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Chapter 4

CONSUMERS' PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AND INVOLVEMENT

AUTHORS' OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter we shift from an overall discussion of affect and cognition and knowledge stored in memory(presented in Chapter 3) to a more focused discussion of (a) consumers' knowledge, meanings, and beliefs aboutproducts and brands and (b) consumers' involvement with products and brands.

ypes of !roduct "nowledge. #e begin the chapter by discussing three basic ways in which consumers perceiveproducts and brands$$as bundles of attributes, as bundles of benefits, or in terms of their potential for satisfyingbasic values(see %&hibit .). hese three types of product meanings are at three levels of abstraction. arketershave conducted a substantial amount of marketing research on each type, but seldom have they considered all threelevels at once. #e believe that combining these three levels of meaning into a single schema provides a deeperlevel of understanding of consumers' knowledge structures for products and brands.

*ttributes. #e discuss two types or levels of product attributes. Concrete attributes represent tangible, physicalcharacteristics of a product (the color of a shirt). *bstract attributes represent intangible, sub+ective characteristicsof a product (the stylishness of a shirt).

enefits. #e discuss two types or levels of product conse-uences$$functional and psychosocial. unctionalconse-uences are functional performance outcomes of product use. hese are relatively tangible, measurableoutcomes such as a coffee maker that is convenient to use or a sunscreen lotion that blocks burning rays of the sunevenly. !sychosocial conse-uences refer to more abstract, more sub+ective outcomes of product use. !sychologicaloutcomes refer to how a product makes you feel. /ocial conse-uences refer to how others react to you.

hese conse-uences may be positive or negative, called benefits or perceived risks, respectively. enefits aredesirable conse-uences, while perceived risks are undesirable conse-uences. arketers have tended to focus onbenefits, rather than perceived risks.

0alues. 0alues are the mental representations of important life goals that consumers are trying to achieve. 0aluesare more abstract and sub+ective than functional and psychosocial conse-uences. #e discuss two levels of values$$instrumental and terminal. Instrumental values are cognitive representations of preferred modes of behavior.

erminal values are preferred end states of being. %&hibit .3 presents several values of both types. hesecognitive representations are part of the consumers' self$concept or self$schema.

eans$%nd Chains . hese three types of meanings can be linked together by consumers to form a knowledgestructure of propositions called a means-end chain. he means$end chain concept is used throughout the te&t as abasic tool for analy1ing consumer behavior. herefore, students need to gain a good understanding of means$endchains now.

* means$end chain is a simple knowledge structure that contains meanings at different levels of abstraction. /omeof these meanings are about products and brands, other meanings concern the consumer. In the simplest means$end chain, product attributes are linked to their conse-uences or benefits and, in turn, those conse-uences areconnected to the values and basic goals that are important to the consumer.

Attribte! F"#ti$"a% P!h$!$#ia% Va%e!

C$"!ee"#e! C$"!ee"#e!

eans$end chains are highly variable (see e&amples in %&hibit .2). ot every level of meaning is necessarilypresent in every means$end chain. *lso, consumers may have means$end chains for products (automobiles),product forms (sports cars, sedans, /40s), and5or brands (ord aurus, 6onda *ccord). he knowledgerepresented in means$end chain structures is formed over time as consumers are e&posed to marketing and othertypes of information and have direct use e&perience with products and brands.

easuring eans$%nd Chains of !roduct "nowledge. #e briefly describe a method called laddering formeasuring consumers' means$end chains of product knowledge. asically, laddering is a one$on$one, semi$

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structured, depth interview. he researcher asks a series of simple, probing, 7why87 -uestions to which consumersrespond in their own words (%&hibit .9 presents an e&ample). Consumers' responses are presumed to reflect theirpersonal meanings activated from memory. he laddering task is intended to force consumers to reveal the keymeanings associated with the dominant product or brand attributes they consider during decision making. heladdering procedure orders these meanings in terms of their level of abstraction, from less abstract meanings aboutproduct attributes, to more abstract conse-uences, to very abstract, self$relevant values. In addition, the ladderingprocedure identifies the linkages or connections between these meanings.

Consumers' product knowledge is likely to be -uite sensitive to situational conte&t. hat is, different meanings arelikely to be activated in different conte&ts, situations, and environments. hus, researchers must be sure toestablish the situational conte&t for the laddering task.

inally, each consumer's responses, of course, are uni-ue. o be useful for marketing strategy development, theidiosyncratic responses from many different consumers must be combined into an overall knowledge structure thatrepresents the common meanings held by a group (or segment) of consumers.

:igging for :eeper Consumer 4nderstanding. #hile laddering allows researchers to probe for deeper consumer$product relationships, it is of limited value. *n alternative tool, the ;% approach to consumer knowledge, ispresented. ;% is a -ualitative research tool that elicits metaphors from consumers and then probes for theirmeanings, allowing researchers to dig very deeply into consumers< conscious and unconscious thoughts andfeelings.

Involvement. Consumers have different levels of interest and concern for products and brands. /ome products areimportant to consumers while others are not. his refers to involvement. he concept of involvement has bothcognitive and affective dimensions and is e&tremely important in the analysis of consumer behavior. In thissection, we define involvement and present a conceptual model that will be used in later chapters.

%ssentially, involvement isself-relevance. /elf$relevance is the e&tent to which consumers perceive ob+ects andevents to be related to their self concept. Involvement or self$relevance can be considered in terms of means$endchains. hus, self$relevance is represented by the means$end links between product attributes and self$relevantconse-uences (see p. =>). hat is, product attributes and the functional conse-uences of those attributes may belinked to psychosocial conse-uences and the value states, which are part of one's self$concept.

Involvement #ith #hat8 It is critically important that marketers clearly identify the ob+ect or focus of consumers'involvement. In a broad sense, consumers may be involved with many things including physical or social ob+ectsin their environments (products, brands, stores, advertisements, family members, co$workers) or with behaviors oractivities (shopping for, deciding to buy, or using a product or brand). arketers need to find out e&actly what it isthat consumers find to be personally relevant. or instance, a consumer might be involved with playingtennis orbowling, yet care little about the ob+ects of tennis rackets or bowling balls. ?ther consumers might be highlyinvolved with both the activity and related products.

or many products and brands, the links between product meanings and self meanings are weak and ratherindirect. hese so$called 7low involvement products7 are not very important or interesting to most consumers. Incontrast, consumers may have strong and direct ties between product meanings and self meanings for a few, so$called 7high involvement products.7 hus, a person who is highly involved with such a product or brand usuallyperceives clear connections between the product meanings and higher$ordered meanings about self (values andbasic goals). /uch products are perceived by most consumers to be important or self$relevant.

elt Involvement. /ome authors (including us in earlier editions@ we have dropped this term in the current edition)use the term felt involvement to refer to the psychological experience of being involvedwith something. eltinvolvement is the degree of personal relevance that the consumer feelsat a moment. he degree of feltinvolvement is determined by the means$end chains of knowledge that are activated at that moment. he activatedmeans$end chains are a function of enduring and situational sources of self$relevance. he degree of feltinvolvement motivates the cognitive processes of interpretation and integration.

/ources of Involvement. #e distinguish between two sources of involvement$$enduring and situational self$relevance. oth intrinsic and situational self$relevance combine to determine the level of involvement$$ (see%&hibit .A, page = in the te&t). Intrinsic self-relevancerefers to the stable cognitive associations between the

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product and self$stored in memory. hese means$end chain connections usually have been ac-uired through pastproduct use e&periences (behaviors). Situational self-relevanceis more transitory and is largely determined byaspects of the consumers' immediate environment. ?ften these are temporary factors or events that cause a changein the connection between the product and the consumer's self$concept. or instance, some consumers becomeinvolved with cologne only when considering the product for a gift (a special situation)@ otherwise they do not feelmuch involvement.

arketing Implications . he concept of involvement has many implications for understanding the consumers,some of which are detailed in subse-uent chapters. Involvement is especially useful for analy1ing the consumer$product relationship, a key factor for developing effective marketing strategies. hus, students need to understandthe involvement concept and begin to see its relevance for marketing strategies. arketers can try to influence feltinvolvement by trying to change consumers' intrinsic self$relevance (use advertising strategies to make the productseem more self$relevant). *lternatively, marketers can try to manipulate situational self$relevance to createtemporary shifts in consumers' felt involvement (c:onald's might sponsor a sweepstakes contest to make goingto a c:onald's store more self$relevant).

KE( CONCEPTS AND IDEAS

!roduct attributes e&ist at different levels of abstraction (concrete and abstract)

unctional versus psychosocial conse-uences of product use

Instrumental and terminal values and their role in consumers' self$concepts

eans$end chains of product knowledge linking attribute, conse-uence and value meanings

Baddering interviews and the ;% interview are used to measure means$end chains

Involvement with products, brands, and activities5behaviors

Intrinsic and situational (sources of) self$relevance

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter our. C?/4%/' !?:4C "?#B%:D% *: I0?B0%%

*. 6ow Dillette "nows *bout /having

. Bevels of !roduct "nowledge

C. Consumers' !roduct "nowledgeE. !roducts as bundles of attributes. !roducts as bundles of benefits3. !roducts as value satisfiers

:. eans$end Chains of !roduct "nowledgeE. %&amples of means$end chains. Identifying consumers< means$end chains3. arketing implications

%. :igging for :eeper Consumer 4nderstandingE. he ;% *pproach to Consumer "nowledge. he ;% Interview3. arketing Implications

. InvolvementE. ocus of involvement. he means$end basis for involvement

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3. actors influencing involvement

D. arketing ImplicationsE. 4nderstanding the key reasons for purchase. 4nderstanding the consumer5product relationship3. Influencing intrinsic self$relevance. Influencing situational self$relevance

6. ack to F Dillette

I. arketing /trategy in *ctionG ike

TEACHING O)*ECTIVES

*fter completing this chapter, students should be able toG

distinguish between attributes, conse-uences (functional and psychosocial), and values.

identify types of attributes, conse-uences, and values.

understand that means$end chains are knowledge structures that connect product meanings with self

meanings.

describe how laddering interviews are used to measure consumers' means$end chains of product andbrand knowledge.

define consumers' involvement with products and brands.

distinguish between intrinsic and situational self$relevance and their effects on involvement.

describe the sources of intrinsic and situational self$relevance.

TEACHING IDEAS AND SUGGESTIONS

eans$end chains and involvement are key concepts in consumer analysis. oth concepts are used throughout thete&t. hus, this chapter lays an important foundation for later chapters. wo class periods may be necessary tocover the important concepts in this chapter. In the first class, you can discuss product and brand knowledge andmeans$end chains, and you can cover involvement in the second lecture.

*lthough this material is fairly conceptual, students seem to grasp the ideas rather easily, especially if given some7hands on7 e&perience through in$class e&ercises, discussions, and5or pro+ects. Hou could approach class in acouple of different waysG (a) lecture from the te&t, e&plaining the material in more detail, giving differente&amples, and answering -uestions of clarification, or (b) assume that students have read the material prior toclass, and use class time to elaborate the key ideas in the chapter and e&plore the implications through e&amplesand class discussions.

#e recommend assigning a pro+ect to be done outside of class. !ro+ects can really help students understand theconcepts of means$end chains and involvement as well as appreciate their usefulness in developing marketingstrategies. If you are using two days to cover this chapter, you could assign two pro+ects$$one on measuring means$end chains in general and the other on e&amining means$end chains for higher and lower involvement products.

Le+e%! $, Ab!tra#ti$". he concept of levels of abstraction(of product knowledge) is one of the most importantideas in the cognitive section. It is worthwhile e&plaining and elaborating the concept of abstraction in class./tudents should have some practice in dealing with meanings at different levels of abstraction.

egin by pointing out the different levels of abstraction in the symbolic meaning concepts that studentshave generated in other in$class e&ercises. Hou should note that no single meaning at any single levelcan fully represent an ob+ect such as a product class, brand, or store.

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/how how (by drawing associative networks of interrelated meanings) concepts at higher levels ofabstraction subsume or 7stand for7 several concepts at lower levels.

or instance, consider the meaning of good handling, one characteristic that a car might have.6andling, of course, is not an actual physical feature of a car. ather, handling is an abstractmeaning that subsumes or incorporates several less abstract meaning concepts, such as tires,suspension system, and wheelbase. Het handling itself is a part of a larger, more abstract

meaning concept$$performance$$along with acceleration, comfort, and braking ability.

*sk students to discuss some implications of the levels$of$abstraction notion.

ore e&perienced, more sophisticated, more e&pert consumers are likely to have knowledge,meanings and beliefs at rather different levels of abstraction compared to ine&perienced, noviceconsumers. arketing strategies should be consistent with the knowledge structures of thecustomers. *s another e&ample, marketers could define markets (and market segments) from theconsumers' perspective. #hat a wine cooler is depends on how consumers categori1e this drink,what other beverages they see it as competing with, and so on.

Attribte!- C$"!ee"#e!- a". Va%e!. /tudents need to appreciate the very important distinctions betweenproduct attributes, conse-uences of product use, and personal values. hese distinctions will be used many times

throughout the te&t. ry the following in$class e&ercise.

/elect virtually any product category and ask a simple -uestion about it. or instance, 7#hat is a softdrink8 or 7#hat things come to mind about cell phones8 or 7#hat do compact disc players mean toconsumers87

#rite the concepts students mention on the chalkboard. *s you write them, roughly separate theconcepts into three groups$$attributes, conse-uences, and values.

#hen the discussion dies down, point out that certain concepts are attributes of the product, whileother concepts concern conse-uences of using the product. /till other concepts (such as values) aremore distant, more abstract conse-uences of the product.

ote that these groupings constitute three levels of meanings associated with a product.*ttributes are the most concrete, while values are the most abstract.

*sk students to consider how marketing strategies can influence consumers' construction of thesemeanings. 6ave a concrete e&ample or two of a current advertising campaign on hand to stimulatediscussion.

or instance, the JilkG It :oes a ody Dood ad campaign attempted to change consumers'meanings about milk attributes (cold, tasty), the functional conse-uences of milk (refreshing),and milk's ability to satisfy higher order values (good health).

*lso, point out that while many product attributes and conse-uences are positive, some are negative.In general, consumers strive to attain desirable, positive attributes and conse-uences and avoidnegative, aversive attributes and conse-uences. %ncourage students to identify both pro and conattributes and conse-uences and think about their implications for developing marketing strategies.

C$"!ee"#e!. #e believe that most consumers tend to think of product attributes in terms of their personalconse-uences. * fundamental assumption of means$end thinking is that an attribute is meaningful or important toa consumer only if it has personally relevant conse-uences. Conse-uences are the basis for linking products tocustomers, a ma+or goal of most marketing strategies.

!oint out the differences between functional conse-uences and psychosocial conse-uences.unctional conse-uences refer to fairly tangible outcomes associated with product functioning (aflashlight lights up, a microwave heats food, a chair is comfortable). !sychosocial conse-uences referto the psychological outcomes associated with product use (I feel good when I wear these +eans) andthe social conse-uences (people admire my stereo system).

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6ave students identify products that have important functional conse-uences and other products thathave highly self$relevant psychosocial conse-uences.

*sk students to discuss the implications of these differences for developing effective marketingstrategies. he marketing strategies should focus on the dominant level of meanings that consumersuse to think about the product.

or instance, some consumers may consider a product at a functional conse-uence level$$ink penswrite, and that's it. ?ther consumers may think about the product at a much higher level$$an inkpen symboli1es one's status.

%&ampleG #hat are the elevant Conse-uences8 #orking with consumer benefits is not always easy. 6ere is ane&ample of some of the problems that marketers can face. In the mid$E=A>s, Colgate tried to introduce a newshampoo product with a uni-ue product benefit. *fter numerous product tests, consumer research, and a nationalintroduction, they withdrew from the market. he problem8 !artly, the 7product concept7 (i.e., the benefit) wastoo complicated to convey to consumers.

In the E=2>s, Colgate had a 2> percent share of the shampoo market, with top$selling brands like BustreCreme and 6alo. ut by the late E=K>s, their share had dwindled to almost nothing. o get back into thehaircare market, Colgate formed an alliance with "ao, a large Lapanese company. hey had a shampoothat was a technological breakthrough$$it defended the hair shaft and cuticle against damage, and madehair more healthy and shiny.

ow, Colgate had to figure out how to promote the product, called 6air :efense, to its potentialcustomers. anagers argued about whether the product offered users a cosmetic benefit or a therapeuticone. In the end, they concluded that the shampoo was a therapeutic product with a cosmetic end benefit.In retrospect, this may have been a mistake. Consumers seemed to sense the indecisiveness about 6air:efense. *fter a period of indecision and turmoil in the marketing department, the technical approachwas softened a bit and the product was introduced in E> percent of the country under the name, /plendor.ut, due to heavy competition and lack of consumer enthusiasm, the company eventually withdrew/plendor from the market.

* competitor felt that consumers were confused and unimpressed by positioning 6air :efense5/pendor asa therapeutic product. %ven if consumers had a cuticle problem, most would not be aware of it. ?neanalyst felt that consumers choose shampoos and like products solely on their end benefits. 6e believedthat Colgate lost sight of the end benefit of 6air :efense with its emphasis on the cuticle story. In otherwords, consumers did not form a clear and compelling means$end chain. (/ourceG ancy Diges,7/plendorG Colgate's 6ardy 6aircare #ashout,7Advertising Age, ay 3>, E=A2, p. 3.)

*nother %&ampleG aking * enefit ?rientation. any marketers understand the usefulness of taking a benefitorientation$$trying to understand the benefits that consumers seek and perceive in products. 6ere is a briefe&ample of that perspective.

In E=A>, ra1ier !urdy, then Chairman of the oard of Houng M ubicam, once the largest advertisingagency in the world, made a speech entitled 7*ttributes of enefits.7 6is main point was the same as edBevitt's$$consumers don't buy attributes, they buy benefits. *ccording to !urdy, consumers 7don't buytechnology or engineering. hey buy products to make them healthier, more esteemed, more attractive,thinner, prettier, wiser, manlier, shrewder, younger, richer, more desirable, happier, etc., etc., etc.

Consumers don't give a damn how a car works. #hat they want to know is how it will work for them(emphasis added). Consumers don't care what's in cat food or dog food. hey want to be loved by theirpets.7

hen, !urdy told a little story about /amuel Lohnson, the great ritish critic and le&icographer of theE9>>s, who was put in charge of auctioning off the old *nchor rewery in Bondon more than >> yearsago. In introducing the auction, Lohnson showed his intuitive understanding of the power of benefits. 6eignored the attributes of the brewery, such as its location, e-uipment, fi&tures, and capacity. Instead heused this appealG 7#e are not here to sell boilers and vats, but the potentiality of growing rich beyond thedreams of avarice.7 *ccording to !urdy, 7hat's what advertising is all about.

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6olding out to the consumers the potentiality of gain, of advantage, of benefit.7 (/ourceG ra1ier !urdy,7*ttributes of enefits,7 a speech given to the Deneral oods Creative /eminar, 6arrison Inn, /eptember,E=A>.)

Het *nother %&ampleG Conse-uences of !lastic$bodied Cars. /ometimes, it is difficult for consumers to understandthe benefits provided by new or unfamiliar product attributes. or instance, in E=A=, Deneral otors introduced a

front$wheel drive minivan, the Bumina *!0 (all purpose vehicle). * uni-ue attribute of this vehicle was its allplastic body. ?ne of D's biggest challenges was to communicate the benefits of the plastic car body toconsumers. (or more information, see Loseph . #hite, 7D 6opes !lastic :rubs 0ans of /teel,7 The Wall Street

Journal, *ugust , E=A=, p. E)

*sk students to think about the advantages and disadvantages (perceived benefits and risks) of usingplastic body parts on cars. heir responses will, of course, be idiosyncratic and personal.

#eight reduction (and lower fuel costs) is one benefit touted by D. he plastic vans shouldweigh about >> pounds less than Chrysler's steel$bodied counterparts. *lso, plastic can bemolded into more comple& shapes, which allows space$age styling difficult to achieve with steelpanels. !lastic doesn't get dings nor does it rust like steel. If damaged, plastic parts are heated(to melt the glue that holds them on), peeled off and replaced.

*mong the disadvantages (risks) of plastic is that panels could not be recycled. If damaged, theentire panel must be replaced, whereas a steel panel can often be fi&ed. *pparently, plastic doesnot have a cost advantage, because plastic that looks as good as steel costs about as much.

P$!!ib%e Mi"i/Le#tre0 Per#ei+e. Ri!1. !erceived risk is an e&tremely important concept in consumer analysis,yet it receives little attention in the scholarly literature. Hou might present a brief elaboration of the perceived riskconcept, beyond the treatment in the te&t.

ost products have both desirable and undesirable conse-uences. !ositive conse-uences are benefits thatconsumers seek out and strive to achieve. egative conse-uences are product outcome that people want to avoid.hey are the perceived risks of product use. !erceived risks may concern physical conse-uences, financialconse-uences, functional conse-uences, or psychosocial conse-uences.

ear can be a powerful selling tool. arketers who use fear appeals in their marketing strategy attempt to createperceived risk or activate perceptions of risks the consumer already knows about.

*sk your students to think of products where the primary purchase motivation is avoiding perceivedrisk.

%&ampleG 6ere is some information about such a product category$$sun screen products (adapted from oddiDutner, 7!rotection acket,7 orbes, *ugust E9, E==, p. =>).

he last few years saw many horror tales of holes in the o1one layer and increases in skin cancer. /ales of sun careproducts rose from NA> million in E=A2 to N23> million in E==E. ut then sales growth slowed as sunbathersreached the saturation point. !eople need only so much protection from the sun, right8 *ctually, marketerscontinued to use fear appeals about the risks of sun e&posure and offer their products as a way to reduce perceivedrisks.

?ne strategy was to emphasi1e the /!, or skin protection factor of sunscreen products. * product with a /! ofE2 should allow a person who normally burns in > minutes to stay out in the sun E2 times longer than that$$or 3>>minutes$$before burning occurs. *mericans tend to go overboard on things, so many of them think that the biggerthe /! number the better. en years ago most sunscreens had /! numbers of to A. ow K>O have numbers ofE2 or higher.

his e&tra protection from perceived risks costs e&tra. /chering$!lough has about >O of the market with threebrands$$Copper$tone, #ater abies, and /hade. our ounces of these sunscreens with /! of can sell for N.==,an /! of A might sell for NK.9=, while an /! of E2 could cost N9.==. 6ow much e&tra protection (reduction in

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reakfast cereals, such as Cheerios, and many other food products certainly -ualify with theirstrong appeals to health values. ut lots of other food products have also tried to tie their brandsto important health$related values that were important to increasing numbers of *mericans (aspeople age, health usually becomes more important), such as low carbohydrate products.

*nother e&ample is the many products that are being marketed as appealing to *merican'sgrowing environmental values. or instance, en M Lerry's, a 0ermont$based, marketer of high

-uality ice cream, sells ain orest Crunch, using nuts presumably grown in the +ungle rainforest regions of ra1il (the goal is to encourage economically viable and environmentally sounduses of the rain forest). he giant discount retailer, #al$art, highlights environmentallyresponsible products with special shelf tags and thus encourages its suppliers to become moreenvironmentally conscious.

*sk students to identify marketing strategies that are directed at such values.

In the health arena, for instance, there are hundreds of new products that attempt to link toconsumers' health values. /ervice companies are attempting to satisfy these values too$$healthand fitness clubs, yoga clinics, spas and health$oriented resorts are e&amples. estaurants andairlines are trying to offer more healthy meals, containing less fat, salt, and cholesterol.

P$!!ib%e Mi"i/Le#tre0 I2p$rta"t A!pe#t! $, C$"!2er!' Va%e!. ollowing are several important aspects of

values that you can briefly discuss in class.

0alues are sub+ective, not ob+ective 7truth.7 hey are idiosyncratic to each consumer.

0alues are person centered, not ob+ect centered. 0alues have intrinsic worth or 7value.7 erminalvalues, at least, lead nowhere else. hey are basic life goals with no further conse-uences. hey areends.

he worth or importance of a value may be personal (salvation or happiness for the person holding thevalue), or the person may see the importance of a value as broader, perhaps even for society as a whole(peace and harmony).

0alues are formed from personal e&periences, many of them occurring very early in life during infancyand early childhood. amily and reference groups have a ma+or sociali1ing role in creating values inconsumers.

0alues tend to be enduring and stable. 6owever, values can change, sometimes gradually over time,and sometimes more dramatically, as a function of a ma+or life event.

/ome values may be widely held by persons in a group or a subculture. ost people in a society mayeven share certain values. or instance, most human beings in the world share values such as familysecurity.

0alues have a critically important function in many cognitive tasks, such as attitude formation ordecision making about a brand purchase.

0alues serve to organi1e the meaning representations about products and brands in consumers'

knowledge structures.

Mea"!/E". Chai"!. eans$end chains are a ma+or concept in /ection and are referred to many timesthroughout the te&t. #e recommend that you spend time in class elaborating means$end chains and givingadditional e&amples. Hou could start by reviewing the simple three$element means$end chain and then show howit can be elaborated to the si&$element chain.

/elect any product category (cars, ice cream bars, or te&tbooks) and ask students to provide e&amplesof each of the three means$end chain levels. !oint out misconceptions and errors in identifyingattributes, conse-uences and values.

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his e&ercise will also reveal that some categori1ations are fu11y. or instance, the differencesbetween functional conse-uences and abstract attributes are not always unambiguous and clearcut. /eldom does this cause a problem in developing marketing strategies since the simple three$level means$end chain is usually sufficient for most applications.

!oint out that means$end chains are a particular way of conceptuali1ing consumers' product or brand

knowledge.

* means$end chain is a simple, associative network of knowledge, a hierarchical knowledgestructure that links meanings at different levels of abstraction$$attributes to conse-uences tovalues.

!oint out that means$end chains are better at reflecting more utilitarian, functional meanings, ratherthan highly affective, emotional, image types of meanings.

eans$end knowledge concerns the functional or instrumental aspects of products$$the ability ofthe product to achieve important, self$relevant ob+ectives, goals, and values.

E3er#i!e0 Mea!ri" Mea"!/E". Chai"!. /tudents form a deeper understanding of the concept of means$end

chains if they are given the opportunity to actually measure means$end chains for themselves (on a small scale, ofcourse). herefore, we usually assign a simple pro+ect to be conducted outside of class and handed in (see e&amplebelow).

*sk one or two students to present their pro+ects on the day they are to be handed in.

:iscuss the content of consumers' product knowledge as revealed in their means$end chain data.

hen, discuss the measurement problems students had in identifying consumers' product meanings.hey definitely will have had some difficulties and will be interested in describing and discussingthese problems. !oint out that conducting effective laddering interviews is an ac-uired ability. hisskill takes time and effort to develop.

*n e&cellent paper full of hints on conducting better laddering interviews is by om eynoldsand Lon Dutman (E=AA), 7Baddering heory, ethod, *nalysis, and Interpretation,7 Journal of

Advertising esearch, ebruary5arch, pp. EE$3E.

U".er!ta".i" the Mea"i" $, a Pr$.#t Attribte. * key idea to emphasi1e is that the meaning of a productattribute depends on the other concepts to which it is linked. hat is, the meaning for a product or brand attributeis a function of the conse-uences that consumers associate with the attribute.

he following in$class e&ercise using +ust about any attribute of any product can be used to illustrate this point.!erhaps some new product has +ust been introduced on the market that has a new or improved product attribute.or e&ample, *nheuser$ush introduced the low carbohydrate ichelob 4ltra, responding to the popularity of lowcarbohydrate diets, such as *tkins.

* trendy attribute for some products in E== was a 7clear7 color (actually no color). /everal manufacturers cameout with clear versions of their products. Dreen !almolive dishwashing li-uid as reformulated to be clear and wassold in a transparent bottle under the name, 7!almolive /ensitive /kin.7 !roctor M Damble was at work replacingwhite Bi-uid Ivory as a clear li-uid. !epsi$Cola created a colorless cola called Crystal !epsi, touted as low sodium,all$natural flavorings and no preservatives. #hat are the meanings of such attributes8

riefly describe the product attribute, and ask students what this (or some other trendy) attributemeans to them. #rite these answers on the board.

7#hat does this tell you about the product877#hat impressions do you get about this product87

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Clear formulation might have some good and negative connotations. * clear bottle means thatconsumers can see for themselves how much product it contains. ut consumers also want tothink they are buying more than water, and color sometimes conveys that meaning.

orce students to +ustify their answers by asking -uestions likeG

7#hy is that important to you877#hat do you mean by that877#hy do you say that87

Bink their answers to the product attributes on the chalkboard. his procedure appro&imates thebasic laddering interview.

:iscuss these rudimentary means$end chains for each product attribute.

he resulting network should demonstrate that the meaning of any attribute is given by the otherconcepts (especially the conse-uences) to which it is linked. hese means$end chains are simpleassociative networks of knowledge, as discussed in the previous chapter.

%mphasi1e that product attributes have little or no meaning per se.

0irtually all their meaning (from the consumer's perspective) depends on the conse-uences towhich they lead (see %&hibit ., p. A in the te&t for an e&ample).

*sk students to discuss the marketing implications of these 7linked meanings7 in a means$end chain.

he relevance for market segmentation and developing marketing strategies (advertising appeals)is obvious. :ifferent segments of consumers may perceive a new attribute -uite differently (itleads to different conse-uences and ends). hus, the product can be said to mean different thingsto different people.

his e&ercise also should reveal the deeper meanings of benefits or functional conse-uences. or instance, themeaning of a functional conse-uence (durability) is given by the higher$ordered (more abstract) conse-uences towhich it is linked in peoples' minds (saving money, last a long time, impress friends).

P$!!ib%e Mi"i/Le#tre0 The Three/ +er!! the Si3/Le+e% Mea"!/E". Chai" M$.e%. #e present two means$endchains models in the te&t. ?ne is the simple, 7generic7 means$end chain containing three levels$$attributes,conse-uences, and values. his three level model is sufficiently detailed for most marketing purposes.

#e also discuss a finer$grained means$end chain model, with si& levels. hese are produced by further dividingeach of the original three levels into two levels$$concrete and abstract attributes, functional and psychosocialconse-uences, instrumental and terminal values.

/ome students may feel frustrated and confused about (unambiguously) assigning a particular concept toone of the levels in the si&$level means$end chain model. ortunately, such precise categori1ation is notnecessary or even very useful for most marketing purposes. :etermining whether a concept is apsychosocial conse-uence or an instrumental value is seldom critical for developing a marketing strategy.

he important point is that a means$end chain is a schema in which relatively less abstract meanings arelinked to higher$ordered meanings. *s students will see in subse-uent chapters, these means$end chainstructures of product knowledge have important impacts on consumers' cognitive processes, affectiveresponses, and overt behavior.

herefore, we recommend a fairly 7loose7 approach to the 7fu11y7 distinctions between ad+acent levels in thecomplete means$end chain model. /ome distinctions are reasonably clear$cut, such as between functional andpsychosocial conse-uences and between concrete and abstract attributes. ?ther distinctions, however, are morevague. Consider the subtle differences between instrumental and terminal values or the differences between

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abstract attributes and functional conse-uences (is 7comfortable seats7 an abstract attribute of a car or a functionalconse-uence8).

E3a2p%e5 S$2e U"!a% Mea"!/E". Chai"!. ollowing is an e&ample of a somewhat 7unusual7 means$endchain that one of the authors identified in a laddering study. * female college student, who was a heavy candyuser, mentioned that the small, bite$si1ed candies (like Ms and eeses' !ieces) she liked were 7good for the

growlies.7 ut what does that abstract attribute mean8 he laddering interview identified the following means$end

chain, which clarifies how she thought about these formsof candies.

(hese candies are) D??: ? 6% D?#BI%/

(hey are) stretchable and sneakable in class (small si1e makes it possible to eat during class)

I'm not on the defensive (because my stomach isn'tgrowling and drawing attention to me)

I'm nicer to others

hey (other people) are nicer to me in return

I feel good about myself

I can get more things done

his same sub+ect produced another means$end chain that began with the functional conse-uence, 7gives me aburst.7 #hen we laddered from this concept, the following means$end chain emerged.

(hese candies) DI0% % * 4/ (of energy)

Dets me through the ne&t class

I'm in a better frame of mind

I'm nicer to others

hey are nicer to me in return

I feel good about myself

I can get more things done

In presenting and reviewing these data, point out that both means$end chains lead to the same endvalues$$essentially self$esteem and achievement.

/elf$esteem and achievement are common, dominant values (desired ends) for young people inthe 4./. and elsewhere. /uch values are especially strong for many *merican college students.

*lso, point out that laddering procedures usually reveal increasingly abstract meanings in the means$end chains. his is consistent with the assumption that means$end chains connect less abstract tomore abstract meanings.

inally, point out that consumers can have means$end chains for a product class (candy in general), aproduct form (small candy pieces), or a brand (Ms). %&hibit .2 in the te&t illustrates this point.%ven within a single general product domain (such as candy, cars, stereo e-uipment, or shoes), therelevant attributes, conse-uences, and values can be -uite different for the product class, productforms, and brands. Consumers may have -uite different means$end chains at these levels.

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Challenge students to think of possible marketing strategies that are suggested by such data (assumingit reflects the important meanings of a large market segment).

*n obvious implication of such data is for advertising strategies. /tudents should be able toimagine creating a 0 commercial based on one of these means$end chains.

P$!!ib%e Mi"i/Le#tre0 Ear%& 6Mea"!/E".6 M$.e%! $, C$"!2er!' Pr$.#t K"$7%e.e

/everal means$end chains models were proposed in marketing during the mid to late E=9>s. *n early model wasdescribed in E=92 by two advertising researchers$$/hirley Houng and arbara eigen. hey described the Dreyenefit Chain, developed and used by Drey *dvertising. he Drey enefit Chain models how consumers link aproduct to an end concept called the emotional payoff, through a series of perceived benefitsG

!roduct unctional !ractical %motional benefit benefit payoff

Lames yers and *lan /hocker (two well$known marketing professors) described a similar se-uence of linkedconcepts, which connect products to the consumer5userG

!hysical !seudo$physical ask or outcome 4serattributes characteristics referent (benefit) referent (imagery)

ollowing the lead of !rofessor Lohn 6oward, om eynolds and Lon Dutman (two marketing professors mostresponsible for the means$end chain approach) proposed a cognitive structure called a means$end chain, whichthey discussed in a series of articles and talksG

!roduct Choice Instrumental erminalattributes criteria values values

Loel Cohen (a marketing professor) proposed a similar, hierarchical model containing three levels of 7productattributesG7

:efining or Instrumental 0alued:escriptive *ttributes ?utcome*ttributes (enefits) /tates

he published sources for these means$end chain models areG Houng, /hirley and arbara eigen (E=92), 74singthe enefit Chain for Improved /trategy ormulation,7 Journal of !arketing, 3=(Luly), 9$9@ yers, Lames 6.and *lan :. /hocker (E=AE), 7he ature of !roduct$elated *ttributes, inesearch in !arketing, L.. /heth, ed.,L*I !ress, EE$3K@ Dutman, Lon and homas L. eynolds, 7*n Investigation of the Bevels of Cognitive*bstraction 4tili1ed by Consumers in !roduct :ifferentiation, in Attitude esearch "nder the Sun, L. %ighmey, ed.,ChicagoG *merican arketing *ssociation, EA$E2>@ Cohen, Loel . (E=9=), 7he /tructure of !roduct *ttributesG:efining *ttribute :imensions for !lanning and %valuation, in Analytic Approaches to #roduct and !arketing

#lanning, *.:. /hocker, ed., Cambridge, *G arketing /cience Institute, 2$AK.

I"+$%+e2e"t. ypically, we devote an entire class period to the very important topic of consumer involvement.his seems necessary to cover all the material about this very important construct for understanding consumerbehavior. ecause involvement is used throughout the te&t as a key aspect of consumer analysis, students need toac-uire a good understanding of the basic concept.

/tudents need to understand the distinction between the e&perience of being involved, sometimes called feltinvolvement, and two antecedents of that psychological state --intrinsic self-relevance(termed enduringinvolvement by some researchers) andsituational self-relevance(situational involvement to some researchers).

Classroom e&ercises can help students understand the key aspect of involvement$$namely, perceived importance orperceived self$relevance. his first e&ercise concerns the general concept of involvement with a product or service.

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*sk students to identify two or three products that are important to them, personally. (If that is toopersonal, ask what products are important to college students, in general.)

arketers often use the term 7high involvement products7 to refer to products that many peoplefind to be -uite important. Common e&amples of 7high involvement products7 for students mightbe stereo systems, cars, personal C: players, sporting e-uipment (tennis rac-uets, skis), andclothing.

4nfortunately, this terminology leads some to think that involvement is 7in7 the product, like acharacteristic of the product. ?f course, involvement is the result of an 7interaction7 between aconsumer and a product.

!robe for the reasons why these products are important.

he class will nearly always come to reali1e that a product is important because owning andusing the product provides one or more important conse-uences.

roadly speaking, the fundamental reason why consumers may consider a product to beimportant or self$relevant is that it is perceived to be instrumental for achieving some importantconse$uence. hat is, owning and5or using the product is seen (by the consumer) as providingself$relevant conse-uences.

hese self$relevant conse-uences may be abstract, perhaps highly abstract. or instance, theproduct may have symbolic meanings that convey important self$meanings (aids in establishingself$concept).

Hou may have to probe (7#hat does that mean to you87) to get students to discuss these 7deeper,7 moresymbolic conse-uences.

Items of clothing, for instance, often satisfy abstract needs in addition to +ust providing the basicfunctional conse-uences of covering the body or staying warm. he psychological and socialconse-uences of clothing are usually important to many consumers. /ome types of clothingsatisfy higher$order conse-uences such as values (self$esteem) that are self$relevant to consumers.

*nother reason why a product may be seen as self$relevant is that it has some potentially severenegative conse-uences (high perceived risk). e sure to ask students if there are any negative, orunfavorable conse-uences associated with using the product.

%&pensive products have the negative conse-uence of having to give up a lot of moneyin order to buy them. ?ther products may have adverse physical conse-uences(cigarettes@ over$the$counter drugs@ motorcycles) or social risks (clothing@ automobiles@living room furniture) associated with them.

*s a contrast, ask students to identify some low involvement products and e&plain why they areunimportant.

Consider the conse-uences associated with some of our favorite 7low involvement7 products$$clothes pins, paper clips, writing tablets, ink pens, facial tissues, potato chips, soap, chewinggum, sodas. ost consumers perceive these so$called 7low involvement products7 to providelittle more than functional conse-uences, which are not highly self$relevant. elatively fewcustomers link such products to central values.

!oint out, however, that despite the relative lack of importance for 7low involvement7 products,marketers can usually find some consumers who associate such products with more abstract and self$relevant ends.

or instance, we have known some consumers who actually pay attention to the paper clips theyuse and feel they have some degree of personal relevance. hey might like the coated paper clips

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in bright colors, because it makes their work stand out or seems more appropriate for importantpapers. Ink pens and writing paper are not low involvement products for everyone (e.g., aprofessional writer or a calligrapher).

Hou could initiate an interesting discussion concerning whether or not there really are universally highand low involvement products.

/trictly speaking, it is not accurate to identify high or low involvement products. *fter all,involvement does not reside in the product. Involvement is the outcome of a consumer'sinteraction with a product. 6owever, for practical purposes, marketers might treat some productsas high or low involvement, because most consumers have a similarly high or low involvementreaction to them.

F$#! $, I"+$%+e2e"t. *t some point in these discussions, you should stress the importance of marketers knowingthe focus and level of consumers' involvement. #hat is it, e&actly, that consumers are involved with8 Lust what dothey find to be self$relevant8 or instance, consumers may be involved in the product class (cookies), or aparticular product form (sandwich$type cookies), or a specific brand (?reo's), or any combination of these.

*sk students for e&amples of products with which they are involved. !robe to identify the source orfocus of their involvement. *re they involved with the product class, the product form, or the brand8

:iscuss the implications for marketing strategies of differences in the focus of involvement.

#hat does it mean that consumers are involved with the product class or product form, but notthe brand, or vice versa8 #hat are the marketing implications of reduced brand involvement8or instance, such consumers may be vulnerable to strategies intended to induce brand switching.

/ome consumers are involved mostly with the product use activity.

*sk students to come up with e&amples of consumers who are involved with activities regarding theproduct, which involve using the product or brand, but are not concerned with the product or branditself.

In such cases, aspects of the usage activities have conse-uences that are related to self meanings,but the attributes of the product or brand used in the activity are not directly self$relevant.

*n e&ample might be the person who en+oys skiing, tennis, or working out at a health clublargely because of the social interactions involved in the activity. /uch a person is notparticularly interested or involved in the products or brands used to perform the activity. hefocus of involvement depends on e&actly what the consumer finds to be personally relevant.

It is possible that some consumers are mostly involved with owning a product, not using it.

Collectors, for e&ample, often have high levels of felt involvement, but derive most of their satisfactionfrom owning the product. hey don't actually usethe product in a consumption sense. *n e&ample wouldbe a person who collects thimbles, beer cans, or matchbooks. %ven collectors of art (paintings, prints,sculpture) or classic automobiles may derive most of their satisfaction from ownership, not product use.

E3a2p%e0 A St.& i" Hih I"+$%+e2e"t//Triathe%ete!8 6ere is a brief e&ample of very high involvement with aspecific activity$$namely, participating in triathlons. *mong the many *mericans who have come to value physicalfitness over the past E2 years or so, triatheletes are among the most e&treme. In E=A2, some E.E million *mericansare e&pected to sweat their way through about ,E>> grueling three$way competitions, usually involving swimming,bicycling, and running. *ccording to Triathlon !aga%ine, the average triathelete is a 3$year$old college graduateearning about N2,>>> a year. any of these participants train up to 3> hours per week, in addition to theirregular, often time$consuming +obs. oreover, they spend millions to ac-uire speciali1ed e-uipment for the sport$$fancy swimming goggles, high$priced bicycles, and state$of$the$art running gear. (see eresa Carson, 7he /partan/port hat :raws ig /penders,7&usiness Week, ebruary EA, E=A2, p. EA).

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*sk students to discuss the values that seem to influence these driven consumers.

ost triatheletes seem to value fitness (in the e&treme), and perhaps good health. *t theinstrumental value level, they probably seek e&citing activities, courage, and adventure. *t theterminal value level, triatheletes may be seeking achievement and self$esteem. ?f course, a keyinstrumental value seems to be competition itself, whether against other people or with oneself.!ushing oneself to the limits seems to be a desirable value for many triatheletes.

I"tri"!i# a". Sitati$"a% Se%,/Re%e+a"#e. he distinction between intrinsic self$relevance (enduringinvolvement) and situational self$relevance (situational involvement) is important for both theoretical and forpractical purposes.

In the te&t, we use the terms intrinsic and situational self$relevance to refer to these two concepts. *s describedabove, we reserve the term involvement to refer only to the psychological state of being involved(at a moment).

?ur model of involvement (%&hibit .A, page =) identifies intrinsic and situational self$relevance as twoantecedent factors that lead to or cause a state of involvement. *s illustrated in %&hibit .A, the level ofinvolvement e&perienced by a consumer is determined by the combination of intrinsic and situational self$relevance.

*fter briefly reviewing the differences between intrinsic and situational self$relevance, ask students to

provide e&amples of each. his will reveal if students understand the concepts.

Intrinsic self$relevance refers to the means$end representations of the product5self relationship.Consumers derive this knowledge from their past e&perience and store it in memory. #hen thisintrinsic, self$relevant knowledge is activated in a situation, it contributes to the person's state offelt involvement. ecause intrinsic self$relevance refers to relatively permanent knowledgestructures in memory, some researchers have called it enduring involvement.

!eople who are into sports activities or hobbies often have high levels of intrinsic self$relevance for the e-uipment and products used in those activities. *vid bowlers, fore&ample, may have high levels of intrinsic self$relevance for their bowling ball, shoes,and special clothing.

/ituational self$relevance refers to specific social and physical stimuli in the environment thatmay create temporary feelings of self$relevance. hese situational factors activate self$relevantgoals and values that become temporarily associated with ob+ects and5or activities in thatsituation. hus, these situational sources of self$relevance create temporary feelings ofinvolvement.

0irtually any aspect of a situation could be a source of situational self$relevance, in thatit creates a temporary association between some product and self$relevant values andgoals. Consider that a very hot summer day can increase consumers' felt involvementwith ice cream cones, swimming pools, and air$conditioned movie theaters.

?f course, the purchase situation is a common source of situational self$relevance.any, perhaps most purchase occasions create some temporary perceptions of self$relevance. ?ne main reason is that consumers are spending their hard$earned money(which has clear self$relevant conse-uences). 6owever, the level of self$relevance canbe -uite low for ine&pensive, mundane purchases (butter, eggs, dishwashing detergent).

Hou should emphasi1e that situational sources of self$relevance are temporary andtransient. #hen the situation changes, the self$relevance changes too.

!oint out that changes in the environment (refer back to the #heel of Consumer *nalysis) can changethe factors that influence involvement. *sk students to give e&amples.

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0arious aspects of the immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can activate themeans$end knowledge structures that represent intrinsic self$relevance. *lso, various aspects ofthe immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can be sources of situational self$relevance. hese factors can increase (or sometimes decrease) the level of perceived self$relevance or involvement the consumer e&periences.

*sk students to think about products for which they have high intrinsic self$relevance. #hy are these

products perceived as self$relevant8

ost students will have no trouble identifying products and actions that are intrinsically self$relevant to them. hese products will have close ties to important, self$relevant conse-uences,perhaps even values.

*sk students to identify situations that might increase situational self$relevance.

ost students will readily understand this concept. or instance, a hot summer day will increasethe self$relevance of going to air$conditioned movie theaters, buying an ice cream cone, andgoing to a swimming pool. /eeing a 2>O$off sale sign may make consumers feel more involvedwith the act of buying a winter coat.

%ncourage students to e&plore the implications of the involvement model for developing marketing

strategies.

or instance, how should marketers deal with differences in consumers' intrinsic self$relevance8/egmentation is an obvious implication.

#hat marketing strategies might affect consumers' situational involvement8 any marketingstrategies attempt to influence consumer years or so, brand loyalty seems to bedecreasing among *merican consumers.

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* study by the #all /treet Lournal found that the percent of users who were loyal to one brand varied considerablyacross product categories. rand loyalty remains relatively high for certain products$$cigarettes (9E percent ofusers were loyal to one brand), mayonnaise and toothpaste (K2 and KE percent). or other products, however,consumers obviously didn't care much about the brand$$garbage bags brought up the rear (3 percent), along withcanned vegetables (2O), athletic shoes (9O), batteries (=O), and blue +eans (33O). (/ourceG onald *lsop,7rand Boyalty is arely lind Boyalty,7 The Wall Street Journal, ?ctober E=, E=A=, pp. E$A).

*sk students to discuss some of the underlying reasons for brand loyal (repeat purchase) behavior.

!artly, increased brand switching is due to the dramatic proliferation of alternative brands inmost product categories, as well as promotions (rebates, coupons, and sales) that encourage andreward buying a different brand.

Boyalty is relatively high for products with distinctive flavorssuch as cigarettes and ketchup.Consumers seem to have two types of reactions to soft drinks, shampoo and tuna fish (all with a percent rating). *bout half of the consumers perceive significant differences between brands(and thus stick with a brand they like) while the other half do not (and switch around betweenbrands).

Boyalty is also to be e&pected for products and brands that have a distinctive symbolic image.or instance, loyalty toward underwear (with a 3KO loyalty score) may seem low, but analysts say

this is pretty high for such a mundane product. !erhaps this relatively high score reflects theindustry's attempts to make underwear more of a fashion item and, therefore, more self$relevant.

Dood e&amples of brand loyalty based on the symbolic meanings of a product can befound in the beer and soft drink markets. Consider what happened when Coca$Colachanged their formula and introduced 7new Coke7 in E=A2 (see 6ighlight .3).*pparently, the symbolic meanings and related emotional feelings that loyal customersassociated with Coke were much more powerful than management imagined. #hen thecompany took away 7their product5brand,' many customers rebelled.

#e hope that an astute student will note that these relationships are relative and must beunderstood in conte&t. It is unreasonable to e&pect brand loyalty scores to be e&tremely high(=>O or more) for any product. ot all consumers will form the same type and level of customer$brand relationship. /ome consumers will not find the product category important, and5or will notperceive significant differences between brands, while other consumers will. arketers need togauge the si1es of these segments and tailor their marketing strategies accordingly.

PRO*ECT // MEASURING MEANS/END CHAINS

ost students en+oy doing this small scale 7research7 pro+ect. he e&perience gives them a clearer sense of whatmeans$end chains are, how they can be measured, and the problems in measuring means$end chains. Hou mightwant to give students a choice of three or four products to study (e.g., running shoes5sneakers, fast food restaurants,+eans, ink pens, soft drinks) rather than force them to e&amine a single product. In class, you can combinestudents' data to construct an aggregate value structure map for each product, if desired.

Pr$9e#t0 Mea!ri" Mea"!/E". Chai"!

ind two consumers who you can talk to separately for about 2$E> minutes each. ry to find a -uiet place whereyou won't be interrupted.

egin the interview by stating ...

'Assume that you are in the market for ((((((((((((() What factors do you consider when youare deciding what brand of ((((((((((((( to buy for yourself*

hen ask...

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'What two factors are most important to you in making your decision*'

hen, for each of these two factors, do the laddering...

'Why is ((((((((((((( important to you*' +r, 'Why is (((((((((((( important* +r, 'Whatdoes ((((((((((((((( give you*'

Continue this process for each factor until the consumer cannot go on.

hen, draw out the two means$end chains you measured for each person.

:iscuss what you have learned about these consumers' product knowledge and what implications youranalysis could have for developing marketing strategies.

inally, identify any problems that you had with the measurement procedures. #as this process easyor hard for the consumers8 #hy do you think so8

/uggestions for Class :iscussion0

egin the discussion by pointing out that the methods used to measure means$end chains have twobasic purposes.

irst, the elicitation (or triad or free sort) tasks are to gain 7entry7 into the means$end chainstructure. hen the laddering task is supposed to reveal the linkages between meanings atdifferent levels of abstraction.

/elect one of the products students studied and ask several students to describe the responses theyreceived. Lot these down on the chalkboard$$placing attributes along the bottom, conse-uences in themiddle, and values at the top.

hen, start to build an aggregate cognitive structure map by having the students who researched thesame products describe the dominant links in their means$end chains. :raw in the connectionsbetween attributes, conse-uences and values. *sk the class to discuss the implications of this (veryrough) map for marketing strategy.

!oint out problems in creating aggregate maps, such asG

E. :ifficulties in coding idiosyncratic language for common meanings.

. 4ncertainty about whether different words refer to the same meaning.

3. 4ncertainty as to how many consumers must mention a concept or link before it should beincluded in an aggregate means$end map (sometimes researchers use a criterion of E>O,sometimes as few as three persons in a sample of > or 2> have to mention a link).

. :ifficulty in producing a 7clean,7 easy$to$read map without crossing links.

Constructing the aggregate map 7by hand7 in class is a long and tedious process. Commercialapplications, however, have begun to use sophisticated computer programs to identify commonmeanings and draw the aggregate maps easily and -uickly.

%ncourage students to discuss the problems they had in measuring consumers' means$end chains,especially the laddering interviews. /tudents are likely to bring up issues likeG

E. /ocial desirability (perhaps respondents were reluctant to mention sensitive or intimatefactors).

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. Back of linkages for some respondents (difficulty in getting them through the ladderingtask). his may indicate that their knowledge was minimal.

3. Detting 7off track7 and 7going in circles7 (sometimes a problem of the interviewer asking thewrong -uestion, sometimes a function of the consumer not having higher level knowledge,sometimes an indication of a 7sensitive7 area).

. 0ague answers (perhaps due to respondents' inability to clearly verbali1e certain meanings@sometimes due to respondent not having a higher$order meaning, but feeling compelled togive some answer).

2. he reactive nature and demands of the laddering procedure (may cause respondents to giveanswers that do not reflect their actual stored meanings).

his discussion of measurement problems could include a consideration ofG

E. he problems marketers encounter in trying to measure and understand consumers'meanings for their products and brands. Lust studying perceived attributes or benefits is notenough to understand consumers. he links between these concepts should be understood,too.

. he underlying cognitive processing assumptions that make the measurement procedures7work.7 hese include automatic activation of meanings from memory, spreading activationfrom one meaning node to others, and associative networks of organi1ed meanings.

PRO*ECT // INVOLVEMENT

#e usually assign this 7involvement pro+ect7 for the ne&t class period after the means$end chains measurementpro+ect. /tudents' e&periences and results usually generate a stimulating discussion about the basis for high andlow involvement. !erhaps some of the data will indicate that even so$called low involvement products may havesome degree of personal relevance (felt involvement) for some people or on some occasions, such as during adecision process.

he simple pro+ect below can be modified by assigning half the class to study an apparently high involvementproduct (stereo products, clothing, sports e-uipment) and the other half a low involvement product (paper clips,milk, or gasoline).

Pr$.#t I"+$%+e2e"t

ind someone (a friend is ?") who you can talk to for about E> minutes in a -uiet place where you won't beinterrupted. Identify a product that you think is relatively highly involving for that person.

%licit the decision criteria that person would use if they were considering buying a brand in thatproduct category. Hou might say...

'Imagine you were going to buy ((((((((((() What characteristics would you consider inselecting a brand of (((((((((((( to buy for yourself*

hen ask the person...

'What are the two or three. most important characteristics you would consider*/

e&t, ladder off each of these characteristics.

'Why is ((((((((((( important to you*'

'What does ((((((((((( get for you*'

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"eep asking these 7why7 -uestions until the consumer 7stops.7 e sure to ask for an e&planation ifyou do not understand what the person means by an answer.

:raw out the means$end chains that you have identified for the 7high7 involvement product.

ow do the same thing for a 7low7 involvement product, like paper clips, milk, or gasoline.

:iscuss the differences you see in this consumer's meanings for the high and low involvementproducts. :id you notice any differences in the measurement process8

*ssume that a substantial number of consumers shared these meanings. #hat implications wouldyour data have for developing marketing strategies8

:e!ti$"! t$ A!1 Dri" the C%a!! Di!#!!i$"G

#hat types and levels of distinctions did consumers use for the higher and lower involvementproducts8

#hat was the main difference between the lower and higher involvement products8 :id you e&pect tofind this8 #hy or why not8

#hat were the typical end levels for the higher and lower involvement products8 :id the 7highinvolvement products7 seem more closely related to consumers' self$concepts8

#as the beginning level meaning strongly connected to values for both the lower and higherinvolvement products8

6ow many levels were produced in the laddering responses for the higher and lower involvementproducts8

:id sub+ects respond differently to the laddering procedure for the higher and lower involvementproducts8

#hat implications do you see for developing marketing strategies for the higher and lowerinvolvement products8

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NOTES AND ANSWERS TO REVIEW AND DISCUSSION :UESTIONS

E. Select a product category and identify examples of product forms, brands and models) 0escribe some of theattribute, conse$uence, and value meanings for each of these levels)

his -uestion forces students to review the four levels or types of product. %&hibit .E (p. 9 of the te&t) isa good guide for categori1ing meanings that students produce. #ith a little practice, most students will

easily distinguish between levels of product meanings.

Hou can point out that marketers and consumers both influence how a society or large grouporgani1es these four levels of product knowledge. *lso, you can point out that these productstructures are in constant flu&, and some may change rapidly, particularly if a new product formis introduced (e.g., microwave food products).

he second part of the -uestion concerns the three basic levels of meaning in a means$end chain. he te&tsuggests that the simpler, three$level chain (attributes$$conse-uences$$values) is sufficiently detailed formost marketing purposes. he si&$level means$end chain can help marketers think about consumers'meanings in a more detailed way that may be useful for developing advertising strategies (see ChapterEA).

he appropriate level of consumer meaning (attributes, conse-uences, or values) depends on how the

target segment of consumers thinks about the product. If customers usually consider a product in terms ofits attributes (or its functional conse-uences) then the marketing strategies should be directed at thoselevels of meaning. *ppeals would be different if most customers think about a product in terms of itshigher$order meanings (psychosocial conse-uences or values). arketing strategies may be able to createnew means$end chains or encourage new linkages within established chains, but these approaches arelikely to be more difficult than accepting means$end chain relationships as they e&ist in a customermarket.

. Analy%e the possible meanings of mouthwash or deodorant in terms of positive perceived benefits. andnegative perceived risks. conse$uences of use) Why are both types of meaning important*

his -uestion focuses on the conse-uences of product use$$both pro and con. !ositive conse-uences aredesirable outcomes that lead to the achievement of important positive goals and values. !erceived risksare undesirable outcomes that lead either to negative conse-uences or block the achievement of positivevalues.

?ften, it is easier to identify positive conse-uences of product use. %&hibit .2 show mostly positiveconse-uences for the respective products, but students should be able to identify several negativeconse-uences of using these products. or instance, /cope mouthwash may have a bad taste, or sting themouth, or smell bad. edicine mouth, altered food tastes, or the perception that you are covering up forsomething would be other possible negative conse-uences of mouthwash use. :eodorants may cause arash, or sting, or be ineffective in eliminating perspiration or odor. *tra ra1ors might cut too close andleave a ra1or rash. 6air spray might give an artificial or too$stiff look to the hair.

arketers need to understand both the positive and negative conse-uences of product use. or one thing,pro and con outcomes represent the conflict often present in purchase decisions. any purchase decisionsre-uire the consumer to make a tradeoff between the desirable and undesirable conse-uences of purchaseand use.

1) #roctor 2 3amble 4ompany #23. is one of the most admired marketing companies in the "nited States)#23 is known as an innovator of high $uality products with superior product attributes) 3o to the #23Website at www)pg)com5about(pg5science(tech5research(development5innovations)6htmland check out thenew product ideas #23 is researching) 4hoose a new product and identify the key elements in the means-endchain that #23 seems to have 7designed into/ the product) 8or instance, #23 recently introduced a newmodel of 4rest toothpaste called !ulti4are) A #23 spokesperson says, 7In our research, consumers ratedthis the best 4rest ever) 4rest !ulti4are delivers great protection, and the feeling it creates in your mouth,both during and after brushing, is really terrific)/ 4rest !ulticare has a special foaming formula that

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delivers proven 4rest protection against tartar and cavities and the acids that cause them, even in places thatare hard to reach) 4onsumers also said that 4rest !ulti4are tastes great, freshens their breath, and leavestheir mouth feeling clean long after brushing) The main #23 website is www)pg)com) 9xplore the About

#23 button for an overview of this interesting and innovative company).

In this e&ample, a means$end chain could be described as followsG

*ttribute unctional Conse-uence !sychosocial Conse-uence 0alueoaming Cavity protection JI make healthy choices aking care offormula my family

. 0efine the concept of involvement and illustrate it by discussing products, which, for you, would fall at eachextreme of an involvement continuum)

his is a review -uestion with some application content. Involvement refers to a consumer's sub+ectiveperception of the personal relevance of some ob+ect, activity, or situation. hus, involvement is perceivedself$relevance. he te&t emphasi1es the e&periential aspects of involvement, the feeling of being involved./ometimes, this is called felt involvement.

he te&t also identifies a type of stable or enduring involvement called intrinsic self$relevance. Intrinsicself$relevance is the knowledge in memory about how a product or activity is related to self$relevant goals

and values, in general, across situations. or instance, some people are highly involved with cars@ othersare highly involved with a sports activity (playing tennis, swimming, or football). /ome consumers feelinvolved with shopping.

?bviously, students' personal e&amples of products with low, moderate, and high levels of perceived self$relevance will differ. %ach student may find different products to be personally relevant.

In a class discussion, this -uestion can highlight the important fact that no product is either high or lowinvolvement for all consumers. :iscussing such e&amples can help students understand the idea of acontinuum of involvement. Hou can point out that the involvement concept can be a useful segmentationvariable. #e will use it for this purpose throughout the te&t.

2. 4onsider the difference between conse$uences of possession and the conse$uences of consumption as the basisfor intrinsic self-relevance) What products are relevant to you for each of these reasons* :ow does thatchange your purchasing behavior*

his rather deep review -uestion should generate some insights and lively discussion about different typesof conse-uences and how they relate to both intrinsic and situational involvement.

any of the conse-uences of interest to marketers stem from product use or consumption. he taste of icecream, the acceleration of a car, and the feeling of achievement in using a computer are all consumptionconse-uences.

6owever, some of the most important conse-uences of some products may be a function of merelypossessing them. or some products, ownership is e&tremely important. hat is the conse-uences ofownership have high levels of intrinsic self$relevance. Clearly obvious e&amples are collectibles.Collectors of stamps, anti-ue furniture, or political buttons find ownership of such ob+ects to beintrinsically satisfying. 6owever, even products that serve a useful function may be partly valued becauseof possession. erely owning a lu&ury car may provide its owner with important conse-uences.

!erhaps some students will suggest that conse-uences of possessing collectable specialty items are self$relevant and therefore involving. /uch products might entail longer commitments (I will keep thisforever), stronger linkages to higher level values (feelings of accomplishment, uni-ueness, sophistication)compared to items purchased largely for the functional conse-uences of consumption.

K. 0o you agree that most products have low to moderate levels of intrinsic self-relevance for most consumers*Why or why not*

http://www.pg.com/http://www.pg.com/

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In the te&t we argue for this position. It is important for marketing students to recogni1e two ideas aboutinvolvement. irst, involvement (and intrinsic self$relevance) can vary from very low to very high levels./econd, most consumers probably do not perceive high levels of self$relevance for many products. Houcould ask students to develop a list of all the products and services they use in a single day as a way ofmaking the point that few of them are highly involving.

hese moderate levels of involvement have important implications for marketing strategy development. Ifmost consumers do not find much intrinsic self$relevance in a product, they will probably e&pendrelatively little time and effort in selecting the product. It may be difficult for marketers to attractconsumers' attention to their product. he marketer will have to develop strategies to generate situationalsources of personal relevance (sweepstakes, contests, free offers, etc.) and thereby increase consumers'involvement with buying the product.

9. #repare one or two means-end chains for your choice of a ma6or or an emphasis in marketing as part of yourdegree program) 0o laddering of yourself to identify the means-end chains see 9xhibit ;)

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he casual clothing category is highly familiar to students and the discussion should reveal somedifferences among students. * very general answer is that marketers can identify and understand deepermeanings and values using means$end chains than they often would without this techni-ue.

/tudents should be able to identify key attributes, conse-uences, and values for casual clothing (e.g.,+eans). his should help them identify consumers who feel such products are personally relevant andinvolving and those consumers who do not feel this way. /tudents should have a better appreciation that

people who differ in involvement also vary in their product knowledge (they have amounts of productknowledge).

E>. Identify three ways that marketers can influence consumers> situational self-relevance and discuss how thiswill affect consumers> overall level of involvement) 8or what types of products are these strategies most

suitable*

his application -uestion forces students to consider ways of influencing consumers' self$relevance in theshort run, in particular situations. /tudents will probably review points made in the te&t, but should beencouraged to come up with e&amples of their own.

he marketing ob+ective of temporarily increasing the self$relevance of a product or activity is to increaseconsumers' feelings of involvement in that situation. arketers can influence situational self$relevance ina number of ways. asically, all of these strategies involve creating temporary self$relevant conse-uences

and linking them to the product. or instance, a contest or sweepstakes that one enters by mailing in aproof$of$purchase adds self$relevant conse-uences to buying the product. /ales, coupons, two$for$oneoffers, etc. increase the personal relevance of the situation. arketers may try to create new involvingsituations, increase the relevance of current situations, or work to maintain the self$relevance of asituation.

/uggested applications include products with low levels of intrinsic self$relevance where marketers wantto create some moderate level of involvement in order to get consumers to switch brands, for instance.ost recommendations will focus on promotion and distribution strategies, but product and pricestrategies are relevant too.

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NOTES TO DISCUSSION :UESTIONS FOR MARKETING STRATEG( IN ACTION // Ni1e

O+er+ie7. This case addresses the difficult problems faced by a company trying to market products at the maturestage in their life cycle, with the added complication of intense competition and rapidly changing consumertastes. Nike, the maverick Oregon-based company whose name virtually means running shoes to manyAmericans, was in such a market in the mid 1980s.

In the mid$E=A>s, ike was still the largest athletic$shoe marketer in the 4./. with about E53 of the market.Converse, another 4./. company was second place with about E> to E percent, and *didas, the Dermanshoemaker, had about A to = percent. ut after seeing its revenues double yearly, and its share of the N billionathletic shoe market grow to 32 percent, ike believed the end of that growth, or at least the beginning of the end,was in sight.

or one thing, nearly everyone who was going to run or +og, probably already had begun. ore seriously formarketers of running gear, many runners had -uit running or cut down on their distances. *lthough the fitnesscra1e that began in the early E=9>'s showed few signs of decline, many fitness buffs had begun to take up otheractivities besides running$$including walking, weight training, autilus, aerobics, rac-uetball, basketball, etc.

aced with a mature market in its running shoe market, ike did what many companies do in similarcircumstances$$they diversified into other related products. ike began marketing sports clothes, shoes for otheractivities besides running (e.g., aerobics, court shoes for handball and rac-uetball, basketball shoes). his brought

them into markets that they had less e&perience with (where ike did not have a deep understanding of theconsumer5product relationship). oreover, many of these markets (clothing) endured faddish trends and wereeven more volatile than running shoes. ore recently, ike created the ?utdoor :ivision to create hiking orientedsneakers, sandals, and boots.

hrough increasing competition, controversy surrounding its overseas labor practices, and constantly changingmarkets, ike has built one of the strongest brands in the world. he familiar ike swoosh is laden with symbolicmeanings that deeply connect with consumers. hey have successfully e&panded into new sports, including golf.and continue to dominate their industry, but must remain diligent to a very dynamic market.

E. Apparently there are two market segments of consumers for many product forms of athletic shoes--those whouse the shoes to engage in the designated athletic activity and those who primarily use the shoes for casualwear and seldom engage in the athletic activity)

a. 0iscuss the differences in means-end chains between these two segments, especially their end goals, needsand values for running, basketball, aerobic, or tennis shoes)

/tudents should be able to imagine and draw possible means$end chains possessed by serious competitorsin specific sports in contrast to people who buy and use some of the e-uipment for those sports (shoes, fore&ample) but seldom participate in the sport. he values of sport participants are likely to focus onperformance and achievement in the sport. hey are likely to have speciali1ed means$end knowledgeabout product attributes and their conse-uences. /hoes with attributes that are seen as instrumental inachieving important conse-uences and goals will be desirable.

!eople who do not participate in the athletic activity are likely to have rather different types of end goalsand values, perhaps including status, recognition by others, and 7fitting in.7 /ome end values may be thesame for these two groups of consumers$$e.g., self$esteem. ut the means$end chain that links the productattributes to the self$relevant end might be -uite different. It is -uite likely that the same product willhave different meanings for these two consumer groups5segments.

In addition, the two groups are likely to focus on different product attributes that are related to those keygoals and values. !articipants may be more interested in technical features that are directly related toperformance or avoiding in+ury, whereas casual users may be more interested in styles or colors.

b. 0raw means-end chains to illustrate your ideas about how these two segments differ)

/tudents should be able to draw coherent means$end chains that represent key meanings for each segment.

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c. What types of special difficulties does a marketer face in promoting its products to two segments ofconsumers who use the product in very different ways*

:eveloping marketing strategies to appeal to two different consumer segments can be difficult (e.g., avidwilderness hikers and mall crawlers who wear hiking boots). arketers should carefully analy1e thecustomer$product relationship in each target segment and develop promotion strategies that are

appropriate for each one.

In addition, students should mention problems of reaching each group efficiently so there is minimalspillover of each promotion strategy to the other group. *dvertising in enthusiast maga1ines (unners>World? Self@ Woman>s Sports 2 8itness) may be effective ways to reach the sports participant. he casualuser would be more difficult to target efficiently.

@) 0iscuss your reaction to ikeBs handling of the criticism of its overseas plants) In your opinion, what areikeBs ethical responsibilities in this situation*

his is essentially an ethics related -uestion designed to get students to think about ethical issues inmarketing. arketing has been fre-uently critici1ed as being entirely unnecessary to the process ofproviding goods to consumers. Critics have argued that marketing and advertising add costs thatultimately the consumer has to bear. *sk students what they think about this point of view. It should be alively discussion depending on the distribution of marketing and non$marketing ma+ors in the class.

1) ike has expanded its product line well beyond the original running shoes) It now includes models forvirtually every type of sport or physical activity) Cisit the ike web site httpD55www)nike)com.for a completelisting of the models it sells) !oreover, ike continually introduces new modelsEon average ike introducesa new shoe style every single day of the year) 0iscuss the pros and cons of this continual churn of newattributes and new products) :ow do think consumers react to this*