Chapter 1: Defining Chapter 1: Defining PsychologyPsychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind.mind.

Psychology:Psychology:

- utilizes - utilizes scientificscientific research. research.

- is the study of - is the study of behaviorbehavior..

- is the study of the - is the study of the mindmind..

Psychology includes the study of overt and covert Psychology includes the study of overt and covert behavior.behavior.

Chapter 1: Defining Chapter 1: Defining PsychologyPsychology

Psychology is both a science and a profession. Psychology is both a science and a profession.

Areas of psychology:Areas of psychology:- Clinical psychologyClinical psychology - Quantitative - Quantitative psychology psychology - Counseling psychology- Counseling psychology - Sports psychology - Sports psychology- School psychology - Community - School psychology - Community psychologypsychology- Industial/Organizational psychology - Psychobiology- Industial/Organizational psychology - Psychobiology- Cognitive psychology- Cognitive psychology- Forensic psychology - Social psychology- Forensic psychology - Social psychology- Human factors psychology - Cross-cultural - Human factors psychology - Cross-cultural psychologypsychology- Human development psychology - Personality Human development psychology - Personality psychologypsychology- Parapsychology- Parapsychology

Chapter 1: Graduate educationChapter 1: Graduate education PrimaryPrimary SecondarySecondary Average TimeAverage Time

DegreeDegree EmphasisEmphasis EmphasisEmphasis to Complete to Complete DegreeDegree

Doctor ofDoctor of ApplicationApplication Research Research 4 – 6 years (post BA) 4 – 6 years (post BA)

PsychologyPsychology

(PsyD)(PsyD)

Doctor ofDoctor of Research Research Application Application 4 – 8 years (post BA) 4 – 8 years (post BA)

Philosophy Philosophy

(PhD)(PhD)

Master ofMaster of Varies Varies Varies Varies 2 – 3 2 – 3 years (post BA)years (post BA)

Arts orArts or

ScienceScience

(MA or MS)(MA or MS)

Chapter 1: Different mental Chapter 1: Different mental healthhealth practitionerspractitioners

Clinical psychologistClinical psychologist:: Diagnoses, treats, and studies Diagnoses, treats, and studies mental or emotional problems. Has sufficient training to mental or emotional problems. Has sufficient training to treat patients with severe mental disorders (i.e., treat patients with severe mental disorders (i.e., schizophrenia) or minor adjustment problems (i.e., job schizophrenia) or minor adjustment problems (i.e., job dissatisfaction). Traditionally does not write prescriptions.dissatisfaction). Traditionally does not write prescriptions.

QualificationsQualifications: PhD, PsyD, or MA.: PhD, PsyD, or MA.

Counseling psychologistCounseling psychologist: Helps people deal with : Helps people deal with “everyday” problems, such as test anxiety or family “everyday” problems, such as test anxiety or family conflicts. Generally does not treat patients with severe conflicts. Generally does not treat patients with severe mental disorders (i.e., schizophrenia).mental disorders (i.e., schizophrenia).

QualificationsQualifications: PhD, PsyD, or MA.: PhD, PsyD, or MA.

Chapter 1: Other mental Chapter 1: Other mental health practitionershealth practitioners

Psychologist:Psychologist: A professional highly trained in the methods, factual A professional highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology.knowledge, and theories of psychology.QualificationsQualifications: : PhD, PsyD, or MAPhD, PsyD, or MA

PsychiatristPsychiatrist: A medical doctor who has learned how to diagnose and : A medical doctor who has learned how to diagnose and treat mental disorders under the supervision of more experienced treat mental disorders under the supervision of more experienced physicians. Can write prescriptions for patients.physicians. Can write prescriptions for patients.QualificationsQualifications: M.D + additional training (a lot!).: M.D + additional training (a lot!).

PsychotherapistPsychotherapist: Someone who does any kind of psychotherapy. : Someone who does any kind of psychotherapy. This term is not regulated. This term is not regulated. QualificationsQualifications: None.: None.

Chapter 1: Where are Chapter 1: Where are Psychologists getting jobs?Psychologists getting jobs?

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Psychology has its roots in philosophy, physiology, and Psychology has its roots in philosophy, physiology, and

medicine. medicine.

William Wundt has been referred to as the “father” of William Wundt has been referred to as the “father” of

psychology for establishing the first lab to study psychology for establishing the first lab to study consciousconscious

experience.experience.

Wundt called his method for studying conscious Wundt called his method for studying conscious experienceexperience

trained introspectiontrained introspection..

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Trained introspection was a process that encouraged Trained introspection was a process that encouraged volunteers to carefully observe, analyze, and volunteers to carefully observe, analyze, and

describe their own sensations, mental images, anddescribe their own sensations, mental images, and emotional reactions.emotional reactions.

The goal of trained introspection was to break down The goal of trained introspection was to break down consciousconscious

experience into “parts” or “elements”.experience into “parts” or “elements”.

Major weakness of trained introspection: no way to Major weakness of trained introspection: no way to resolveresolve

disagreements – this impeded (blocked) the scientific disagreements – this impeded (blocked) the scientific process.process.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who diagnoseddiagnosed

patients with symptoms of hysteria.patients with symptoms of hysteria.

Hysteria was new and manifested itself only in women Hysteria was new and manifested itself only in women inin

Austria.Austria.

Freud could find no evidence that hysterical symptoms Freud could find no evidence that hysterical symptoms resultedresulted

from physiological causes.from physiological causes.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Freud believed that his patients were experiencing Freud believed that his patients were experiencing bizarre bizarre

symptoms such as blindness, numbness, depression,symptoms such as blindness, numbness, depression,

nervousness, and other symptoms because of nervousness, and other symptoms because of unconsciousunconscious

conflict. conflict.

Freud’s broad theory of personality is largely based on Freud’s broad theory of personality is largely based on hishis

experiences with hysteria in Austria.experiences with hysteria in Austria.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

BehaviorismBehaviorism

- John Watson opposed studying the “mind” or “conscious- John Watson opposed studying the “mind” or “conscious

experience”.experience”.

- Why was Watson opposed to studying the mind (- Why was Watson opposed to studying the mind (covertcovert

behaviorbehavior)?)?

- Because Watson believed that the mind and conscious Because Watson believed that the mind and conscious

experience were not observable, and therefore experience were not observable, and therefore inadequate forinadequate for

explaining behavior.explaining behavior.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

BehaviorismBehaviorism

- B.F. Skinner believed that- B.F. Skinner believed that behavior is shaped and behavior is shaped and maintained by maintained by

its its consequencesconsequences – this concept has been termed – this concept has been termed “Stimulus-“Stimulus-

Response behaviorism”.Response behaviorism”.

- Skinner also believed that mental events (- Skinner also believed that mental events (covert covert behavior, suchbehavior, such

as thoughtsas thoughts) were not needed to explain behavior.) were not needed to explain behavior.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Behaviorists believed thatBehaviorists believed that::

- Only overt (observable) behavior could be measured and- Only overt (observable) behavior could be measured and

studied.studied.

- Behavior was influenced more by the environment than - Behavior was influenced more by the environment than byby

thoughts.thoughts.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

Reactions to behaviorism:Reactions to behaviorism:

- Cognitive BehaviorismCognitive Behaviorism: Broader view that combined : Broader view that combined thinking (thinking (covert behaviorcovert behavior) and environmental control to ) and environmental control to explain behavior.explain behavior.

- Behavior modifcation:Behavior modifcation: Treatment that applies learning Treatment that applies learning

principles to help change problem behaviors.principles to help change problem behaviors.

Chapter 1: History of Chapter 1: History of PsychologyPsychology

The “Cognitive Revolution”The “Cognitive Revolution”– Many types of evidence suggested that Many types of evidence suggested that

behaviorism was too restrictive.behaviorism was too restrictive. These included studies of child These included studies of child

development, animal behavior, and development, animal behavior, and brain studiesbrain studies

– CognitionCognition A general term that refers to mental A general term that refers to mental

processes such as thinking, knowing, processes such as thinking, knowing, and rememberingand remembering

Chapter 1: Scientific MethodsChapter 1: Scientific Methods

Scientific methods unify the discipline of Scientific methods unify the discipline of psychologypsychology

A basic goal in science is A basic goal in science is critical thinkingcritical thinking– An approach to information that involves An approach to information that involves

challenging assumptionschallenging assumptions systematic observationssystematic observations a reliance on evidencea reliance on evidence a careful scrutiny of the methods used a careful scrutiny of the methods used

to derive evidenceto derive evidence

Chapter 1: Scientific Chapter 1: Scientific MethodsMethods

4 main goals of Scientific & 4 main goals of Scientific & Professional Psychology:Professional Psychology:– Describe BehaviorDescribe Behavior

– Understand BehaviorUnderstand Behavior

– Predict BehaviorPredict Behavior

– Control BehaviorControl Behavior

Methods of PsychologyMethods of Psychology Empirical evidenceEmpirical evidence: information gained from direct: information gained from direct

observation and measurement.observation and measurement.

Common senseCommon sense, although useful in many contexts, , although useful in many contexts, does notdoes not

provide evidence for a theory in psychology.provide evidence for a theory in psychology.

Chapter 1: Methods of Chapter 1: Methods of Psychology – Types of StudiesPsychology – Types of Studies

Case studiesCase studies– A type of research that involves making in-A type of research that involves making in-

depth observations of individual persons.depth observations of individual persons. SurveySurvey

– A research method that involves A research method that involves interviewing or giving questionnaires to a interviewing or giving questionnaires to a large number of people.large number of people.

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation– The observation of behavior as it occurs The observation of behavior as it occurs

naturally in real-world settingsnaturally in real-world settings

Methods of Psychology: types Methods of Psychology: types of studiesof studies

Correlational studies examine relationships between Correlational studies examine relationships between variables.variables.

Correlations are expressed as a number between -1 and Correlations are expressed as a number between -1 and +1.+1.

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

CorrelationCorrelation– A statistical measure of how closely A statistical measure of how closely

two variables are associated.two variables are associated.– A correlation can range from -1.0 to +1.0. A correlation can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Scientific MethodsScientific MethodsExplaining a CorrelationExplaining a Correlation

Start with 3 variables, Start with 3 variables, (X, Y, & Z) where X (X, Y, & Z) where X and Y are correlated:and Y are correlated:– X may cause YX may cause Y– Y may cause XY may cause X– Z may cause X and Z may cause X and

YY Correlations indicate Correlations indicate

relationship patterns, relationship patterns, not causesnot causes

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

If prediction is your primary goal, a If prediction is your primary goal, a correlational study is most correlational study is most appropriateappropriate

Correlational Studies CANNOT be Correlational Studies CANNOT be used to determine cause & effectused to determine cause & effect

Methods of Psychology: types Methods of Psychology: types of studiesof studies

Experiments also examine relationships between Experiments also examine relationships between variables.variables.

Experiments involve keeping some variables constant in Experiments involve keeping some variables constant in orderorder

to observe changes in other variables.to observe changes in other variables.

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

Independent VariableIndependent Variable– Any variable that the researcher Any variable that the researcher

manipulates in an experiment.manipulates in an experiment.– The proposed cause of change in the The proposed cause of change in the

dependent variable. dependent variable. Dependent VariableDependent Variable

– A variable that is being measured in an A variable that is being measured in an experiment.experiment.

– Proposed to be affected by the independent Proposed to be affected by the independent variable.variable.

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

Experimental GroupExperimental Group– Any condition of an experiment in which Any condition of an experiment in which

participants are exposed to an participants are exposed to an independent variable.independent variable.

Control GroupControl Group– The condition of an experiment in which The condition of an experiment in which

participants are not exposed to the participants are not exposed to the independent variable.independent variable.

Random AssignmentRandom Assignment– The procedure of assigning subjects to The procedure of assigning subjects to

groups.groups.

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

Experiments also examine relationships Experiments also examine relationships between variablesbetween variables

Experiments involve keeping some Experiments involve keeping some variables constant in order to observe variables constant in order to observe changes in other variableschanges in other variables

If cause/effect is your primary goal, an If cause/effect is your primary goal, an experiment is most appropriateexperiment is most appropriate

The major drawback is they are conducted The major drawback is they are conducted in controlled environments, artificial in controlled environments, artificial conditionsconditions

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

Self-report (i.e. surveys) are the most Self-report (i.e. surveys) are the most popular type of measurement used popular type of measurement used by psychologistsby psychologists

Self-report reveals how people Self-report reveals how people perceive their own behaviorperceive their own behavior

Scientific Methods Scientific Methods Research DesignsResearch Designs

To ensure your self-report measure is To ensure your self-report measure is scientific, you must establish:scientific, you must establish:– Reliability (consistency)Reliability (consistency)– Validity (are you measuring what you say Validity (are you measuring what you say

you are measuringyou are measuring

RealibilityRealibility – an objective way of – an objective way of determining if a self-report measure is determining if a self-report measure is measuring something consistently. Often measuring something consistently. Often expressed as a numberexpressed as a number

Methods of Psychology: Methods of Psychology: measurementmeasurement

ValidityValidity: a (subjective) way of determining if a self-: a (subjective) way of determining if a self-reportreport

measure is accurately measuring what it is designed tomeasure is accurately measuring what it is designed to

measure.measure.

Validity is:Validity is:

- subjective- subjective

- always being established- always being established