chapter 1: introduction chapters 1 and 2.pdfthe golden age of microbiology many landmark discoveries...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 1:Introduction
2. Brief History of Microbiology
3. Ecological Roles of Microbes
1. Overview of the Microbial World
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1. Overview of the Microbial World
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Evolutionary Tree of Life
* *
* organismscovered in this course
*
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Prokaryotes
Bacteria:
“tongue” bacteriaArchaea:
• colonize all but the mostextreme environments
• prokaryotic“extremophiles”
• chemically and metabolicallyvery different from archaeaMethanosarcina
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FungiCharacteristics of Fungi:• all are eukaryotic heterotrophs (eat “organic” food)
• unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds, mushrooms)
• cell walls made of chitin
mold yeast
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Protists
Protozoa –Algae – photosynthetic protists (“plant-like”)
trypanosome(protozoan)
Volvox(alga)
heterotrophic protists (“animal-like”)
Protists are mostly single-celled eukaryotes:
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HelminthsHelminths =
• invertebrate phyla in the Animal Kingdom
roundworms (Nematodes) &flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
• many helminths are disease-causing parasites
Trichinella (nematode) “tapeworm” (platyhelminth)
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VirusesNon-cellular, “non-living” entities.
• cannot functionwithout host cell
tobacco mosaic virus
• frequentlypathogenicT4 bacteriophage
adenovirus
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2. Brief History of Microbiology
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms in 1673 using his rather sophisticated (for the time) “magnifying lenses”.
• essentially began thefield of microbiology
• the importance of microorganisms for human welfare was notappreciated until almost200 years later!
The Discovery of Microorganisms
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The Golden Age of MicrobiologyMany landmark discoveries in microbiology occurred in the last half of the 19th century:
• importance of aseptic techniques in hospitals • Ignaz Semmelweis (1848) – hand washing
• the first epidemiological study (identifying the source ofa cholera outbreak)
• John Snow (1854)
• the first vaccine (cowpox lesions to prevent smallpox)• Edward Jenner (1789)
• Florence Nightingale (1854) – general cleanliness• Joseph Lister (~1860) – use of surgical antiseptics
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Contributions of Louis Pasteur
• disproved concept of spontaneous generation (1861) • i.e., microbes do NOT arise from non-living material
• proposed “Germ Theory” of disease (1857)
• showed fermentation to be carried out bymicrobes (1861)
• developed techniqueof pasteurization
• developed severalattenuated vaccines
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Contributions of Robert Koch• identified the first bacterial pathogens:
• proposed method to identify the microbial agentresponsible for a given disease (Koch’s Postulates)
• developed numerous advances in microbiological techniques:
• simple staining methods
• fixation of specimens to slides
• pure culture techniques
• methods for counting microbes
• Bacillus anthracis (anthrax – 1876)• Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tuberculosis – 1882)
• use of solid growth media
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Other Landmarks in Microbiology
• the first synthetic antimicrobial chemicals• Paul Erlich (1908)
• first evidence of viruses (tobacco mosaic virus)• Dmitri Ivanowski (1892)
• discovery of the firstantibiotic (penicillin)
• Alexander Fleming (1928)
• discovery of prions• Stanley Prusiner (1997)
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3. Ecological Rolesof Microbes
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Microbes & EcosystemsMicroorganisms play many essential roles in ecosystems, without which life on our planet would collapse:
Nitrogen fixation• conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into“bio-available” ammonia and nitrate compounds
• makes nitrogen available for plants and, indirectly,all other organisms (necessary for proteins, etc)
Photosynthesis• photosynthetic microbes support aquatic food webs
Decomposition• essential for the recycling of nutrients
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Microbes & HumanityMicroorganisms provide many benefits for human beings:Internal and external health benefits
• gut microbes provide digestive help, importantnutrients, protection from pathogenic organisms
• normal skin and mucosal microbes provide protectionfrom pathogenic organisms
Food production• wine, cheese, bread, yogurt, etc, depend on microbes
Pollution and pest control• sewage treatment, cleanup of various pollutants, etc
**very few microbes actually cause human disease**
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Key Terms for Chapter 1
• heterotroph
Relevant Chapter Questions rvw: 2, 5 MC: 2, 3, 5-7
• helminth
• protozoa, algae
• spontaneous generation
• archaea
• nitrogen fixation
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Chapter 2:Chemical Principles
2. Biological Macromolecules
1. Atoms & Molecules
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1. Atoms & Molecules
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Atomic StructureAtoms are composed of:
Protons (positively charged, 1 amu)
Neutrons (no charge, 1 amu)
Electrons (negatively charged, negligible mass)
nucleus
amu = “atomic mass unit”; atomic mass = protons + neutrons
• # of protons determines element
• different isotopes ofan element containdiff. # of neutrons
• electrons (e-) exist inorbitals, w/in e- shells# of e- = p+ in a neutral atom
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Electron Configurations
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Molecules & Covalent Bonds
Atoms share electrons to fill electron shells• sharing of unpaired e- = covalent bond
“Happy” atoms have NO partially filled electron shells!
• basis of molecules (multiple atoms joined by cov. bonds)
Molecular weight (MW)= sum of atomic
masses in a molecule
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Water & Hydrogen BondingWater is a polar molecule due to polar O-H bond:
• polar covalent bond = electron pair shared unequally• nonpolar covalent bond = electron pair shared equally
• hydrogen bonds are weakinteractions between oppositepartial charges due to polar bonds
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Ions & Ionic BondsIons have gained or lost an electron(s),
…and can form ionic bondsdue to the attraction of oppositely charged ions.
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Water as a SolventWater’s polar nature makes it a great solvent for other polar or charged substances.
• polar watermoleculesneutralizeand shieldthe solute
*doesn’t workfor nonpolar
solutes (e.g., oils)*
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Ionic Compounds Dissociate in Water
Acids (release H+ ions), bases (release OH- ions which then combine with H+), and salts (ionic compounds w/o OH- or H+) all dissolve and dissociate (split) into ions very easily in water.
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Acids, Bases & pHAcids release H+
ions into solution• raise [H+]• lower pH
Bases remove H+
ions from solution• lower [H+]• raise pH
pH = –log of [H+]
[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14 M
buffers are moleculesthat resist pH change
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2. Biological Molecules
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Functional Groups
common molecular groups found in organic molecules
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Carbohydrates
Simple sugars• mono- and disaccharides (e.g., glucose, sucrose)
Complex carbohydrates • polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)
Biological roles: • energy source• structure, physical support & protection• adhesion, molecular “recognition”
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LipidsHydrophobic (nonpolar) biological molecules:
• fatty acids• triglycerides• phospholipids• steroids
Biological roles:• membranes, energy source &storage, communication
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Phospholipids & MembranesPhospholipids have “polar heads”, “nonpolar tails”
• form a lipidbilayer in water
• the major componentof biologicalmembranes(which havecholesteroland proteinsas well)
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ProteinsPolymers of amino acids connected by peptide bonds (i.e., polypeptides).
• made from 20amino acids(differ in their“R” groups)
• proteins haveextremely diversebiological roles
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ProteinStructureProtein function is entirely dependent onprotein structure.
Protein structure is entirely dependent onthe amino acid sequence.
1o
2o
3o
4o
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Nucleic AcidsDNA, RNA
• polymers of nucleotides
• store genetic info• gene expression
ATP• direct source ofenergy in cells
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Key Terms for Chapter 2
• valence
• polar vs nonpolar bond
• covalent bond, ionic bond, hydrogen bond
• solvent, solute
• isotope, atomic mass, molecular weight
Relevant Chapter Questions rvw: 1-7, 10-14 MC: 1-10
• acid, base, salt, pH, buffer
• carbohydrate, lipid, protein, nucleic acid