chabbott y ramírez desarrollo english
TRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER 7
Development and Education
COLETTE CHABBOTT
FRANCISCO O. RAMIREZ
INTRODUCTION
A positive relationship between education and economic, political, and cultural developmentis widel assumed throu!hout much o" the modern and moderni#in! world, et research su!
!ests that this relationship is problematic$ %he problem has two aspects$ First, althou!h man
empirical studies show a positive relationship between man "orms o" education and indi
vidual economic, political, and cultural development, the e""ects o" education on development
at the collective level are ambi!uous$ Second, at the same time evidence o"this "or ambi!uit
has been mountin!, "aith in education as the "ulcrum "or individual and "or collective develop
ment has been !rowin! in the "orm o" international education con"erences and declarations
and national&level education policies$
%his chapter e'plores two aspects o" the problem in distinct was$ First, in the sectionson the e""ects o" education on development and the e""ects o" development on education, we
review the empirical relationship between education and development, drawin! on several
decades o" cross&national studies$ Second, in Section (, we e'amine the wa education as an
instrument to attain national pro!ress and )ustice has been produced and di""used via develop
ment discourse, development or!ani#ations, and development pro"essionals$ Althou!h the tpes
o" education prescribed varied "rom one decade to another, throu!hout the post-*orld *ar ++
period, education "or all became an increasin!l important component in the !lobal blueprint
"or development$
ow did this blueprint cometo be so widel disseminated- *e su!!est that two ration&
Co.E%%E C,A//O%% School o"Education, Stan"ord 0niversit, Stan"ord, Cali"ornia 1(234&2315$Present address:
/oard on International Comparative Studies in Education, National Academies o" Science, *ashin!ton, 6C 73338
FRANCisco O$ RAMIREZ School o" Education, Stan"ord 0niversit, Stan"ord, Cali"ornia 1(234&2315$
Handbook of the Sociology of Education, edited b Maureen %$ allinan$ 9luwer Academic:;lenum ;ublishers,
New
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164 Colette Chaott and !"anci#co O$ Rami"e%
ales plaed a ma)or role in buttressin! con"idence in the relationship between education and
national development$ %he "irst constructs education as an investment in human capital, which
will increase the productivit o"labor and contribute to economic !rowth and development at
the societallevel$ %his rationale is closel tied to !lobal norms about science, pro!ress, mate
rial well&bein!, and economic development$ %he second !eneral rationale constructs educa
tion as a human ri!ht, ima!inin! education as the prime mechanism "or human bein!s to better
themselves and to participate "ull in the econom, politics, and culture o"their societies$ %his
rationale is tied to notions o" )ustice, e>ualit, and individual human ri!hts$
Our assessment o" the literature on education and development leads us to two !eneral
conclusions$ First, there are man !ra areas re!ardin! the evidence on the lin=s between
development and education$ Sweepin! assertions re!ardin! the positive or ne!ative e""ects o"
one on the other miss the mar=$ %his is slowlbut steadil reco!ni#ed in calls to move beond
the earlier either:or "ormulations and attempts to delineate the conditions under which lin=s
between development and education are most li=el to occur ?Fuller @ Rubinson, +117
Rubinson @ /rown, +11(B$ Moreover, man current studies !o beond e'aminin! the recipro
caties between educational e'pansion and increased wealth all sorts o" research issues re
!ardin! the >ualit o" education and the >ualit o" li"e itsel" are on the rise$ %he scope o" the
development and education literature has e'panded$
owever, the second !eneral conclusion is that much con"idence in the positive ties be
tween education and development persists in the development practitioner literature and in
public discourse about education and development$ Sociolo!ical attention needs to be di
rected to the power o" the ta=en&"or&!ranted, that is, to the institutionali#ation o" di""use be
lie"s, practices, and routines re!ardin! the lin=s between development and education ?Meer,
+188B$ Attention also needs to be directed to the social e""ects o" widel di""used, ta=en-"or
!ranted notions about education and development$ %hese e""ects include the proli"eration and
spread o" development discourse, development or!ani#ations, and development pro"ession
als, all o" which celebrate and promote e'panded visions o" education as human capital andas
a human ri!ht ?Chabbott, +115B$ %hese visions have a si!ni"icant impact on what educational
statistics are collected, how development pro!ress is measured, and what education policies
nation&states are encoura!ed to adopt$
%o reiterate, these two !eneral conclusions constitute an interestin! parado'D despite
!rowin! scholarl ac=nowled!ment that our understandin! o"the lin= between education and
development contains man !ra areas, public con"idence in these lin=s, mani"est in national
policies and in intemational declarations, continues to mount$ Itis this parado' that motivates
our review o" the literature and our delineation o" new research directions in the stud o"
development and education$
E!!ECT& O! EDUCATION ON DE'E(OP)ENT
%his section e'amines the e""ects o" education on economic, political, and cultural develop
ment$ *e assess evidence o" both individual and societallevel e""ects$
Economic Development
%he impact o" education on the econom is o"ten studied b considerin! the e""ect o" educa
tion on individual productivit or its in"luence on national economic !rowth$ %he idea that
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increased e'posure to school would increase productivit is at the heart o" human capital
theor$ %he pioneerin! wor= o" Schult# ?+152B su!!ested that the ac>uisition o" more school
in! involved more than mere enhanced consumption$ umans were increasin!l investin! in
the development o" their co!nitive capacities and s=ills, and these investments, in the "orm o"
additional schoolin! attained, had pao""s both "or them and "or their societies$ %hese invest
ments were conceptuali#ed as investments in human capital "ormation toda human capital is
a pervasive "eature o" development discourse, apoint to which we return in the third section$
Much economic research "ocuses on the relationship between schoolin! and productivit at
the individuallevel o" analsis.Itis to these studies that we now turn, be"ore reviewin! anal
ses at the societallevel$
Almost "rom the outset o" this research pro!ram, wa!es were u sed as apro' "or produc
tivit ?6enison, +157B$ iven core economic assumptions about labor mar=ets and the e""i
cienc o" resource allocation, the premise that more productive wor=ers would be compensated with !reater wa!es seemed plausible$ %hese assumptions are consistent with the premises
underlin! the "unctionalist theor o" social strati"ication$ %here are indeed man empirical
studies showin! the e'pected positive associations between schoolin! and wa!es in man
di""erent countries ?;sacharopoulos & *oodhall, +14but see .und!reen, +185, "or contrar
evidenceB$ Rate&o"&return studies have become a staple o" the economics o" education, and
more recentl, o" its application to research in less developed countries$ Much o" this research
e""ort see=s to distin!uish between the prGvate and the social returns o" di""erent levels o"
schoolin! ?primar v$ hi!her educationB$ Since the +183s, ;sacharopoulos ?+182, +11B has
ar!ued that the prGvate and social returns are !reater "or primar education rather than "orhi!her education and that this di""erence is !reater in the less developed countries$ More re
cent research, however, su!!ests that rates o" return to tertiar education ma be hi!her than
rates "or lower levels o" education, particularl durin! sustained periods o" industriali#ation
?Carno, +11 Roo, Nan, @ Carno, +112B$
%hese !enerali#ations have o"ten lead to polic recommendations "or less developed
countries as to where investments in education would be most "ruit"ul$ As "urther studies
called "or more >uali"ied !enerali#ations, polic recommendations were altered or reversed ?see
discussion o" discourse in HOn Mechanisms "or 6i""usionHB$ For e'ample, vocational schoolin!
was recommended b donor or!ani#ations in the +143s and +153s and then the recommendation was scrapped, resultin! in sorne serious costs to the client countries ?Samo"", +114B$
*ithin this research tradition several studies have e'amined the e""ects o" schoolin! on
the productivit o" women, comparin! their wa!es with those o" less educated women as well
as with men with varin! de!rees o" schoolin!$ As is the case with the earlier studies o"
education and productivit amon! men, these relativel newer in>uiries do not report identi
cal results across countries$ /ut here too sorne !enerali#ations are warrantedD as was the case
with respect tomen, there are private and social rates o" return to womens schoolin! ?Schult#,
+112B$ %his is true in both the more developed and the less developed countries ?Strom>uist,
+11B$ In sorne countries the rate o" social and:or prGvate return to !irls schoolin! is actuall!reater than "or bos schoolin!$ %hese "indin!s have been emphasi#ed in man !overnment
reports )usti"in! investments in womens schoolin!, leadin! to a ma)or push in the +113s "or
!irls education pro)ects in developin! countries$
%he dominant conceptuali#ation and measurement o" productivit in these studies has
not !one unchallen!ed$ .abor mar=et economists have noted the de!ree to which schoolin!
credentials ma distort the mar=et, thereb wea=enin! the tie between productivit and wa!es
?Carno, +114 9ni!ht & Sabot, +18B$ %o the e'tent that this is true, increased worldwide
emphasis on "ormal schoolin! ma increase the tendenc to use "ormal de!rees as certi"ica&
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166 Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#
tion "or those see=in! )obs, thereb increasin! individual returns to schoolin! without neces
saril increasin! individual productivit ?Collins, +18+B$ Sorne empirical studies >uestion an
direct evidence o" a positive schoolin! e""ect on productivit ?/er!, +183B, but more recent
research on "armer education and on "armer productivit ields positive results ?.oc=heed,
Jamison, & .au, +1 see also oni!s K+115L stud o" education and pro"itabilit amon!
Jamaican microentrepreneursB$%he broader sociolo!ical criti>ue is that simpl e'pandin! the
number o" individuals with more schoolin! does not necessaril result in an increase in more
productive )obs ?Collins, +181B$ From this perspective schoolin! is primaril a sortin! and
allocatin! machine schools are or!ani#ations o" strati"ication, with the more credentialed
outcompetin! the less credentialed "or the better pain! )obs ?Sprin!, +187B$
None o" this implies that the more credentialed are necessaril more productive$ *hen
the societ is conceptuali#ed as a more closed sstem, the process is ima!ined as a simple repro
duction o" the hierarchical order, as social elites are more able to secure educational advanta!es
"or their children ?/owles @ intis, +185but see Olnec= @ /ilis, +13B$ *hen a more open
societ is ima!ined, much intense competition and con"lict ensues between social classes,
between ethnic and reli!ious !roups, and more recentl between women and men$ None o"
this, however, was hpothesi#ed to lead to increased productivit$ %he credential societ was not to
be con"used with a moreproductiveone ?Collins, +181B$%hus, the optimism o" an earlier era
!ave wa to more s=eptical and more criticaoutloo=s in the sociolo! o" development and
educa tion$ %his chan!e in tone was even more pronounced when e'aminin! the e""ects o"
education on political and cultural development, apoint emphasi#ed later in this chapter$
A more recent appraisal o" the literature ma=es e'plicit a methodolo!ical point implied
in sorne o" the earlier criti>ues and o""ers a "resh re"ormulation o" the central >uestion$ %he
methodolo!ical point is a strai!ht"orward levels&o"&analsis pointD even i" it were established
that more schoolin! resulted in !reater individual productivit, e""ects o" schoolin! on pro
ductivit at the individuallevel do not necessaril lead to economic !rowth at the societal
level$ %o arrive at the latter in"erence, one needs to compare societies, not individuals ?see the
papers in Meer & annan, +181B$ %he brain drain literature partiall su!!ests what
happens to societies that have not been able to create more productive )obs "or their more
productive wor=ers$ %he substantive re"ormulations call "or the identi"ication o" the
conditions under which educational e'pansion leads to economic !rowth ?Fuller &
Rubinson, +117 anushe=
& 9im, +115B$ In what "ollows we "irst e'amine cross&national studies o" the in"luence o"
educational e'pansion on economic !rowth and then we turn to studies that speci" the e""ects
o" sorne "orms o" schoolin!$
%he stud o" arbison and Meers ?+15(B was amon! the "irst to underta=e cross&na
tional e""orts in this domain$ %his stud reported a positive association between a countrs
level o" educational enrollments and economic wealth and emphasi#ed the stron!er economic
e""ect o" secondar education$ /ecause the stud relied on a cross§ional desi!n it could
not ascertain the direction o" causalit, thereb raisin! the chic=en and e!! >uestionD does
economic development lead to educational e'pansion, or vice versa ?Anderson & /owman,
+185B- Moreover, earlier research was o"ten bivariate in character or did not include a su""i
cient number o" reasonable control variables in the analses$ In the +13s and the +113s,
however, cross&national researchers have attac=ed this issue utili#in! multivariate analses o"
panel data$ %hese studies show that primar and secondar schoolin! have stron!er e""ects on
economic development than hi!her education ?/enavot, +117b Meer & annan, +181B$
Moreover, the economic e""ects o" e'panded schoolin! seemed stron!er "or poorer countries$
Interestin!l enou!h this !enerali#ation is consistent with the main in"erence in arbison and
Meers emphasi#in! the wea=er economic e""ect o" hi!her education$ A similar conclusion is
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drawnb researchers underta=in! a time series analsis o"the economic conse>uences o"the
e'pansion o" hi!her education in the 0nited States ?*alters @ Rubinson, +12B$
In these analses the independent variables o" interest do not distin!uish between tpes
o" schoolin! or curricula or between the di""erent populations under!oin! !reater schoolin!.If
sorne tpes o" schoolin! more directl contribute to economic !rowth than other tpes, isolat
in! their e""ects re>uires more re"ined measures than simple statistics estimatin! secondar or
tertiar enrollments as apercent o" the tpical a!e cohort "or this level o" schoolin!$ *or=in!
with di""erent research desi!ns and methods o" analsis, severastudies su!!est a common
and positive economic outcome o" more scienti"ic and technical "orros o" schoolin!$ Focusin!
on lower levels o" schoolin! in both France and erman, sorne studies indicate that the e'
pansion o" more technical trac=s had distinctive positive e""ects not "ound in the !rowth o" the
more classical trac=s ?arnier & a!e, +113 arnier, a!e, & Fuller, +11 a!e &
arnier,
+113 +117B$ %he researchers reasoned that the s=ills learned in these trac=s were more rel
evant to the needs o" the econom than the !reater emphasis on hi!h culture in the classical
trac=s$ Another stud e'amined the e""ects o" varin! curricular emphases in primar educa
tion on economic development$ %his analsis shows that, net o" other in"luences, a stron!er
emphasis on science in the currGculum positivel in"luences economic development ?/enavot,
+117aB$ Shi"tin! "rom lower levels o" schoolin! to hi!her education, other cross&national in
vesti!ations "ocused on the in"luence o" di""erent "ields o" stud in hi!her education on the
econom$ %he =e cross&national "indin! is that !reater enrollments in science and en!ineer
in! positivel in"luence economic development ?Ramire# & .ee, +114 Scho"er, Ramire#,& Meer, +118B$
%a=en as a whole these "indin!s su!!est the plausibilit o" =nowled!e claims lin=in!
scienti#ation in education and the !rowth o" the econom$ owever, much more research is
needed to test the implications o" the !eneral claim$ Note, "or e'ample, that a time series
analsis o" the economic e""ect o" science and en!ineerin! !raduates in the 0nited States
"ailed to "ind a si!ni"icant impact ?*alters & O6onnell, +113B$ Furthermore, Scho"er and asso
ciates ?+118B "ound that sorne aspects o" presti!ious science activities, such as research and pat
ents, have a ne!ative economic e""ect$ Finall, althou!h man o"these studies did not include
a si!ni"icant number o" developin! countries, the are sometimes used to )usti" "airl e'plicitpolic recommendations "or developin! countries "rom international development or!ani#a
tions ?described in HOn %ranslatin! International 6evelopment into Educational 6iscourseHB$
A second direction in this domain disa!!re!ates the educational e""ectsb !ender$ /enavot
?+11B, "or e'ample, shows that womens share o" secondar education positivel in"luences
the econom whereas the "emale tertiar enrollment variable "ails to do so$ Further studies
ma estGmate the e""ects o" "emale and male enrollments in di""erent "ields in hi!her educa
tion$ %his research direction would inte!rate the !rowin! interest in isolatin! science e""ects
with the e'pandin! "ocus on !ender&related outcomes$ A recent cross&national stud o" sci
ence education at the secondar level concluded that !irls do not necessaril have apredisposition a!ainst science$ %he participation and achievement o" !irls in secondar science varGes
widel between countries ?Caillods, ottelmann&6uret, & .ewin, +115 a similar "indin! "or
math achievement is reported in /a=er & Jones, +112B$
Political Development
%he same optimism re!ardin! the economic bene"its o" e'panded schoolin! also led to an
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emphasis on political !ains$ One ma)or line o" in>uir "ocused on the e""ects o" schoolin! on
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Development and Education 7
the political =nowled!e, values, and attitudes o" individuals$ Studies o" the political sociali#a
tion e""ects o" education re"lect this research tradition$ A more macrosociolo!ical approach
directl e'amined the e""ects o" education on political democrac and on national inte!ration$
At both the individual and societallevels o" analsis, the initial wor= seemed to be !rounded
in a much !reater con"idence in the trans"ormative powers o" schoolin! than later studies$
A ma)or !enerali#ation "rom the political sociali#ation literature is that individuals with
more schoolin! were more li=el to =now more about their political sstems and to have more
positive political values and attitudes$ %he latter were o"ten de"ined as participator, demo
cratic, and tolerant values and attitudes$ Comparative studies o"political sociali#ation include
the pioneerin! wor= o" Almond and uestions about earlier !enerali#ations$ *eil ?+14B,
"or e'ample, showed that the lin= between schoolin! attained and political tolerance varies
across countries$ In countries with a more authoritarian le!ac or re!ime, better educated
people are not more politicall tolerant$ %his =ind o" "indin! su!!ests that in this domain o"
in>uir, one should also eschew un>uali"ied !enerali#ations$ %he political conte't within which
schools operate ma be an important contin!enc in ascertainin! the relationship between
education and politicall democratic belie"s and values$
%hese studies raise sorne o" the same issues o" conceptuali#ation and measurement as
those earlier mentioned with respect to schoolin! and productivit$ %he reliance on paper
and&pencil tests as assessments o" democratic orientations can be challen!ed perhaps more
educated actors are better prepared to "i!ure out the correct responses and there"ore in"late
their scores$ %his criticism, however,be!s the >uestion asto wh the more educated are better
able to ascertain the more normativel acceptable political response$
Even i" we did accept the "ace validit o" the earlier "indin!s, the levels&o"&analsis ar!u
ment made earlier with respect to schoolin! and economic development applies here, too$
%hat is, one cannot in"er the positive e""ects o" e'panded education on political democrac on
the basis o" individual data on schoolin! and values$ %he impact o" education on the sstemic
rules o" the !ame that constitute political democrac need to be directl studied, not in"erred"rom individual&levedata$
Much comparative theori#in! ar!ued or presupposed that an educated citi#enr was es
sential "or the establishment and maintenance o" a political democrac$ In this conte't the
0nited States was o"ten invo=ed as a countr that both e'panded schoolin! and political de
mocrac relativel earl in its histor ?.ipset, +152B$ Comparative evidence supportin! this
!enerali#ation was "ound "or both more developed ?Cutri!ht, +151B and less developed coun
tries ?Adelman @ Morris, +182B$ %hese and other studies tpicall emploed cross§ional
research desi!ns, raisin! the same set o" issues !enerated in response to the earl wor= on
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education and economic development$ 0sin! the same indicators o" political democrac ear
lier anal#edbut e'tendin! these measures over time, one stud showed that participation in
lower levels o" schoolin! ?but not in hi!her educationB positivel a""ected political democrac
?Ramire#, Rubinson, @ Meer, +182B$ owever, a more recent stud with more and better
measures o"political democrac "ound si!ni"icant e""ects o" hi!her education ?/enavot, +117bB$
%his stud also shows that the e""ects o" education var across time periods, "urther su!!estin!
the more conditional character o" the relationship between educational e'pansion and politi
cal democrac$
Other studies have "ocused on political order and national inte!ration$ Sorne scholars
"eared that a bloated sstem o" hi!her education would result in political instabilit cross
national analses showed no such e""ects ?urr, +18+B$ %here is also no evidence that educa
tional e'pansion in"luences the tpe o"political re!ime in a countr ?%homas, Ramire#, Meer,
&obbalet, +181B$ A more >ualitative assessment o" the role o" education in promotin! national inte!ration in Malasia concluded that education has "ailed to bolster national inte!ra
tion ?Sin!h & Mu=her)ee, +112B, in star= contrast with the enormous "aith placed in the na
tion&buildin! potential o" education in the +143s and +153s ?see the papers in Coleman, +154B$
Cultu"al Development
%hou!h closel related to studies o"both economic and political development, modemi#ation
theor and research also "ocused on "orms o" personal development that were related to cultural development$ Modemi#ation theorists drew on ;arsons ?+148B theories o" structural
di""erentiation to e'plain how institutions multipl and the simple structures o" traditional
societ become more comple' in response to chan!es in technolo! and:or values$ For most
o" these theorists, modemi#ation was rou!hl e>uivalent to *esterni#ation$
McClelland ?+15+B, "or e'ample, ar!ued that child&rearin! practices tied to *estern no
tions o" individualism and pro!ress !ive rise to a !reater number o" individuals with hi!h
levels o" need achievement, which in tum produce an achievin! societ, drivenb the need to
achieve ever hi!her levels o" output and productivit$ %hese child&rearin! practices and similar
e""orts in schoollead to the "ormation o" personal modernit, a condition characteri#ed b ahi!h sense o" optimism, e""icac, and sel"&direction ?In=eles & Sirow, +12 In=eles &
Smith,
+18(B$ Severacase studies sou!ht to document the passin! o" traditional societ in partas a
"unction o" e'panded schoolin!$ More recent wor= e'aminin! the e""ect o" varin! tpes o"
educational e'periences on personal modemit amon! Al!erian students shows that more modem
orientations are positivel in"luenced both b instruction in French and b "ield o" stud, with
science students e'hibitin! more modem outloo=s than those in the humanities ?Co""man, +117B$
%his stud su!!ests that not all educational e'periences ma have the same modemi#ation
conse>uences$ *hereas literac ma be in sorne !eneric sense moderni#in!, it ma also becompatible with personal orientations >uite di""erent "rom those depicted b the theor$
*hether moderni#ation could be distin!uished "rom *esterni#ation was a recurrin! is
sue in this literature$ Just as there were those who ar!ued that there were multiple paths to
economic development, sorne researchers contended that there were diverse personal orienta
tions and institutional arran!ements compatible with underta=in! moderni#ation$ Addition
all, )ust as a causal lin= between more schoolin! and both more productive and more demo
cratic individuals did not necessaril add up to economic !rowth and political democrac,
respectivel, so too a tie between e'panded education and more modem persons would not
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su""ice to )usti" causal in"erences at the societal leve$ Cross&national comparisons at the
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societallevel were needed$ %he literature contains earl e""orts to conceptuali#e societal mod
emi#ation and the contribution o" schoolin! to societal modemi#ation ?/lac=, +158 Eisenstadt,
+152B$ owever, the concept proved to be more comple' than either economic development
or political democrac$ Few studies more attempted directl assess the impact o" education on
societal modemit$
One obvious avenue o" research involves the in"luence o" education on ine>ualit, be
cause part o" what it means to be a modem societ is to be a more open and, thuspresumabl,
amore e!alitarian societ$ 6espite a plethora o" cross&national studies on income ine>ualit,
little wor= has e'amined whether there is less income ine>ualit in countries with more e'
panded education$ One unpublished stud su!!ests no e""ects ?Shanahan, +11(B this "indin!
is consistent with more structural theories o" social ine>ualit ?/oudon, +18(B$ .ittle wor= has
directl e'amined the in"luence o" education on other "orms o" ine>ualit "or e'ample, be
tween women and men$ At the individuallevel o" analsis, one stud shows that more educated people are not necessaril more supportive o" !ovemment e""orts to reduce ine>ualit
between men and women ?6avis & Robinson, +11+B$ More societal&level analses indicate
that the e'pansion o" womens share o" hi!her education positivel in"luences their share o"
the paid labor "orce ?*eiss, Ramire#, @ %rac, +185B$ It is o"ten assumed that womens e'
panded access to education will have broad, positive development e""ects, but much more
research in this area is needed$
Summar
At the individuallevel o" analsis, we "ind evidence that schoolin! positivel in"luences wa!es
but debate continues on whether wa!es are an ade>uate measure o" productivit$ %here is also
support "or the hpothesis that more educated individuals are more politicall active, thou!h
the e""ects o" schoolin! on political tolerance are more variable$ .astl, more schooled indi
viduals e'hibit sorne values in line with modemi#ation theor, but whether this is simpl
evidence o" !reater *estemi#ation in !eneral remains unsettled$
None o"these "indin!s, however, warrant societal&level in"erences$ 6irect cross&
national comparisons have increasin!l been underta=en$ *hereas earlier wor=emphasi#ed !lobal educational e""ects, more recent studies distin!uish between the e""ects o"
di""erent tpes o" schoolin! and those brou!ht about b di""erent =inds o" populations
underta=in! education$ %here is partial support "or ar!uments emphasi#in! the economic
bene"its o" e'panded school in!, especiall more technical "orms$ In contrast, the political
or cultural conse>uences o" educational e'pansion and the educational source o" political or
cultural development remain to be e'plored$
EFFEC%S OF 6EE.O;MEN% ON E60CA%ION
%he chic=en and e!! >uestion re!ardin! the relationship between education and economic
development also applies to the was in which education a""ects political and cultural devel
opment$ ;erhaps education is more a conse>uence o" economic, political, and cultural devel
opment rather than its cause, or perhaps causation is reciproca$ Much o" this literature di
rectl operates at the societallevel, with the e'pansion o" the educational sstem as a main
dependent variable$ More recent studies "ocus on speci"ic aspects o" the educational sstem,
such as curricular emphases or speci"ic "ields o" stud, or on the access and attainment o"
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speci"ic populations, such as women$ In what "ollows we "ocus primaril on these cross&na
tional studies$
Sorne o" the literature "ocuses on the rise and e'pansion o" mass schoolin! whereas
other studies deal with the "ormation and !rowth o" hi!her education$ .in=s between
schoolin! and mar=et "orces and between schoolin! and the state have also been anal#ed in
this research tradition$ %his review "irst considers studies o" mass schoolin!, then turns to
research on hi!her education$ *e cover onl studies in which educational outcomes are
e'amined as a "unction o" development variables$
)a## &choolin*
istoriansand
sociolo!ists increasin!l reco!ni#ethat the rise o"
mass schoolin! cannot beade>uatel accounted "or asan outcome o"industriali#ation ?Manes, +14 Ramire#, +118B$
%his !eneral observation is well illustrated in a case stud o" the rise o" mass schoolin! in
Sweden, a stud that reveals the compatibilit o" mass schoolin! with a preindustrial eco
nomic base ?/oli, +11B$ 6espite the popularit o" both more conservative and more radical
variants o" lo!ic o" industriali#ation ar!uments, historical evidence "ails to support the "a
vored causal claim that mass schoolin! arose as a "unction o" economic development$ Nor is
it the case that the e'pansion o" primar school enrollments is mainl driven b economic
development$ Cross&national multivariate analsis o" panel data shows that much primar
enrollment !rowth is unrelated to various measures o" economic development ?Meer, Ramire#,Rubinson, & /oli&/ennett, +188 Meer, Ramire#, & Sosal, +117B$ %hrou!hout the 73th
centur mass schoolin! has e'panded in more developed and in less developed countries$
An alternate set o" claims revolves around political "actors$ istorians and sociolo!ists
have lin=ed the rise o" mass schoolin! to the rise o" the nation&state ?/endi', +15( Reisner,
+178B$ Mass schoolin! "or the production o"loal citi#ens is indeed a theme in the rise o" mass
schoolin!$ owever, there is no evidence that the more inte!rated nation&states were the ones
that earl on launched mass schoolin! ?andas noted in the prior section, the success o" mass
schoolin! in promotin! national inte!ration has been challen!edB$ Nor is a simple democratic
stor plausible, as mass schoolin! emer!ed in both more democratic and more authoritarianre!imes in North America and in *estern Europe in comparable time periods ?Ramire# @
/oli, +18B$ %he a"orementioned cross&national analses o" primar educational e'pansion
also "ailed to show convincin! political and societal moderni#ation e""ects$
In the post&*orld *ar 11 era the commitment to e'pand mass schoolin! cuts across all
sorts o" national boundaries and socioeconomic "ormations$ %he mi'ed evidence notwith
standin!, there is much o""icial and popular con"idence in the trans"ormative powers o" school
in!$ %here is also much worldwide consensus on the ri!ht o" all to schoolin!$ %he erosion o"
primar enrollments in this countr or in that re!ion can thus be discussed as both an eco
nomic anda moral crisis ?Fuller & eneman, +11B, a crisis that increasin!l commandsthe attention o" both national authorities and transnational or!ani#ations$ %his point is re&
e'am ined in the section on translatin! international development into educational discourse$
%hese "indin!s ma be interpreted alon! more historicist accounts o" the rise o" mass
schoolin! ?see, "or e'ample, man o" the chapters in Man!an, +11(B or, alternatel, "rom more
!enerali#in! sociolo!ical perspectives that emphasi#e the role o" transnational "orces$ %he
historical approach su!!ests that, via multiple paths, di""erent economies, polities, and civil
societies conver!ed on the value o" e'pandin! mass schoolin!$ In contrast, macrosociolo!ists
have postulated that a sin!le model o" pro!ress and )ustice "ormulated at the world level
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contributes to commonalities in mass schoolin! outcomes in otherwise diverse societies$ %he
in"luence o" these models tri!!ered education as a nation&buildin! pro)ect, >uite apart "rom its
actual impact on nation buildin! and on related development activities$ In sorne societies,
thou!h, the nation was more directl mana!ed b the state whereas in others nation buildin!
involved social movements loosel coupled to the state bureaucrac$
In the +th and +1th centuries the role o" education within these emer!in! models was
much more modest than its present status$ Schoolin! "or the masses literall started as school
in! "or di""erentiated and subordinated strata, but increasin!l schools were ima!ined as bea
cons o" pro!ress and as pillars o" the republic$ %his elevated view o" schoolin! emer!ed even
as nation&states themselves emer!ed as ima!ined, pro!ress&see=in! communities o" solidarit
?Anderson, +11+B$ / the late +1th centur one could assert that the Franco&;russian *ar had
been won b the ;russian schoolmaster$ %hrou!hout the 73th centur the putative lin=s be
tween schoolin! and development !rew, less as a "unction o" varin! levels o" societal devel
opment and more as an outcome o" the common articulation o" world development blueprints
?Ramire#, +118B$ .ater we address the mechanisms throu!h which world development blue
prints are established and disseminated$
More recent studies have e'amined the impact o" varin! levels o" development on cur
ricular content and emphases ?9amens, Meer, & /enavot, +115B$ %hese studies show sur
prisin!l similar trends in curricular development, trends that seem unrelated to the re>uire
ments o" local economic or political structures orto the interests o" local masses or elites ?see
the chapter b McEneane and Meer in this volume "or a review o" this literature$B Other
cross&national research has "ocused on the chan!in! trends in curricular re>uirements "or !irlsand "or bos in primar and secondar schoolin!, trends that su!!est !ender de&di""erentiation
?Ramire# @ Cha, +113B$ %his stud also su!!ests that the !rowth o" mass schoolin! involved
e'pandin! schoolin! "or both bos and !irls$
Hi*he" Education
Earlier case studies o" the development o" hi!her education "ocused on cross&national or!ani
#ational and institutional di""erences and sou!ht to e'plain these di""erences ?Clar=, +188a,+188bB$ In these and in related cross&national studies, variations in levels o" political central
i#ation account "or variations in the de!ree to which hi!her education is re!ulated b state
authorities ?Ramire# & Rubinson, +181B$ ariations in academic !ovemance structures have
also been e'amined as a "unction o" both mar=et "orces and state le!acies$ In this tradition a
recent comparative stud concluded that sstems that stron!l di""erentiate at the secondar
level are more li=el to have lower de!rees o" di""erentiation at the hi!her level ?e$!$, er
manB than those with relativel low levels o" secondar school di""erentiation ?e$!$, the 0nited
States, *indol", +118B$ %his analsis also su!!ests that the response o" hi!her education e'
pansion to mar=et "orces ?business cclesB will be !reater in societies where mar=ets are morein"luential than state bureaucracies, moreso in the 0nited States than in erman$
%he e'pansion o" hi!her education has not alwas been re!arded as evidence o" pro!ress$
Not onl was there !reater s=epticism re!ardin! its positive e""ects, the elite character o"
hi!her education was ta=en "or !ranted until well a"ter *orld *ar ++$ Increasin!l, hi!her
education has become nearl a mass institution in sorne countries, whereas in others the aspi
ration to tum hi!her education into a more mass&"riendl settin! is evident$ %here is little
evidence that the e'pansion o" hi!her education is mainl a "unction o" the level o" economic
!rowth there is much evidence that the e'pansion o" womens share o" hi!her education is a
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worldwide trend ?9ell, +11+B$ In less developed countries the newness o"the sstem o"hi!her
education positivel in"luences the !rowth o" womens share, aprocess that su!!ests that the
a!e o" a countr in"luences its receptivit to chan!in! world emphases on who should enter
into hi!her education ?/radle & Ramire#, +115B$
%here is also evidence that the content o"hi!her education is becomin! more diversi"ied
and more present&oriented in its covera!e$ 6espite their distinctive historical le!acies and
thic= cultural milieus, more universities and especiall the man newer ones seem more con
nected to both mass schoolin! institutions and to broad development concerns than in prior
eras ?Fran=, *on!, Meer, & 6uncan, +115B$ ;erhaps it is true that more peoples and more
societies are or!ani#in! themselves as i" there were Hno salvation outside hi!her educationH
?Shils, +18+B$ %his ma e'plain sorne o"the interna opposition to e'terna pressures to curb
the !rowth o" costl hi!her education orto de"ra sorne o" the costs with user "ees and tuition$
%hese pressures are o"ten applied b the *orld /an= as part o" pro!rams to rationali#e re
source allocations in the education sector$
&umma"+
%he emer!ence and e'pansion o" mass schoolin! is di""icult to account "or as a "unction o"
national or societal properties, such as the level o" development$ %he e'tent to which school
in! is more directl lin=ed to state bureaucracies or more open to mar=et "orces varies in lar!e
partas a conse>uence o" how much societ itsel" is mar=et& or state&driven$ owever, theworldwide character o" the e'pansion and the universalistic nature o" the rationale "or e'pan
sion su!!ests that e'ternal "actorspla a si!ni"icant role$
*e "ind more cross&national variation in the internal or!ani#ation o" hi!her education,
but here too the historical trend is in the direction o" !reater massi"ication$ %hus, massi"ication
o" both basic schoolin! and hi!her education in the 73th centur appear to be attuned to
transnational blueprints "or promotin! development throu!h education$ Individual&leve de
mands "or more schoolin! are on the rise, with issues o" !ender commandin! !reater attention
than in past decades$ Increasin!l the core debates hin!e on what constitutes >ualit educa
tion, which is increasin!l construed as the =e to development$*e are le"t with our parado'D to date, empirical research has been unable to establish
universal causallin=s between education writ lar!e and development, especiall at the soci
etal level o" analsis$ Nevertheless, b the end o" the 73th centur, common blueprints o"
education "or development appear in man international education declarations and covenants,
as well as in national strate!ies and policies$ %he ne't section "ocuses on the mechanisms
throu!h which these blueprints have been produced and di""used throu!hout the world$
)ECHANI&)& !OR DI!!U&ION
In the post-*orld *ar II era, common blueprints emphasi#in! education "or development
have emer!ed and have been rapidl disseminated$ %he result has been an increase in common
educational principies, policies, and even practices amon! countries with varin! national
characteristics$ Attempts to e'plain the !rowth o" educational isomorphism have empha&
%he term isomorphism means the tendenc "or collectivities en!a!ed in similar enrterprises to adopt similar
social structures ?6iMa!!io & ;owell, +12B$
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si#ed coercion, imitation, and con"ormit to norms ?/erman, +12, +118 Meer, Na!el, @
Snder, +112B$ Missin! "rom most o" this literature is an analsis o" the mechanisms that
!enerate this isomorphism$ %his section addresses this !ap in the "ollowin! "our subsections$
First, we trace the translation o" abstract, rari"ied ideas about pro!ress and )ustice into rational
discourse about education and development at the !loballevel$ Second, we describe the "or
mali#ation o" that discourse into intemational development or!ani#ations$ Finall, we loo= at
the role o" intemational development pro"essionals in institutionali#in! and modi"in! that
discourse about education and development$
Fi!ure 8$+ outlines our ar!ument, startin! "rom the premise that world ideas about pro!ress
and )ustice translate into discourse about development and, more speci"icall, about education
and development$ %his rationali#in! discourse "acilitates the rise o"both networ=s o" develop
ment pro"essionals and intemational development or!ani#ations$ %hese pro"essionals and or&
*OR.6 C0.%IJRA. /rE;RIN%S OF 6EE.O;MEN%IN%ERNA%IONA.$$$ IN%ERNA%IONA. ...IN%ERNA%IONA. :
6ISCO0RSE ORANIZA%IONS ;ROFESSIONA.S
IN%ERNA%IONA. CONFERENCES
tIN%ERNA%IONA.
6EC.ARA%IONS, CONEN%IONS,
& FRAME*OR9S FOR AC%ION
tNA%IONA.;.ANS OF AC%ION
NA%IONA. EP;AN6E6
6EFINI%IONS OF
0MAN RI%S, CI%IZENSI;, & 6EE.O;MEN%
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
+NA%IONA0.OCA. NA%IONA0.OCA.
NOs
.OCA0NA%IONA.AC%ION 0N6ER%A9EN CONSIS%EN%
*I% EP;AN6E6 6EFINI%IONS OF
0MAN RI%S, CI%IZENSI;, & 6EE.O;MEN
FI0RE 8$+$ Mechanisms "or carrin! blueprints o" development and education$
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Development and Education 17,
!ani#ations, in tum, sharpen and standardi#e the discourseb coordinatin! activities that show
case discourse$ Intemational con"erences are one e'ample o" these tpes o" activities be
tween +1(( and +113, various 0nited Nations or!ani#ations sponsored more than +5 !lobal
con"erences on speci"ic areas o" development, such as "amil plannin!, water and sanitation,
and "ood$ Each o" these con"erences brou!ht to!ether not )ust national dele!ations but also
scores o" intemational development or!ani#ations$
/ the time o" the "irst Education "or All Con"erence in +113, standard products o" these
con"erences included nonbindin! declarations and "ramewor=s "or action$ %hese declarations
and their associated "ramewor=s tpicall invo=e the hi!hest ideals o" pro!ress and )ustice,
thereb ma=in! it practicall mandator "or nationa+ dele!ations to endorse them$ iven the
prominent role plaedb ideals in both the declaration and "ramewor= "or action, the national
plans developed subse>uent to the con"erence o"ten incorporate e'panded de"initions o" hu
man ri!hts, citi#enship, and development$
For most o" the postwar period this con"erence&declaration&national plan ccle contrib
uted toa si!ni"icant amount o" loose couplin! ?Meer et al$, +112 Na!el @ Snder, +11B
between on the one hand, national education policies produced in response to intemational
norms and, on the other hand, the implementation o" these policies at the subnationallevel$ In
recent ears, however, the !ovemmental intemational development or!ani#ations have in
creasin!l recruited and supported the participation o" intemational, natGonal, and local non
!overnmental or!ani#ations ?NOsB in international con"erences$ %he also support NO
e""orts to monitor the implementation o" declarations and national plans o" action at the na
tional and the locallevels$ *ith the advent o" new, ine'pensive electronic communications,
local NOs can publici#e natGonal plans at the national and the locallevel and can draw
intemational attention when national !overnments "ail to implement those plans ?see, "or e'
ample, Social *atch, +115B$ Fisher ?+11B su!!ested that this ma lead to ti!hter couplin!
between internatGonal norms and actGon at the subnationallevel$
%he "ollowin! subsections describe the process shown in Fi!ure 8$+ in !reater detail as it
relates to education and development$ Note that most arrows in Fi!ure 8$+ are two wa, indi
catin! that these nodes are reciprocaand iterative$ In !eneral, over time, lin=s between educa
tion and development !row ti!hter and more institutionali#ed the meanin! o" development
and, b e'tension, o" educatGon broadens and emphasis shi"ts "rom an e'clusive concern with
collectGve economic !rowth to incorporate individual ri!hts and )ustice$
E-pandin* Di#cou"#e and O"*ani%ation#
Since the end o" *orld *ar 11, a world culture emphasi#in! pro!ress and )ustice ?Fa!erlind &
Saha, +12 Meer, ;oll, %homas, & Ramire#, +118 Robertson, +117B produced a
ratGonali# in! discourse about development, and, over time, constructed a central role "or
education in the development process$ %he most le!itimate actors became nation&states
with broad na tional and individual development !oals and with individual citi#ens whose
education was lin=ed to their development and the development o" their nation&state$
An e'panded de"inition o" development derives "rom the 0nited Nations ?0NB +1(
0niversal 6eclaration o" uman Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +1(B$ %he 6eclaratGon ma=es e'
plicit each individuals ri!hts toa mGnimum standard o" livin!but does not speci" how that
standard will be ensuredD HArticle 74, ;ara l. Everone has the ri!ht toa standard o" livin!
ade>uate "or the health and well bein! o" himsel" ?sicB and o" his "amil, includin! "ood,
clothin!, housin!, and medical care and necessar social services....H
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.ater e""orts, however, to translate the nonbindin! +1( 6eclaration into bindin! inter
national covenants led to "urther elaboration o" the imperative "or states to provide "or indi
vidual development and o" the wealthier states to provide assistance to poorer states to help
them "ul"ill this responsibilit$Article ++, ;ara l$ %he States ;arties to the present Covenant reco!ni#e the ri!ht o" everone to an
ade>uate standard o" livin! ... and to the continuous improvement o" livin! conditions$ %he
States ;arties will ta=e appropriate steps to ensure the reali#ation o" this ri!ht, reco!ni#in! to this
e""ect the essential importance o"international co&operation based on "ree consent$ ?0nited Nations,
+155B
%hese documents helped to create a world o" developed and developin! countries, with
the "ormer encoura!ed to provide the latter with "orei!n aid or development assistance$ Ori!i
nall, multilateral or!ani#ations, such as the 0N, e'pected to be the main conduits o" this
development assistance$ %he advent o"the Cold *ar, however, circumvented the 0Ns coordinatin! mandate ?/lac=, +15B b the +143s, man *estem countries be!an channelin!
development assistance throu!h primaril reli!ious or!ani#ations and throu!hNOs alread
established in "ormer colonies, a practice that has !rown over time ?Or!ani#ation "or Eco
nomic Cooperation and 6evelopment, +1B$ In addition, in the +153s and +183s, most hi!h
income countries also "ormed bilateral !ovemmental development or!ani#ations$ As a result,
b the earl +113s, there were about 743 multilateral, (3 bilateral, and 4,333 intemational
non!ovemmental development or!ani#ations ?Chabbott, +115B$ Over time, as their densit
increased, these or!ani#ations became increasin!l bureaucrati#ed and pro"essionali#ed$ Al
thou!h initiall "ocused on sectors immediatel associated with economic production ?such asa!riculture or in"rastructureB, intemational development or!ani#ations eventuall broadened
into all social and economic sectors, includin! education$
In addition, both o" the documents e'cerpted previousl emphasi#e that the tar!et o"
development is not the national econom&the traditional Hwealth o" nationsH&buteverone$
Individual development became the means to national development and individual develop
ment was e>uated with individual education in man 0N documents$ %he best =nown o" these
include Article 75 o" the 0niversal 6eclaration o" uman Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +1(B,
which de"ines education as a human ri!ht, and Articles +2 and +( o" the Intemational Cov
enant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +155B, which e'pands onthis theme$ In +113 more than +43 nations accepted b acclamation the 6eclaration o"Educa
tion "or All, reiteratin! these ri!hts and conse>uences and rea""irmin! their belie" in the rela
tionship between development and education at the !lobal, national, and individuallevelsD
l. Recallin! that education is a "undamental ri!ht ...
7$ 0nderstandin! that education can help ensure a sa"er, healthier, more prosperous and
environmentall sound world, while simultaneousl contributin! to social, economic,
and cultural pro!ress, tolerance, and intemational cooperation
2$ 9nowin! that education is an indispensable =e to, thou!h nota su""icient condition
"or, personal and social improvement ...0NESCO +112B
Note that this passa!e sets out both normative ?education as a ri!htB and instrumental ?educa
tion as an essential input to developmentB ar!uments to promote education$ For most o" the
postwar period, instrumental ar!uments, o"ten drawin! on human capital constructs ?Schult#,
+152B, dominated liberal or!ani#ations ?i$e$, the *orld /an=, 0SAI6B$ In contrast, normative
ar!uments tended toprevail amon! more pro!ressive "unders ?i$e$, the 0N a!encies, the Nor
dic bilateral or!ani#ations /uchert, +11(B
Finall, the universalistic "ocus in the development discourse, that is, everone, increased
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emphasis within international development a!encies on individual wel"are and on broad par&
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+ Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#
ticipation in the development process$ / the late +13s, this translated into an increasin!
"ocus on previousl mar!inali#ed !roups, such as ethnic minorities and women$ Education
became a central theme in e""orts to raise these !roups to a hi!her status$
In summar, we have described the mechanismb which discourse at the !loballevel
about the nature o" development simultaneousl prompted the e'pansion o" discourse about
education and development, the "ormation o" international development or!ani#ations, and
the proli"eration o" activities to promote it, such as international con"erences$ %he ne't section
e'amines the evolution o" the content o" discourse about education in the conte't o" shi"tin!
discourse about development$ *hereas in this section, development discourse "acilitated the
creation o" a "ield o" international development or!ani#ations, in the ne't we show how, once
created, these or!ani#ations !enerate secondar discourse that results in an emphasis on di"
"erent levels and tpes o" education in di""erent decades$
T"an#latin* Inte"national Development into Educational Di#cou"#e
Since the end o" *orld *ar 11. institutionali#ed discourse on development within the 0N
)usti"ied the "ormation o" do#ens o" "ormal 0N&a""iliated or!ani#ations with the e'press pur
pose o" operationali#in! the 0Ns Charter, 6eclaration, and Covenants$ %he 0Ns commit
ment to promotin! education as a human ri!ht was mani"est in the relativel earl creation o"
the 0nited Nations Educational, Scienti"ic, and Cultural Or!ani#ation ?0NESCO, "$ +1(5B$
Iones ?+113B emphasi#ed the importance o" the ob)ective, material needs o" the Allies to
rebuild education sstems shattered b *orld *ar ++ in establishin! 0NESCO as an action
oriented or!ani#ation$ An emphasis on pscholo! and on international peace was deepl
embedded in 0NESCO, which populari#ed Clement Atlees notion that Hwars be!in in the
minds o" men$H Illiterac&or the lac= o" e'posure to the sociali#in! in"luence o" schoolin!
was there"ore constructed as a threat to peace ?Iones, +113B$ In addition, 0NESCOs earl
education approaches, such as "undamental education, assumed a causal lin= between educa
tion and development$ Mar!aret Mead, one o" a series o" social scientists and humanitarians
called upon to help 0NESCO de"ine its mission, declaredD
%he tas= o" Fundamental Education is to cover the whole o" livin!$ In addition, it is to teach, notonl new was, but the need and the incentive "or new was
...
i" the new education is to "ill
the place o" the old, it has to cover all areas o" livin! ... In man countries new "undamental
education is carried on b teams includin! social wor=ers, !raduate nurses, a!riculturaassistants,
home econo mists, h!iene e'perts$ ?>uoted in Jones, +113B
0NESCOs mandate envisions the or!ani#ation as the main conduit "or much develop
ment assistance$ .i=e other 0N or!ani#ations, 0NESCO su""ered a ma)or setbac= with the
advent o" the Cold *ar$ Since then, man bilateral or!ani#ations, and even sorne other 0N
or!ani#ations, created education sections$ In addition, several other inter!overnmental or!a
ni#ations speciali#in! in educational development emer!ed, such as the International Institute"or Educational ;lannin! ?IIE;, "$ +152 see 9in!, +11+ "or a more complete catalo! o"inter
national educational development or!ani#ationsB$ Althou!h 0NESCO tried "rom time to time
to mount ambitious !loballevel pro!rams, such as the *orld .iterac ;ro!ram, its main con
tribution to educational development became reports, pilot pro)ects, and con"erences ?Iones,
+113B$
Man "actors contributed to the rise o" what Co' ?+15B called the ideolo! o" educa
tional development$ 0NESCOs re!ional con"erences helped to create common vocabular
and !oals$ A !roup o" American economists ?/ec=er, +15( Schult#, +152B provided the ratio&
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nallin= between education and development in the "orm o"human capital theor$ 0$S$ "ounda
tions supported both economic research and e'panded support "or the stud o" education and
development in other countries ?/erman, +117B$ Finall, intemational development or!ani#a
tions e'panded their education departments, promoted speci"ic education policies and pro)ects,
and "unded new educational and research networ=s in developin! countries ?Mcinn, +115B$
%he education policies promoted b the intemational development or!ani#ations, how
ever, do not necessaril derive "rom the educational research described in earlier sections,
rather the tend to mirror the shi"tin! ideas about national development ?/erman, +118 Coombs,
+14 *atson, +1B$ %able 8$+ is a simpli"ied mappin! o" the ma)or approaches to national
development in the decades since *orld *ar II, as articulated in the mainstream practitioner
literature ?Amdt, +18 J$ .ewis @ 9allab, +15 J$ ;$ .ewis, +1 Meier, +114B$ Alon!side
these development approaches, we show the correspondin! discourse about educational de
velopment and the educational priorities associated with this discourse ?;$ Iones, +118 ;$ *$Iones, +113, +117B$ %o emphasi#e the overlappin! >ualit o" man o" these ideas, the lines
demarcatin! decades are dashed, not solid$
Althou!h there is much overlap in these decades, trends are evident$ First, the concept o"
development shi"ts "rom national control and orientation to intemational "undin! and !lobal
orientation$ Second, we see increasin! comple'it in the wa the process o" development is
ima!ined, with newer approaches subordinatin! but not entirel replacin! older ones$ /ut,
most important, we see national development increasin!l de"ined in terms o" individual wel
"are, rather than simpl in terms o" national economic !rowth and, concurrentl, apush to use
%A/.E 8$l. %hemes in National 6evelopment and Educational 6evelopment 6iscourse,+143&+114
6ecade 6evelopment discourseEducational development discourse Educational priorities
+143s Communit development
%echnolo! trans"er
Comprehensive national
plannin!
Industriali#ation
Fundamental education ?+1(1&+144B Rural e'tension trainin!
Functional education Adult literac "or health &
a!riculture
Manpower plannin! 0niversal primar education
+153s Moderni#ation uman capital theor Formal secondar and hi!her
schoolin!
Economic !rowth Manpower plannin! %echnical and vocational trainin!
6ependenc Functional education ocationall oriented literac-------------------------------------------
---
+183s /asic human needs
rowth with e>uit
Inte!rated rural development
New International EconomicOrder
/asic education
E>uali#in! educational opportunit
%eachin! Hne!lected !roupsH
;eda!o! o" the oppressed
Formal primar schools
Non"ormal education "or outh
and adults
.iterac education
Adult:li"elon! learnin!
+13s ;overt reduction uman resources development Formal primar and secondar
schools
Structural ad)ustment Educational e""icienc and Education administration and
e""ectiveness "inance
Q mitlDmi!
+113s Sustainable human
development
Meetin! basic learnin! needs 0niversal "ormal primar and
secondar schools
;overt alleviation Social dimensions o"
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Qualit learnin! irls education Qualit o" classroom teachin! and
currGculum
ad)ustment
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universal access to primar education as a =e measure o" both individual wel"are and na
tional development$ %his rationali#ation&that individual wel"are, particularl individual ac
cess to >ualit education is at the ver center o" development&creates the "oundation on
which to build broader, normative ar!uments "or education and "or development$
/e!innin! in the second row o" %able 8$+, the comprehensive economic developmentplannin! approach promoted in the +143sb a variet o" !overnments and international donor
or!ani#ations assumed that each nation&state was a relativel autonomous, sel"&contained unit$
;rudent mana!ement o" domestic resources was the supposed determinant o" national devel
opment, and it mi!ht be achieved with little help "rom the outside world$ 6urin! this decade,
0NESCO implemented "undamental and later "unctional education pro!rams, introducin! lit
erac as a part o" a broad approach to communit development$ 0niversal primar education
was assumed to be a low&cost activit that re>uired locall trained teachers and no scarce
"orei!n e'chan!e$
In the +153s, rapid economic !rowth became prere>uisite to development, still promotedb central plannin!$ Educational planners ur!ed developin! countries to "ocus their limited
bud!ets on "ormal secondar and hi!her schoolin! in sub)ects related to industriali#ation$
%echnical and vocational trainin! also received support, as well as vocationall oriented lit
erac$ Education was rarel mentioned as a ri!ht, but rather as instrumental to industrial de
velopment$
In the +183s, as sorne speculated that economic !rowth was increasin!, rather than de
creasin! the ran=s o" the impoverished in man countries, the concept o" development was
e'panded to include social as well as economic aspects$ 6urin! this decade, basic human
needs emer!ed, alon! with the idea that the international communit had a responsibilit tomeet these needs in nation&states where wea= economies and administrative in"rastructure
rendered it impossible "or national !overnments to do so$ Sorne more radical analses e'
tended the responsibilities o" the international communit even "urther, su!!estin! that aNew
International Economic Order mi!ht be necessar to address chronic social and economic
imbalances at the world level that "avored the rich countries and maintained the economic
disadvanta!es o" the poorer ones$
In this conte't, a basic education, capable o" e>uippin! both adults and children to par
ticipate more "ull in their societies, became the "ocus o" development a!enc attention$ Edu
cation was the wa to e>uali#e economic opportunit and to incorporate previousl ne!lected!roups$ Alon! with "ormal primar schools, 0NESCO in the +183s emphasi#ed adult literac
and li"elon! education, and various international development or!ani#ations e'plored the po
tential o" non"ormal, that is, out&o"&school, education$
In the +13s, structural ad)ustment brou!ht home the messa!e that no nation is an island
all are part o" the world "inanciasstem$ %his implied that nation&states&both developed
and developin!&should ad)ust their domestic economic policies and structures to con"orm to
the international sstem, not vice versa, and that those nation&states that do not =eep their
"inancial house in order will "or"eit sorne de!ree o" their "inanciasoverei!nt$
Althou!h manpower plannin! o" the +143s "ailed to prepare most countries to handle the
educational crises in the +153s and +183s, a variation on it&human resources development
became ver popular in the +13s$ *ith education de"ined as a basic human need, human
resources development became a prere>uisite to social or human development and momen
tum built toward establishin! minimum standards o" basic education "or all individuals, par
ticularl previousl disadvanta!ed !roups ?Allen & An#alone, +1+B$ More emphasis was
placed on "ormal primar and secondar schools, particularl on improvin! e""icienc and
their abilit to serve all citi#ens$
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*estern nation&states reacted to !lobal recession in the earl +113s with cutbac=s in
development assistance to both multilateral and bilateral or!ani#ations$ %his rein"orced the
in"luence o" the *orld /an= in education in developin! countries$ %he /an= maintained its
lar!e structural ad)ustment loans and continued to emplo more social science researchers
than an other international development or!ani#ation ?Jones, +118B$ / the earl +113s,however, the *orld /an= was couplin! its structural ad)ustment loans with social dimensions
o" ad)ustment pac=a!es$ In !eneral, these pac=a!es were desi!ned to stren!then the borrower
countrs capacit to monitor the e""ects o" structural ad)ustment on the poor and to channel
compensator pro!ram "unds throu!h !rassroots NOs$ / the mid&+113s, *orld /an= lit
erature was spea=in! o" development with a human "ace and about sustainable human devel
opment rather than a!!re!ate economic !rowth$
%he *orld /an=)oined with 0NESCO, 0NICEF, and the 0nited Nations 6evelopment
;ro!ramme ?0N6;B to sponsor the *orld Con"erence on Education "or All ?+113, Jomtien,
%hailandB$ *hereas instrumental ar!uments lin!ered )ust below the sur"ace in much o" the
"ocus on !irls education, normative ar!uments showed up in the claim o"universalit in the
title o"the con"erence, o"human bein!s havin! inalienable learnin! needs ?Inter&A!enc Com
mission$ *orld Con"erence on Education "or All, +113B, and o" underlin! e>uit concerns
embedded in calls "or >ualit education "or all ?9in! @ Sin!h, +11+B$
%he *orld /an=, convinced that the social returns toprimar schoolin! were hi!her than
"or an other tpe o" schoolin!, promoted "ormal primar and secondar schools$ In the inter
est o" e>uit, both the /an= and other international development or!ani#ations devoted more
attention in the +113s to school >ualit, both in terms o" classroom teachin! and curriculum$
Most countries now have a national polic mandatin! universal primar education and the
decade has been mar=ed b interest in alternate was to !et children, particularl !irls, in
remote and:or conservative areas into modern schools ?Ahmed, Chabbott, Joshi, & ;ande,
+112B$
In summar, the measures o" development as an international and a national concern
have chan!ed since the +143s "rom a narrow "ocus on national economic !rowth to incorpo
rate measures o" individual wel"are and human ri!hts$ At the same time, the locus o" responsi
bilit "or the development imperative has shi"ted "rom the national to the !loballevel$ Finall,
education became ine'tricabl lin=ed with notions o" development, and the levels and tpes o"
education emphasi#ed in di""erent decades mirror trends in broader development discourse,
not necessaril empirical research on education and development$
None o" the education approaches described previousl ?"undamental education, "unc
tional education, >ualit learnin! "or all, etc$B was "ull implemented and there"ore the postu
lated contribution o" education to development that each claimed has never been empiricall
established$ owever, these theories about the relationship between education and develop
ment were asserted and reiterated at hundreds o" international con"erences in the postwar
period, man o" them aimed particularl at o""icials in low&income countries and in interna
tional development a!encies$ %he role o" pro"essionals in promotin! these con"erences that, in
turn, promoted di""erent levels and tpes o" education because o"their putative lin=s to devel
opment, is the sub)ect o" the ne't section$
;ro"essionali#in! Educational 6eveloprnent
/etween the end o"*orld *ar II and the be!innin! o"the +13s, the bac=!round and compo
sition o" the sta"" o" international development or!ani#ations chan!ed si!ni"icanti$Ori!inall
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Development and Edncation 1/1
recruited "rom "ormer colonial o""icers, "rom children o" missionaries, and "rom war relie"
wor=ers, newer sta"" includes "ormer volunteers with or!ani#ations li=e the ;eace Corps and
Intemational oluntar Service and hi!hl educated, e'patriate o""icials "rom developin! coun
tries, "leein! political upheaval or in search o" a lar!er pro"essional milieu ?Chabbott, +115B$
%he wor= o" the sta"" in !overnmental and non!ovemmental development or!ani#ationshas !rown more bureaucratic and pro"essionali#ed over time$ 6evelopment pro"essionals have
created and are now sustained b a networ= o" support or!ani#ations and publications$ ;or
e'ample, membership in the Societ "or International 6evelopment ?"$ +148B now includes
close to +3,333 individuals and over +73 or!ani#ations or a!encies in 53 countries$ %he bi
monthl International 6evelopment Abstracts ?"$ +17B covers more than 433 )ournals and
other serial publications and the 6evelopment ;eriodicals Inde' ?"$ +11+B lists about 533$
*ith respect to the education sector, the stud o" developin! countries has occupied consider
able space in ma)or comparative and international educational)ournals and con"erences since
the +143s$ / the late +183s, speciali#ation in educational development led to the establishment o" at least one )ournal ?the Intemational Journal o"Educational 6evelopment, " +1+B a
do#en postbaccalaureate de!ree pro!rams, such as the Stan"ord Intemational 6evelopment
Education Committee ?"$ +154B and associations, such as the Nordic Association "or the Stud
o" Education in 6evelopin! Countries ?"$ +1+B$
In spite o" their e""orts to pro"essionali#e, the routine barriers created b len!th tours
overseas and b preoccupation with the politics o" securin! !overnment "undin! tend to iso
late development pro"essionals "rom the *estern academic communit$ .i=e pro"essionals in
all "ields, man intend but "ew are able to remain up&to&date with new developments in their
"ields, such as debates in recent decades about the !ra nature o" the relationship betweeneducation and development$
Nonetheless, these pro"essionals pla a role in the rise in interest in education and over
seas development in *estern schools o" education$ ;or e'ample, volunteer teachers returnin!
"rom service with relie" a!encies and with later development a!encies ?i$e$, pre&pro"essionals
in our termsB, such as the American ;riends Service Committee and the ;eace Corps, brou!ht
new interest in developin! countries to international education departments in !raduate schools
o" education$ In addition, development a!encies "unded short&term and lon!&term trainin! "or
o""icials and academics "rom developin! countries, creatin! an important source o" revenue
"or sorne schools o" education$ %he ;ord ;oundation "unded the creation or e'pansion o"development departments in man schools o" education in the 0nited States$ Most directl,
development a!encies !enerated a demand "or e'perts in education who could provide advice
to ministries o" education in developin! countries$ *ithin academia, the stud o" education in
developin! countries usuall resided in a broader department o" comparative and:or interna
tional education in a school o" education$
6espite their smbiosis, the challen!e to human capital theor mounted in academic
circles rarel sur"aced in pro"essional educational development circles$ Instead, pro"essional
debates have "ocused more on the relative stren!th o" instrumental ?education asan input to
economic !rowthB versus human ri!hts )usti"ications "or education and "or the value o" di""er
ent levels o" education in di""erent conte'ts$ ;aith in the power o" education to address core
development concerns has !rown over time, as described in the precedin! section$ %his "aith
culminated in the +113 *orld Con"erence on Education "or All ?E;AB$
As noted previousl, since the late +143s, international development con"erences have
proved apopular wa "or chronicall under"unded international development or!ani#ations to
move the development a!enda "orward, to raise !lobal awareness about aparticular problem,
and to call on nation&states to brin! resources to bear on that problem$ / +113, various 0N
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24 Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#
and other donor or!ani#ations had sponsored hundreds o" world and re!ional educational
con"erences and had produced more than 88 recommendations to education ministers and
about a do#en !eneral declarations on the sub)ect o" education$
/ +113 all o" the components o" the blueprint described earlier in Fi!ure 8$+, which
allowed intemational development pro"essionals to le!itimatel initiate, sponsor, and "ollow
up world development con"erences, were in place$ %he blueprint includes creatin! a sense o"
crisis about sorne sector at the !loballevel ?Coombs, +15, +14B mobili#in! !ovemmental
consensus around a non&bindin! declaration and a "ramewor= "or action !eneratin! national
plans o" action !eneratin! additional national and intemational "undin! "or those plans es
tablishin! intemational means to monitor compliance with national plans and, wherever pos
sible, translatin! the sub)ect o" the con"erence into a bindin! international covenant or de"in
in! it more "orce"ull as a human ri!ht ?0NESCO, Education "or All Forum Secretariat, +112B$
In addition, the Education "or All con"erence was one o" the "irst !lobal con"erences to
invite development NOs, both international ones and those "ormed in developin! countries,
as "ull participants$ %hese NOs later helped to monitor national !overnments compliance with
a!reements made at the con"erence.E>uipped with ine'pensive"acsimile machines and electronic
mail connections to other !roups and or!ani#ations around the world, local NOs are able to
report la!s in !overnment e""orts to tum intemational commitments into action ?Social *atch,
+115B$
%he impact o" EFA on literac and on primar school enrollments, or even on interna
tional development assistance levels to education, has et to be assessed ?/ennell &Furlon!,
+11 alla=, +11+B$ Meanwhile, the e""ects o" the EFA Con"erence and other international
development pro)ects on the wa education is de"ined, or!ani#ed, and appears at the !lobal,
national, and classroom levels, particularl in low&income countries, remains to be e'plored$
Summar
Intemational development pro"essionals have invo=ed ta=en&"or&!ranted ideals to mobili#e
both nation&states and NOs around a menu o" technical&"unctional education needs$ %hese
ideals, the pro"essionals claims o"technical&"unctional e'pertise, and the de!ree to which the
pro"essionals have !ained !lobal acceptance o" certain activities, such as international con"er
ences, increase the in"luence o" these pro"essionals beond their individual or collective so
cial, economic, or political status$
In this sense development pro"essionals should not be mainl construed as power"ul
a!ents pursuin! their own interests or those o" their nation&states o" ori!in$ %hese pro"ession
als have, alon! with other mechanisms, plaed an important role in recent decades in di""usin!
blueprints o" education and in the development and the e'pansion o" di""erent levels and tpes
o" education in di""erent decades$ %he have mainl accomplished this b enactin! the role o"
ob)ective e'perts and o" rational mana!ers, en!a!ed in hi!hl le!itimate activities,
associated with sorne o" the most ta=en&"or&!ranted notions o" pro!ress and )ustice at the
!loballevel$
CONC.0SIONS
%he relationship between education and development is aproblematic one$ Individual schoolin!
tendsto
raise individual wa!es, ma=e individuals more politicall active ?thou!hnot
neces
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Development and Education 25
saril more tolerantB, and promote modern attitudes$ *hether these e""ects can be lar!el
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attributed to education or whether, instead, the are evidence o" more !eneral processes o"
*esterni#ation remains to be e'plored$
%he e""ects o" di""erent tpes o" education at the societal level, on national economic,
political, and:or cultural development, are ambi!uous$ Mass education has hada positive and
relativel robust e""ect on national development$ %he e""ects o" hi!her education on societal
development, in contrast, have not been si!ni"icant and:or consistent$
%he e""ects o" development on education are no less problematic$ Mass schoolin! is not,
as was previousl asserted, a rational response to increasin! demand "or literate wor=ers in the
course o" moderni#ation in both developed and developin! countries, mass education was
instituted "ar in advance o" an "unctional need "or it$ Instead, since the end o" *orld *ar ++,
the e'pansion o" education appears to be attuned to the transnational blueprints "or promotin!
development throu!h education$
%hese blueprints are re"lected in international development discourse articulatedb de
velopment pro"essionals in international or!ani#ations and di""used throu!h the various ac
tivities o" those or!ani#ations, includin! international con"erences$ %he blueprints are in"ormed
b broad and pervasive world models o" pro!ress and )ustice, in which education is valued
both as a human capital investment andas an inalienable human ri!ht$ Nation&states are e'
pected to commit themselves to education "or development !oals and strate!ies and the "re
>uentl do so, independent o" local economic, political, or social conditions$ %he results are
"amiliar onesD loose couplin! between policies and practices and practices out o" snc with
local realities$
%he institutionali#ation o" these blueprints tends to lower the e""ects o"national development on educational e'pansion, because all countries now en!a!e in such e'pansion increase
the e""ects o" national development on educational >ualit, as more national resources are
channeled to education increase individual returns to educationb increasin! credentialism
and decrease collective returns because all countries are e'pandin! education at the same
time$ Further studies are needed to measure the ma!nitude o" these and other e""ects$
More broadl, "urther studies are needed to "ocus on the conditions that produce stron!er
ties between education and development$ Man prior reviews o" the education and develop
ment literature have made this point, emphasi#in! the in"luence o" varin! societal and educa
tional conditions on, "or e'ample, schoolin! and productivit ?Rubinson&
/rown, +11(B$%his review su!!ests that a new !eneration o" studies should e'amine the institutionali#ation
o" world blueprints and their transnational carriers$ %he scope, coherence, speci"icit, and
status o" these blueprints varGes over time$ %he de!ree to which transnational carriers cooper
ate or compete, speciali#e or overlap in area or content "ocus, are viewed as merel re"lectin!
national interest, or are celebrated as autonomous beacons o" pro"essionali#ed e'pertise, also
varies$ Much research is needed to ascertain whether and in what was this variation in world
blueprints and their transnational carriers conditions ties between education and development
at both the societal and individuallevel o" analsis$
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