitor their own progress as they gradually gradually correct mistakes. correct mistakes.

Use Specialized Software And Curriculum MaterialsUse Specialized Software And Curriculum Materials --There are lots of computer programs out there to assist in spelling performance, such as those with drill and practice There are lots of computer programs out there to assist in spelling performance, such as those with drill and practice

formats formats or game formats. Some programs are instructional, focusing on spelling rules or transition to writing activities. Teachers or game formats. Some programs are instructional, focusing on spelling rules or transition to writing activities. Teachers may may also consider utilizing curriculum activities that focus on understanding and locating word patterns and skill building. also consider utilizing curriculum activities that focus on understanding and locating word patterns and skill building.

Adapt Spelling ObjectiveAdapt Spelling Objective -It is important for students to understand the importance of spelling in assigned tasks, since it may not always be among -It is important for students to understand the importance of spelling in assigned tasks, since it may not always be among

the the most important aspects of an assignment. Spelling objectives must be prioritized for the classroom, and students should most important aspects of an assignment. Spelling objectives must be prioritized for the classroom, and students should be be taught compensation skills for spelling in their written work. The use of dictionaries and spell-checkers should always be taught compensation skills for spelling in their written work. The use of dictionaries and spell-checkers should always be

encouraged. encouraged.

Teaching Written CommunicationTeaching Written Communication-Written expression is a high-level form of communication that integrates language, spelling and reading skills. It is beneficial to involve -Written expression is a high-level form of communication that integrates language, spelling and reading skills. It is beneficial to involve students more actively in the process by having them write daily, choose their own topics and revise their papers (often with peers). These students more actively in the process by having them write daily, choose their own topics and revise their papers (often with peers). These activities can help reinforce the idea that writing is communication to an audience (Englert & Mariage, 1996).activities can help reinforce the idea that writing is communication to an audience (Englert & Mariage, 1996).

Teach Students To Plan For WritingTeach Students To Plan For Writing --Often students with writing difficulties do not plan effectively for writing, therefore putting down the first thoughts that Often students with writing difficulties do not plan effectively for writing, therefore putting down the first thoughts that

come to come to mind in order to finish the task. Efforts to enhance planning can have a positive impact. Teachers should make sure mind in order to finish the task. Efforts to enhance planning can have a positive impact. Teachers should make sure that that

students understand an assignment’s purpose, so that they can develop a plan for thinking about and executing the students understand an assignment’s purpose, so that they can develop a plan for thinking about and executing the activity.activity.

Promote Thinking About WritingPromote Thinking About Writing --Students can be taught action words, action helper words and describing words as they write (Graham & Harris, 2005).Students can be taught action words, action helper words and describing words as they write (Graham & Harris, 2005). Showing pictures can help them get familiar with using the words being taught, as they describe what they see Showing pictures can help them get familiar with using the words being taught, as they describe what they see

happening inhappening in the photo. List of words that are relevant to students ages and backgrounds posted in the classroom may be particularlythe photo. List of words that are relevant to students ages and backgrounds posted in the classroom may be particularly helpful to the learning process.helpful to the learning process.Implement Self-Regulation And Self-Instructional Writing StrategiesImplement Self-Regulation And Self-Instructional Writing Strategies -Encourage self-instruction in the classroom, along with explanations of how it can be helpful to students in task -Encourage self-instruction in the classroom, along with explanations of how it can be helpful to students in task

completion.completion. 6 basic types of self-instruction exist: problem definition, focusing of attention and planning, strategy, self-evaluation and 6 basic types of self-instruction exist: problem definition, focusing of attention and planning, strategy, self-evaluation and

error error correction, coping and self-control, and self-reinforcement. correction, coping and self-control, and self-reinforcement.

Written Expression: Teaching Written Expression: Teaching StrategiesStrategies

Continued…Continued…Choose Effective Composition StrategiesChoose Effective Composition Strategies --When providing instruction about composition strategies, teachers should be sure to model all steps for students, in order to When providing instruction about composition strategies, teachers should be sure to model all steps for students, in order to assure maximum retention and understanding. Most composition strategies focus on providing all appropriate details within aassure maximum retention and understanding. Most composition strategies focus on providing all appropriate details within a narrative, such as the narrative, such as the 3-W, 2-What, 2-How3-W, 2-What, 2-How, or the , or the SPACE SPACE strategies. In addition, persuasive essays could benefit from the strategies. In addition, persuasive essays could benefit from the THINK-STOP-DARE THINK-STOP-DARE method.method.

Teach Self-Regulation Strategies Development (SRSD) Teach Self-Regulation Strategies Development (SRSD) -This is a model for promoting higher-level cognitive skills and self-regulated use of cognitive strategies (Graham et al., 2004).-This is a model for promoting higher-level cognitive skills and self-regulated use of cognitive strategies (Graham et al., 2004). The first stage is the development of background knowledge, the second stage is the students discussion of their current The first stage is the development of background knowledge, the second stage is the students discussion of their current

performance, the third stage is the teacher’s modeling of think-aloud writing strategies, and the fourth stage is the students use performance, the third stage is the teacher’s modeling of think-aloud writing strategies, and the fourth stage is the students use of mnemonic of mnemonic devices to remember useful strategies. The fifth and final stage is the collaboration between students and devices to remember useful strategies. The fifth and final stage is the collaboration between students and teachers in using strategies teachers in using strategies and self-instruction to complete writing assignments.and self-instruction to complete writing assignments.

Provide Support For Written Research ReportProvide Support For Written Research Report --As it is common for teachers to assign lengthy written assignments such as research reports, it is important for them to make As it is common for teachers to assign lengthy written assignments such as research reports, it is important for them to make

sure the class is aware of and trained in all necessary skills needed for successful writing projects. Explicit instructions should sure the class is aware of and trained in all necessary skills needed for successful writing projects. Explicit instructions should be provided, be provided, along with plenty of time for practice and reviews. Peer reviews should be encouraged, as should multiple draft along with plenty of time for practice and reviews. Peer reviews should be encouraged, as should multiple draft reviews. reviews.

Use Technology To Help With The Writing ProcessUse Technology To Help With The Writing Process --There are many software programs available to assist students in the writing process, and students should have access to There are many software programs available to assist students in the writing process, and students should have access to

various types in order to maximize the assignment potential. Keyboarding, or voice-recognition software programs should be various types in order to maximize the assignment potential. Keyboarding, or voice-recognition software programs should be made made available for students with writing difficulties or physical disabilities. Spelling and grammar checks should always be available for students with writing difficulties or physical disabilities. Spelling and grammar checks should always be encouraged. encouraged.

Adapt Instruction To Overcome Mechanical Obstacles To WritingAdapt Instruction To Overcome Mechanical Obstacles To Writing --There are situations in which students may feel frustrated by writing assignments due to mechanical obstacles of handwriting, There are situations in which students may feel frustrated by writing assignments due to mechanical obstacles of handwriting,

spelling and punctuation. There are methods to overcome these obstacles, such as the allowing of dictation instead of writing, spelling and punctuation. There are methods to overcome these obstacles, such as the allowing of dictation instead of writing, the teaching of the teaching of a word book strategy, encouragement of invented spelling, peer collaboration, self-checking, and trying to a word book strategy, encouragement of invented spelling, peer collaboration, self-checking, and trying to precue spelling of difficult precue spelling of difficult words (Isaacson & Gleason, 1997). Allowing for the use of some of these strategies may help some words (Isaacson & Gleason, 1997). Allowing for the use of some of these strategies may help some students to create superior students to create superior written assignments.written assignments.

Use Specialized Curriculum Materials And SoftwareUse Specialized Curriculum Materials And Software --The use of specialized computer software and materials to assist in student writing skills is increasingly important for teachersThe use of specialized computer software and materials to assist in student writing skills is increasingly important for teachers to incorporate into their curriculum, as classrooms consist of students with a diverse range of physical, mental and intellectual to incorporate into their curriculum, as classrooms consist of students with a diverse range of physical, mental and intellectual

needs. Being aware of the programs that are out there to assist in learning processes is a necessity for educators who hope to needs. Being aware of the programs that are out there to assist in learning processes is a necessity for educators who hope to create a successful learning environment for create a successful learning environment for allall students. students.

Valuable Web ResourcesValuable Web Resources

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